Production of Sugar From Suugar Beet

PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SUGAR BEETS
A Design Report
Presented to
Department of Chemical & Process Engineering
School of Engineering
Moi University
In partial Fulfillment of Requirements
For the Degree of
Bachelor of Engineering
In
Chemical & Process Engineering
Mose Lameck Ondieki
CPE/41/08
Saleh Taher Mohamed
CPE/20/07
Kimathi Harrison Muthiorah
CPE/16/08
Mrs. Florence Ajiambo
SUPERVISOR
21st May, 2013
Moi
University
Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013
ABSTRACT
This report details the production of sugar from sugar beet. Sucrose is the main sugar extracted
from the fleshy root of the sugar beet. Sugarbeet processing operations comprise several steps,
including diffusion, juice purification, evaporation, crystallization, dried-pulp manufacture, and
sugar recovery from molasses. Descriptions of these operations are presented in this report.
Literature review was done to understand the raw material, the product and the types of
processes that are available for beet sugar production.
The unit operations were described and selected for optimum production of the products as
well as ease of design. From these unit operations, a process flow was formulated and
demonstrated in a block diagram.
The mass and enthalpy balances are also included in the report. These aid in the determination
of the processes product yield and quantities of raw materials to be used. The processes
energy requirements were also determined. The balances were undertaken by considering the
laws of conservation of mass and energy and making relevant assumptions.
Equipment sizing and specifications are also included in the report as well as detailed designs of
a plate heat exchange, a filter press and a rotary drum dryer. Process flow sheet for the plant is
drawn to show equipment arrangement and material flows. Economic analysis of the project is
then done to determine its viability. A safety, health and environmental impact assessment is
done and measures are included to mitigate potential hazards. A suitable location for the plant
is selected as well as a proposed layout of the plant facilities.
Page | i
DEDICATION
It is to our dear parents that we humbly dedicate this work. They have spared no effort in
looking after us and encouraging us. This work is also dedicated to the Department of Chemical
and Process Engineering for their invaluable support, for making it a reality and for their
cooperation. We do pray that God will grant them long, healthy and enjoyable life.
Page | ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
With great humility and profound gratitude we would like to thank everyone.
We would like to express our in-depth acknowledgement and appreciation for the assistance
and support received from many individuals, without whom this work would not have been
possible. We are immensely grateful to our supervisor Mrs. Florence Ajiambo. We are really
honored.
The guidance and support of our lecturers is highly appreciated.
Above all, we thank God for keeping us safe and blessing us with good health and giving us the
strength and ability to successfully complete this project.
Page | iii
DECLARATION
We declare that this report is our own unaided work. It is being submitted for the Degree of
Bachelor of Engineering in Chemical and Process Engineering at Moi University, Eldoret. It has
not been submitted before for any degree or examination in any other university or institution.
Kimathi Harrison Muthiorah

CPE/16/08
Saleh Taher Mohamed

CPE/20/07
.
Mose Lameck Ondieki

CPE/41/08
..
Mrs. Florence Ajiambo

Supervisor
.
Page | iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................................i
DEDICATION ...............................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS................................................................................................................iii
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................ iv
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ ix
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER ONE .............................................................................................................................1
1.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................1
1.2 OBJECTIVE .........................................................................................................................1
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................2
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ..........................................................................................................2
2.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................2
2.2 BRIEF HISTORY OF SUGAR PRODUCTION ............................................................................3
2.3 FUNCTIONALITIES OF SUGAR .............................................................................................4
2.4 SUCROSE PROPERTIES ........................................................................................................4
2.5 SUGAR BEET .......................................................................................................................6
2.6 TYPES OF SUGARS ............................................................................................................11
2.7 OVERVIEW OF BEET SUGAR PRODUCTION .......................................................................11
2.8 JUSTIFICATIONS FOR SUGAR BEET USE AS RAW MATERIAL ..............................................14
CHAPTER THREE........................................................................................................................16
3.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION ....................................................................................................16
3.1 HARVESTING ....................................................................................................................16
3.2 RECEIVING AND STORAGE ................................................................................................17
3.3 BEET DRY-CLEANING ........................................................................................................21
3.4 BEET CONVEYING .............................................................................................................22
3.5 BEET FLUMING .................................................................................................................23
3.6 BEET LIFTING TO BEET WASHER .......................................................................................25
3.7 BEET WASHING AND FLUME-WATER TREATMENT ...........................................................25
3.8 BEET SLICING ...................................................................................................................29
3.9 JUICE DIFFUSION..............................................................................................................29
3.10 PULP TREATMENT ..........................................................................................................33
Page | v

