Chapter I

1.1. Pre- Columbian History of Native Americans.

There is widespread belief among contemporary people, that prior the arrival of Whites North
America was impassable wilderness. What is more this statement is extended about the assumption
that the proper civilization started with the appearance of the European explorers. In Fact the land
of North America has been already inhabited in 10000 B.C. To be strict, mentioned date is a time
when the life was well established1
The exact date of appearance of people on the continent stays dim, yet one theory is preferred and
widely accepted. According to it during the Ice Age there was a land bridge between Siberia and
Alaska, called Beringia, made of frozen waters of Bering Strait which enabled first people to
populate the continent. However, the discrepancy between possible dates of this event is huge. A
possible occurrence may have taken place anywhere from 15,000 to 40,000 years ago. 2 They were
following big mammals what is more they probably were not even aware of the fact that they were
on the different continent. Since that moment they started to develop separate culture and
civilization independently from the civilization which was evolving in the same period of time in
Europe or Asia. Hence the stages of development of American people vary from those we
distinguish in European history. Three major stages in history of American native people are easily
recognizable:
First one is called Stone (lithic) Age In that time wandering tribes were learning how to live in a
new environment, they gained the knowledge how to make stone weapons and tools, which helped
them to survive and most importantly kill animals, the main source of food. 3These nomadic groups
were extremely skillful in killing and hunting moreover their huge adaptability was of some
assistance in successful populating the continent. In short time newcomers had to face with serious
problem as herds of mammoths and other animals which were basic food for them started
vanishing.4 This fact contributed to change in food preferences. They ate not only meat but also
plants: nuts, seeds, roots etc. Next step was development of agriculture. At this point we can say
about the emerging the next stage in the history of indigenous people of America and it is Archaic
Age. The most characteristic for that period is change of a lifestyle from nomadic to settled
existance. some animals were domesticated. Agriculture contributed to arousal of stable villages. It
created favourable conditions for increase in population of particular tribes. There are researches
who believe that Archaic Age lasted until 1911 when the tribe called Ishi met finally white people.5
1
An outline of American History ,United States Information Agency, p 7.
2
Barry Pritzker, A Native American Encyclopedia: History, culture and peoples. Oxford University Press, 2000. p xi
3
Edward Hammond A brief history of the United States, Kantor Wydawniczy SAWW, Poznań,1994, p 14
4
Leonard Dinnerstein, Natives and Strangers, Oxford University Press,1996, p 1.
5
Edward Hammond A brief history of the United States, p14.
The last period in the history of native inhabitants of American continent is known as Formative
Age. Significant progress in farming and pottery is noticeable. The start of this stage is marked by
the cultivation of primitive type of maize called teosinte6. It was cropped in the valleys of rivers in
New Mexico and Arizona. Subsequently the marks of early types of irrigation started to appear.7

“The last two ages roughly conform to the Mesolithic and Neolithic stages in
Eurasia, but clearly it was a separate path of development. There were no iron
implements and no plowing; the wheel was known but used only for children's toys,
and while there was a hieroglyphic system, there seems to have been no literature”8

All this things were milestones in the development of civilization and allowed aborigine
Americans to establish stable settlements. Consequently more and more permanent architectural
structures were erected. On the territory of North America such construction firstly appeared in
southern valleys of the Mississippi and the Ohio. They were the mounds made of soil. Their
purpose is not clear but it is general belief that they were connected with religious ceremonies and
were probably places of cult and burial.
The best known group of mound builders were so called Adenans. They inhabited the land between
1000 B.C. to 200 B.C.9 They started constructing such mounds about 600 B.C. Some of these
constructions exist to these days.
Adenans vanished from the history in ambiguous circumstances, they probably mixed with another
tribes or were totally replaced by the next groups of people,who generally are referred as
Hopewalians. They were centered mainly in southern Ohio. And their predominant occupation was
trade in tools and materials all over the territory of North America. However they gradually began
vanishing from the area and their place was taken by the peoples known as Mississippians. Their
another name is Temple Mound Culture. This peoples were famous for building earthen mounds
with flat tops on which wooden temples and houses were situated. These tribes were very advanced
in agriculture, they grew mainly corn, beans, and squash. They occupied themselves with trading,
craft and hunting. The tribes managed to establish quite complex social networks based on
hierarchy. The most important center of Mississippians civilization was the city called Cahokia. It is
estimated that at its peak the number of inhabitants numbered 20, 000 people. the city consisted of
about nine earthen mounds( the biggest one located in the center). It is Estimated that their hight
amounted to thirty meters and their approximate area at the base was thirty seven hectares.10
6
Edward Hammond A brief history of the United States, p 14.
7
An outline of American History ,United States Information Agency, p 8.
8
Edward Hammond A brief history of the United States, p 14.
9
http://america.bibl.u-szeged.hu/?num=1&ch=A&code=A.1.1
10
An outline of American History , p 8.
As the next Pre -Columbian group of people, who populated the continent of North America, are
Anasazi. They were concentrated in the southwests of the continent, territory of such states as
southern Utah, northern Arizona, northwest New Mexico and Colorado.11 Although this tribe
coexisted with few others they were apparently the strongest one and gradually influenced the
extraneous civilizations and finally absorbed the culture of their neighbours. Even though they
started develop later than Mogollon or Hohokam( other peoples from that territory) they managed
to extend their Influence on the whole southwest absorbing the civilization of other tribes from that
region. the development of this tribe is sometimes put in three major stages. First one- Basket
Maker. The name derives from the basketry that flourished at that time. Main preoccupations of
people were: hunting, gathering. Agriculture, domestication of some animals and development of
permanent settlements appeared later during this period,. The next stage was characterized with
construction of pit houses and is known as Modified Basket Maker stage. Other characteristics of
this period are: invention of bow and arrow, usage of stone ax, advancing in agriculture and
basketry. They attached more importance to aesthetic and spiritual spheres of life, religion,
entertainment. After the year 700 A.D. first adobe and rock constructions started to appear. The
most famous one is “cliff palace”, located in Mesa Verde, Colorado. Since then these people have
been referred more often as Pueblos.12
Taking everything into consideration the conclusion can be drawn that contrary to general belief
the land of North America was not wilderness domesticated by savage tribes without culture and
customs. However they were fully developed societies, who created unique civilization, formed
complex social networks and diversity of religions, beliefs, habits. There is no doubt that the
culture of aboriginal Americans was exceptionally complex. But some common characteristic can
be provided.
The majority of tribes occupied themselves with hunting and cultivation of land. They lived close
to nature and learned how to use its resources for themselves. Nature was glorified and cult. They
cultivated mainly maize for their food supplies.13
When it comes to the organization of social life there were a few models present. Because of the
fact that population of Native Americans was high in number (estimated number from two to
eighteen millions) natural course of action was creating governmental and administrative structures.
Some groups preferred living in small groups other created great cities with population of thousands
of people. Some constantly waged wars while others lived in relative peace. The way of ruling
varied. There existed groups which had leaders or such tribes which elected councils. Groups such