3.11 MILK-OF-LIME AND CARBONATION GAS PRODUCTION ..................................................36
3.12 JUICE PURIFICATION ......................................................................................................38
3.13 SULPHITATION ...............................................................................................................43
3.14 EVAPORATION ...............................................................................................................43
3.15 SYRUP CRYSTALLIZATION ...............................................................................................46
3.16 SUGAR DRYING AND COOLING .......................................................................................51
3.17 PACKAGING AND STORAGE ............................................................................................53
CHAPTER FOUR .........................................................................................................................55
4.0 MASS AND MATERIAL BALANCES .....................................................................................55
4.1 STORE ..............................................................................................................................55
4.2 DRY SCREENING ...............................................................................................................56
4.3FLUME ..............................................................................................................................57
4.4 STONE SEPARATOR ..........................................................................................................57
4.5 TRASH SEPARATOR ..........................................................................................................58
4.6 WASHER ..........................................................................................................................58
4.7 DEWATERING SCREEN......................................................................................................59
4.8 CHIP SEPARATOR .............................................................................................................61
4.9 SLICER ..............................................................................................................................62
4.10 DIFFUSER .......................................................................................................................63
4.11PULP PROCESSING ..........................................................................................................65
4.12 JUICE PURIFIER...............................................................................................................65
4.13 FILTRATION ....................................................................................................................67
4.14 EVAPORATOR .................................................................................................................68
4.15 CRYSTALLIZER ................................................................................................................69
4.16 DRYER ............................................................................................................................72
5.0 ENTHALPY BALANCES .........................................................................................................73
5.1 ASSUMPTIONS .................................................................................................................73
5.2 DIFFUSER .........................................................................................................................73
5.3 HEAT EXCHANGER 1 .........................................................................................................74
5.4 HEAT EXCHANGER 2 .........................................................................................................74
5.5 EVAPORATOR...................................................................................................................75
5.6 HEAT EXCHANGER 3 .........................................................................................................76
Page | vi

5.7 HEAT EXCHANGER 4 .........................................................................................................77
5.8 CRYSTALLIZATION ............................................................................................................78
5.9 DRYER ..............................................................................................................................80
CHAPTER SIX .............................................................................................................................81
6.0 EQUIPMENT SIZING AND SPECIFICATION .........................................................................81
CHAPTER SEVEN .......................................................................................................................90
7.0 EQUIPMENT DESIGN ........................................................................................................90
7.1 DESIGN OF A ROTARY DRUM DRYER BY MOSE O. LAMECK- CPE/41/08 ............................90
7.2 DESIGN OF A PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER BY KIMATHI H. MUTHIORAH - CPE/16/08 ..........116
7.3 DESIGN OF A PLATE AND FRAME FILTER BY TAHER M. SALEH- CPE/20/07 ......................138
CHAPTER EIGHT ......................................................................................................................162
8.0 PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION ................................................................162
8.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................162
8.2 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL OBJECTIVES............................................................162
8.3 THE FEEDBACK CONTROL LOOP .....................................................................................163
8.4 TYPICAL CONTROL SYSTEMS ..........................................................................................164
CHAPTER NINE ........................................................................................................................167
9.0 ECONOMIC AND PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS .....................................................................167
9.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................167
9.2 PLANT DEVELOPMENT TIMELINE ...................................................................................168
9.3 CAPITAL INVESTMENT ....................................................................................................168
9.4 ANNUAL CASH FLOW ANALYSIS .....................................................................................180
9.5 PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS................................................................................................182
CHAPTER TEN .........................................................................................................................189
10.0 SAFETY, HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT ...................................189
10.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................189
10.2 SAFETY .........................................................................................................................190
10.3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) .............................................................196
CHAPTER ELEVEN ....................................................................................................................200
11.0 HAZARD AND OPERABILITY ANALYSIS (HAZOP) ............................................................200
11.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................200
11.2 PURPOSE OF HAZOP.....................................................................................................200
Page | vii

11.3 HAZOP PROCESS ..........................................................................................................201
11.4 HAZOP CONCEPTS ........................................................................................................201
11.5 SAMPLE HAZOP ANALYSIS ............................................................................................202
CHAPTER TWELVE ...................................................................................................................206
12.0 PLANT LOCATION AND LAYOUT ...................................................................................206
CHAPTER THIRTEEN ................................................................................................................212
13.0 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................212
APPENDICES ...........................................................................................................................214
APPENDIX A: DATA ..............................................................................................................214
APPENDIX B: FORMULAE .....................................................................................................215
APPENDIX C: DETAILED SAMPLE MASS BALANCE CALCULATIONS ........................................216
APPENDIX D: DETAILED SAMPLE ENTHALPY BALANCE CALCULATIONS .................................222
APPENDIX E: EQUIPMENT SIZING CALCULATIONS ................................................................225
Page | viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2. 1 Molecular structure of sucrose molecule ...................................................................5
Figure 2. 2 Solubility of sugar at different temperatures (Mosen Asadi, 2007).............................6
Figure 2. 3 Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L): the root, leaf and flowering patterns (Wikipedia.com) ..6
Figure 2. 4 Sugar Beet Compositions ...........................................................................................9
Figure 2. 5 Purity profile during Sugar production .....................................................................12
Figure 2. 6 Flow diagram for beet sugar production ..................................................................15
Figure 3. 1 Topped beet (Wikipedia.com) ..................................................................................16
Figure 3. 2 Effects of temperature on sugar loss in beets (van der Poel 1998) ...........................21
Figure 3. 3 Beet conveying operation (Mosen Asadi, 2007) .......................................................23
Figure 3. 4 Beet flume (Mosen Asadi, 2007) ..............................................................................24
Figure 3. 5 Rake trash separator (Mosen Asadi, 2007) ...............................................................25
Figure 3. 6 Beet washing operations (Mosen Asadi, 2007) .........................................................26
Figure 3. 7 Juice diffusion process (Mosen Asadi, 2007) ............................................................30
Figure 3. 8 Counter-current diffusion (Mosen Asadi, 2007) .......................................................30
Figure 3. 9 Pulp treatment operations .......................................................................................34
Figure 3. 10 Carbonation gas production (Mosen Asadi, 2007) ..................................................36
Figure 3. 11 Flow diagram for juice purification operation(Mosen Asadi, 2007) ........................ 44
Figure 3. 12 Multi-effect evaporator system (Mosen Asadi, 2007) .............................................45
Figure 3. 13 Three-stage crystallization .....................................................................................48
Figure 7. 1 Schematic picture of a direct-heat counter current rotary dryer ..............................92
Figure 7. 2 Countercurrent rotary drum dryer assembly ............................................................93
Figure 7. 3 Gasketed plate heat exchanger ..............................................................................117
Figure 7. 4 Nature of fluid flow through the plate heat exchanger ..........................................119
Figure 7. 5 Log mean temperature correction factor for plate heat exchangers ......................122
Figure 7. 6 Gasketed plate heat exchanger components (www.graham-mfg.com) ..................134
Figure 7. 7 The chevron plate used in the gasketed plate heat exchanger ...............................135
Figure 7. 8 Clip-on gasket used in the plate heat exchanger ....................................................136
Figure 7. 9 Schematic diagram of a filtration system ...............................................................138
Page | ix