11
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anasazi
12
Alvin M. Josephy, The Indian heritage of America, The American Heritage Library, New York 1991, pp 153-161
13
An outline of American History , p 9.
as Iroquois and Creek managed to establish advanced governmental models. 14

1.2.History after the arrival of Whites.

First explorers from Europe reached the sea cost of North America in tenth century. The travelers
were Vikings, and their journey started in Greenland from where they moved on the west in order
to land finally on the unknown continent of North America. There are no solid evidence how far
they managed to advance in their exploratory journeys, but some scientists are inclined to say that
Vikings traveled along Atlantic cost of the continent and they stopped in Bahamas. 15
Undoubtedly, one of the most significant figure in exploring America is Christopher Columbus,
who reached the continent in 1492 for the first time. That event was a turning point and marked the
new epoch in the history of America and its aboriginal inhabitants. The influence which it had on
the nation is revealed even in the common name of Native Americans which is Indians. It stems
from the wrong Christopher's presumption that he reached Indies and he was not even aware of the
fact that he accidentally reached a completely new land. Even though, Columbus did not discover
North America ( he did not landed on the mainland of the continent), after his arrival the waves of
white explorers disturbed the life of the native people and changed it beyond all recognition.
At this point of the discussion it should be noticed that the relationships between new comers and
indigenous people were quite different in each part of America.16
First significant groups of of non- natives who visited the territory of the new continent were the
fishermen, especially from Portuguese whose appearance is dated on sixteenth century. They
regularly came to the continent to fish in the rich waters of America.17 Sixteenth century is the time
of intense exploration made by the Spanish crews. Their most frequent destination was South
America. There are a few noteworthy facts to remember about Spanish expansion : 1513 Juan
Ponce de Leon together with his people reached the Florida cost, nearby the today city of St.
Augustin; 1539- Hernando de Soto and his journey from Florida to the banks of Mississippi River;
1540- Coronado's travels in attempt to find the mythical civilizations18. Among other Spanish
adventurers such men as Magellan( 1519) and Cortes should be mentioned. The first man is famous
for his journey around the world, the other one conquered the territory of Mexico. Cortes firstly
failed at defeating the Aztecs and Incas but in a few next years the virus of smallpox helped
conquistadors to combat Indians. The disease had so serious consequences that it is sometimes
called the: “American Holocaust”.19

14
Barry Pritzker, A Native American Encyclopedia: History, culture and peoples. p XI
15
An outline of American History , p 10.
16
http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=1105&HistoryID=ab05&gtrack=pthc
17
Ibidem, p10.
18
ibid., p 11.
19
Edward Hammond, pp 28, 29.
 Generally, the Spanish were known for their cruelty and brutal behaviour towards Native
Americans. They treated indigenous people of America like primitive and savage nation. Moreover
at all cost they tried to introduce Christianity to the Indians. However, most importantly, they were
driven by the desire to gain gold and riches. We can assume they did not want to settle permanently
in America at all. To achieve their objectives they were able to enslave and kill, under a veil of
conversions and civilizing. Such treatment of Indians resulted in uprising in 1680. Pueblo
Indians( the Spanish name for the tribes from that region), who were usually rather passive and
peaceful, killed twenty one missionaries and murdered 400 colonists.20
In the meantime the English and the French attempted to make make some discoveries, too.
Unfortunately, without the significant success. Both the French and the English employed Italian
seamen to set colonies overseas, but the efforts were futile. For instance Giovani Caboto ( later
known as John Cabot)discovered Newfoundland but his next journey was a failure. Givani de
Verrazano- a Florentine who was hired by the French landed in North Carolina(1524) but he also
did not managed to complete his second expedition. Ten years later the Frenchman Jacques Cartier
traveled along the St. Lawrence River. This event was the reason why French later claimed the right
to North America.21 After the arrival he encounters the Huron Indians with whom the new- comers
developed fur trade and created empire which was based on the close cooperation with the Huron
Indians. Hence, it was great misfortune for the French when the dominance was taken over from
Huron to Iroquois. Thanks to creating the “Iroquois League“, which associated five tribes against
the common enemy. The league included : Mohawk, Onondaga, Cayuga Oneida,and Seneca they
presented great power.

20
http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=1105&HistoryID=ab05&gtrack=pthc
21
An outline of American History , p 12.