Figure 7. 10 Mechanism of cake filtration (Ladislav Svarovsky, 2000) ......................................139
Figure 7. 11 Mechanism of deep bed filtration (Ladislav Svarovsky, 2000)...............................139
Figure 7. 12 Scheme to show the principle of plate-and-frame presses (Svarovsky, 2000) .......146
Figure 7. 13 A typical filter press (Mosen Asadi, 2007) ............................................................146
Figure 7. 14 Caulked and gasketed frame (www.durcofilters.com) ..........................................159
Figure 7. 15 Steel welding neck flanges, 6 bar .........................................................................160
Figure 8. 1 Block diagram of a control loop..............................................................................163
Figure 8. 2 Flow controller for the flowrate of CaCl 2 and anti-foaming agent to the diffuser ...165
Figure 8. 3 Figure showing a pressure controller used to maintain ..........................................165
Figure 8. 4 Teperature controller for the flow of steam to heat exchanger thus controlling the
temperature of exit stream flowing to carbonation tank 1 ......................................................166
Figure 8. 5 A level controller used to maintain thin juice level inside the carbonation .............166
Figure 9. 1 Cumulative Cash Flow Curve ..................................................................................182
Figure 9. 2 Break-even Point Chart ..........................................................................................188
Page | x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2. 1 Stations for beet sugar production ............................................................................13
Table 4. 1 Mass balance for storage section ..............................................................................56
Table 4. 2 Mass balance around dry screener ............................................................................56
Table 4. 3 Mass balance around flume ......................................................................................57
Table 4. 4 Mass balance around stone separator.......................................................................58
Table 4. 5 Mass balance around trash separator .......................................................................58
Table 4. 6 Mass balance around washer ....................................................................................59
Table 4. 7 Mass balance around dewatering screen ..................................................................60
Table 4. 8 Mass balance around chip separator .........................................................................62
Table 4. 9 Mass balance around slicer .......................................................................................63
Table 4. 10 Mass balance around diffuser .................................................................................64
Table 4. 11 Mass balance for pulp processing ............................................................................65
Table 4. 12 Mass balance for liming...........................................................................................66
Table 4. 13 Mass balance for carbonator ...................................................................................67
Table 4. 14 Mass balance for filter system .................................................................................68
Table 4. 15 Mass balance on evaporator ...................................................................................69
Table 4. 16 Mass balance around boiling pan ............................................................................70
Table 4. 17 Mass balance around centrifuge .............................................................................71
Table 4. 18 Mass balance around dryer .....................................................................................72
Table 5. 1 Enthalpy balance around diffuser ..............................................................................74
Table 5. 2 Enthalpy balance around Heat Exchanger 1 ..............................................................74
Table 5. 4 Enthalpy balance around evaporator ........................................................................ 76
Table 5. 6 Enthalpy balance around Heat Exchanger 4. .............................................................77
Table 5. 7 Enthalpy balance around a boiling pan ......................................................................79
Table 5. 8 Enthalpy balance around Centrifuge .........................................................................80
Table 5. 9 Enthalpy balance around the Dryer ...........................................................................80
Page | xi

Table 6. 1 Equipment Specifications ..........................................................................................81
Table 7. 1 Mechanical Engineering design summary ................................................................109
Table 7. 2 Auxiliary equipment design summary .....................................................................115
Table 7. 3 Properties of heating and cooling fluids of Heat Exchanger 1 ..................................124
Table 7. 4 Chemical properties of the plate heat exchanger to be designed ............................133
Table 7. 5 Mechanical design summary of the plate heat exchanger .......................................137
Table 7. 6 Summary of Chemical Engineering design ...............................................................156
Table 7. 7 Summary of mechanical design ...............................................................................161
Table 9. 1 Purchased equipment cost .....................................................................................171
Table 9. 2 Total capital cost estimates ....................................................................................173
Table 9. 3 Total capital cost ....................................................................................................173
Table 9. 4 Annual raw material cost estimates .......................................................................175
Table 9. 5 Utility Cost Estimates (Annual) ...............................................................................176
Table 9. 6 Annual Depreciation ...............................................................................................177
Table 9. 7 Total product cost estimates ..................................................................................179
Table 9. 8 Annual sales from the product ...............................................................................180
Table 9. 9 Cumulative cash flow .............................................................................................185
Table 11. 1 HAZOP Analysis around a Rotary Drum Dryer ........................................................203
Table 11. 2 HAZOP Analysis around Heat Exchanger 1 .............................................................204
Table 11. 3 HAZOP Analysis around the Filter Press .................................................................205
Table A- 1 Specific heat Capacities of Various Component ......................................................214
Table A- 2 Overall heat transfer coefficients ............................................................................214
Table C- 1 Summary of mass balance around diffuser .............................................................218
Table C- 2 Summary of mass balance around Liming Unit ........................................................220
Table C- 3 Summary of mass balance around carbonation unit ...............................................221
Table E- 1 Summary of lime tank specifications .......................................................................226
Page | xii
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Sugar beet is a crop that is considered an option in the plan to raise farming in Kenya to a
profitable level, reduce poverty and create new employment opportunities (Mandere et al.
2009). The cultivation of sugar beet in tropical regions of Africa, and in this case Kenya,
is a new venture. The crop is predominantly cultivated in the temperate climatic regions of
Europe and North America (Draycott and Christenson, 2003). It is until recently, Syngenta AG
has developed a tropical sugar beet. This has allowed the plant to be grown in tropical and subtropical regions. In Kenya, sugar beet cultivation was introduced in
Nyandarua District
(Nyandarua County) on a trial basis to assess whether it would be a suitable cash crop
for being adopted in the region to help improve the farmers livelihoods (Geita, 2004).
The sugar beet crop is still under trial, so no commercial cultivation of the crop is yet
taking place in the District. The yield achieved in these trials is 70 tons/ha of wet root
weight and 17% sugar content. The yields compare well with published yield ranges in
tropical climates (Doorenbos and Kassam, 1979). Therefore, the sugar beet trials in the
Nyandarua District indicate that despite being associated with temperate climates (Draycott
and Christenson, 2003), the crop has the potential for successful cultivation in some
tropical conditions.
The processing starts by slicing the beets into thin chips. This process increases the surface area
of the beet to make it easier to extract the sugar. The extraction takes place in a diffuser where
the beet is kept in contact with hot water for about an hour.
Sugarbeet processing operations comprise also other steps, including juice purification,
evaporation, crystallization, dried-pulp manufacture, and sugar recovery from molasses.
1.2 OBJECTIVE
This project aims to design a plant for the production of granulated-refined sugar from sugar
beet. The plant is designed to process 85,000 Kg/h of raw beet.
Page | 1
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The word sugar comes from the Indian sarkara. The chemical name of sugar is sucrose. The
ose sufx in sucrose, glucose, rafnose and so on, identies the sugars. Sugar (sucrose,
C12H22O11) is one of the families of sugars (saccharides). All sugars belong to a larger group,
known as carbohydrates (sugars, starches, and dietary bers). The term sugar substitute refers
to all natural and synthetic (articial) sugars other than sucrose. (Beet sugar Technology by R. A.
McGinnis, Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1951).
Sugar is the generalized name for a class of sweet-flavored substances used as food. They are
carbohydrates and as this name imply, are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. There
are various types of sugar derived from different sources. Simple sugars are
called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose and galactose. The table or granulated
sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide. Other disaccharides include
maltose and lactose.
Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants but are only present in sufficient concentrations
for efficient extraction in sugarcane and sugar beet.
Sucrose (sugar), glucose (dextrose), and fructose (levulose) are examples of sweet-tasting
sugars. The quantity of hydroxyl groups (OH) in molecules of sugars contributes to their
sweetness. However, not all sugars are sweet in taste. In general, sugars with at least two
hydroxyl groups (OH) in their molecules are sweet. About 50 compounds have a sweet taste.
Beet sugar (sugar made from sugarbeet), cane sugar (sugar made from sugarcane), and refined
sugar (sugar made from raw sugar) are similar in shape, taste, and other chemical and physical
properties.
It is difficult to recognize whether a sugar is made from sugarbeet or sugarcane. Advanced
laboratory instruments and techniques are required to nd the difference in beet and cane
Page | 2

sugar by the content of carbon isotope ratio, which is the ratio of C 13 (reads carbon 13) to C12.
This ratio is about 25% in beet sugar and 11% in cane sugar (Bubnik et al. 1995). Another
differential marker is based on the rafnose content in these sugars (to a much higher extent in
cane sugar) determined by chromatographic method (Eggleston, 2005).
2.2 BRIEF HISTORY OF SUGAR PRODUCTION
Sugarcane cultivation and the technique of sugar production began in India probably around
2000 BC and moved to Persia (now Iran) around AD 600. In Persia, the technique was improved;
milk was used as the purifying agent; and the filtered syrup was crystallized. Then the Persians
invented a cone-shaped clay mold for the production of cone sugar (loaf sugar).
The mold had a small dripping hole in the middle of its bottom so that the syrup around the
crystals slowly drips from the mold. The crystals were then left to dry for few days. (Similar
cone-sugar molds made of sheet metal are still used in some countries.)
In AD 800, sugarcane cultivation spread from Persia to Egypt, Syria, and as far as Morocco and
Spain. By the fourteenth century, Egypt was Europes main supplier, via the port of Alexandria,
of sugar made from sugarcane.
Sugar became popular in tea in Britain by the end of the seventeenth century. In those days,
sugar was available in large cone shapes that had to be broken rst into large pieces with a
cast-iron pincer and then into regular cube size with a little chopper. Sugarbeet cultivation on a
research scale began in 1747 when Andreas Marggraf (a German chemist) discovered sugar in
sugarbeet varieties (Bruhns, 1997). Later, Franz Achard (Marggrafs student) in Germany and
Ya. S. Esipov in Russia were simultaneously engaged in the cultivation of sugarbeet varieties.
They also continued independently with research on the processing of sugar from sugarbeet in
industrial scale. The rst beet-sugar factory was built in Cunern (in Germany) in 1802 by Achard
and in Alyabevo (in Russia), shortly thereafter.
Page | 3

Beet sugar technology developed rapidly, resulting in more than 400 beet-sugar factories in
European countries by 1830 (including several factories in France by the order of Napoleon
Bonaparte).
2.3 FUNCTIONALITIES OF SUGAR
People like sugar for its sweetness. But the sweetness is only one of the functionalities (the
factors improving the characteristics of other products) of sugar. Following are some of sugars
other functionalities:
Improves the flavor of food products
Improves the sparkle in candy products
Improves the shelf life of food products
Improves the bulking property of food products
Improves the color and texture of baked products
Improves the preserving property of food products
Improves the texture (mouth-feel) of food products
Improves the foam in egg white in meringue products
Improves the release of pectin of fruits in jam products
Improves the heating rate of food products in the microwave
Improves the avor and color of food products by caramelization
Improves the taste of the food products
2.4 SUCROSE PROPERTIES

The sucrose molecule (C12H22O11) consists of 12 carbon atoms (C), 22 hydrogen (H), and
11oxygen atoms (O). In percentages, the molecule contains 51.5% oxygen, 42.0% carbon, and
6.5% hydrogen. The molecular mass (weight) of sucrose is 342.3 g.
Page | 4
Figure 2. 1 Molecular structure of sucrose molecule

The properties of sugar are as follows;
Density: Fine sugar 880 kg/m3, Medium sugar 860 kg/m3, Coarse sugar 840 kg/m3,Cube
sugar 850 kg/m3, Powdered sugar 650 kg/m3
Melting point: 185C. It undergoes caramelization at temperatures close to the melting

point to form fructose, glucose and finally caramel (coloring substance)
Colorless and odorless
The freezing-point depression (FPD) of sucrose at 50% solution is -7.6 C
It is a non-reducing sugar (unlike most other sugars) because its molecule does not have
a free functional group in either of its two rings.
It has monoclinic crystals
It is non-ionic
It is hygroscopic and can absorb up to 1% moisture
It is hydrolyzed by dilute acids and invertase (yeast enzyme) to form glucose and
fructose
It is fermentable but will resist bacterial decomposition at high concentrations
The specific heat of pure and impure sucrose solutions decreases when their
concentration and temperature are increased.
The solubility varies as follows;
Page | 5
Figure 2. 2 Solubility of sugar at different temperatures (Mosen Asadi, 2007)
2.5 SUGAR BEET

Sugar beet, a cultivated plant of Beta vulgaris, is a plant whose tuber contains a high
concentration of sucrose. It is grown commercially for sugar production. Sugar beets and other
Beta vulgaris cultivars such as beetroot and chard share a common wild ancestor, the sea beet
(Beta vulgaris maritima).
Sugar beet is a conical, white, fleshy root with a flat crown. The plant consists of the sugar beet
root and a rosette of leaves. Sugar is formed through a process of photosynthesis in the leaves,
and it is then stored in the root. Sugar can represent between 15% and 21% of the sugar beet
roots total weight; however, depending on the cultivar and growing conditions, the sugar
content can vary from 12 to above 20%.
Figure 2. 3 Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L): the root, leaf and flowering patterns
(Wikipedia.com)
Page | 6

The root of the beet (taproot) contains 75% water and the rest is dry matter. The dry matter is
about 5% pulp and about 75% sugar. This pulp, insoluble in water and mainly composed of
cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin and pectin, is used in animal feed. Sugar is the primary value of
sugar beet cash crop. The by-products of the sugar beet crop such as pulp and molasses add
another 10% to the value of the harvest.
Sugar beet grows exclusively in the temperate zone, in contrast to sugar cane which grows
exclusively in the tropical and subtropical zones. The beet, unlike sugar cane, grows below the
ground. The average weight of sugar beet ranges between one and two pounds. Sugar beet
foliage has a rich, brilliant green color and grows to a height of about 14 inches. The leaves are
numerous and broad and grow in a tuft from the crown of the beet, which is usually level with
or just above the ground surface.
2.5.2 Other uses of sugar beet
Beverages
Sugar from sugar beet is used to make a rum-flavored hard liquor which is now known
as tuzemak. On the Aland Islands, a similar drink is made under the brand name KobbaLibre. In
some European countries, especially in the Czech Republic and Germany, sugar beet is also
used to make rectified spirit and vodka.
Sugar beet syrup
Unrefined sugary syrup can be produced directly from sugar beet. This thick, dark syrup is
produced by cooking shredded sugar beet for several hours, then pressing the resulting sugar
beet mash and concentrating the juice produced until it has the consistency similar to that of
honey. This syrup is used as a spread for sandwiches, as well as for sweetening sauces, cakes
and desserts.
Betaine
Betaine can be isolated from the by-products of sugar beet processing. Production is chiefly
through chromatographic separation, using techniques such as the "simulated moving bed".
Page | 7

Uridine
Uridine can be isolated from sugar beet. Uridine in combination with omega-3 fatty acids has
been shown to alleviate depression in rats.
Alternative fuel
They are used to produce bioethanol. The feedstock-to-yield ratio for sugarbeet is 56:9.
Therefore it takes 6.22 kg of sugarbeet to produce 1 kg of ethanol (approximately 1.27 litres at
room temperature).
2.5.3 Sugar beet composition
Sugarbeet (the raw material of the beet-sugar factory) composition is important to both the
sugarbeet farmer and the processor (factory). Sugar (sucrose) and non-sugar (non-sucrose)
content determine the quality of the sugarbeet (high sugar and low non-sugar content is
desirable).
The basic unit of sugarbeet (like other plants) is the cell. A beet cell consists of
Cell wall: Protects the cell and consists mainly of cellulose and pectin.
Protoplasm (cell membrane): Controls the movement of molecules in and out of the
vacuole. The protoplasm consists of protein and is non-permeable to sucrose and nonsucrose substances but semi-permeable to water.
Vacuole (cell nucleus): Stores beet juice, containing sucrose and non-sucrose
substances.
As shown in the figure below, the dry substance of sugarbeet consists of beet juice and beet
marc (beet pulp). Beet juice contains both sucrose and non-sucrose (impurities).
Page | 8

Sugar beet
75.0% water
Dry substance
20.0% beet juice
17.5% sucrose
2.5% Non-sucrose
5.0% beet marc
1.2% cellulose
1.1%Hemicellulose
0.1% Protein
1.1% Nitrogenous (0.2% amino acids, 0.1% betaine, etc.)

0.1%Saponin
0.9% Non-nitrogenous (0.3% invert sugar, 0.2%
raffinose, etc.)
0.1% Minerals
0.3% Minerals (K+, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, SO42, PO43)

0.2% Others
Figure 2. 4 Sugar Beet Compositions

Sugar beet juice is mainly made up of saccharides (sugars), which are sucrose (15 to 20%),
raffinose (0.2 to 0.5%), glucose and fructose (0.05 to 0.1%), and planteose, stachyose, and
verbascose (in trace amounts). Beet juice always contains more glucose than fructose. The
raffinose (a trisaccharide) content can vary largely depending on the location. Usually, sugar
beets with high sucrose content have less raffinose. The level of nitrogen in the fertilizer also
affects the raffinose content (the higher the nitrogen used, the higher is the raffinose content).
Dextran and levan are the main polysaccharides present in sugar beet juice. Their content
increases when beets are damaged because microorganisms, particularly the Leuconostoc
group, consume the sugar and convert some of it to dextran and levan. High contents of
dextran and levan create difficulties during sugar beet processing because of their colloidal
nature.
Page | 9

Nitrogenous compounds (in amounts of 1 to 2%) are other components of beet juice. Almost all
amino acids (compounds that contain an amino group (NH2) and a carboxyl group (COOH), both
groups joined to the same carbon) are present in beet juice and beet pulp (marc).
Glutamine is present in the largest amount. Most amino acids are soluble in water and in
alkaline solutions, so they do not precipitate in lime and end up in molasses. Betaine (in
amounts considerable amount of high-purity betaine can be recovered.
Minerals in beet juice are referred to as ash. Analytical tests of sugar beets have shown trace
amounts of barium, boron, calcium, copper, lead, magnesium, molybdenum, nickel, selenium,
silicon, and zinc.
Beet pulp (beet marc) consists of fibrous materials that are water insoluble and remain almost
the same shape after the diffusion process. During sugar beet growth in the field, some of the
sugar is spent in producing pulp (the main component of cell walls) and the protoplasm. The
pulp content of sugarbeet ranges from 4 to 6%, but it can differ depending on the growing
conditions and the variety of sugarbeet. Some scientists have proved that high-sugar content
beets contain higher pulp content as well (Van der Poel, 1998).
Pulp consists mainly of pectin, cellulose, and hemicellulose:
Pectin: A gel-type substance that is insoluble in cold water but soluble gradually in
boiled water, and stable during the diffusion process
Cellulose: A wood-type substance that is insoluble in hot water, diluted acids, and alkalis
solutions, and stable during the diffusion process
Hemicellulose: A wood-type substance that is insoluble in hot water but soluble in hot
diluted acid solutions, and stable during the diffusion process.
Sugarbeet pectin has lower gelling power than apple or citrus pectin, because the molecular
mass of sugarbeet pectin (15000 to 50000) is smaller than apple or citrus pectin (70000 to
90000).
Page | 10

Cellulose is a polysaccharide made of several thousand molecules of glucose (C 6H12O11).We
humans cannot digest cellulose and hemicellulose because we do not have an enzyme that can
break the polymers chain. However, cattle, for example, have bacteria containing this enzyme
in the stomach. The bacteria convert cellulose and hemicellulose into small digestible molecules
that can be used by animals as a nutrient. (Pulp is a good food ingredient for some animals).
Post harvested beets piled in beet storage contain some tare (clay, sand, stone, and trash mixed
with the beets). The impurities that make up the tare differ depending on a fields properties,
the harvesting method, and the size of the beets, all of which make it difficult to estimate beetpile density. Following is the mass and density of a typical washed beet (beet without tare):
Mass
0.5-2.0 Kg
Density
1050-1100 Kg/m3
Bulk density
650-700 Kg/m3
2.6 TYPES OF SUGARS

The following are some of the categories of sugar and are achieved by different sugar-end
processes;
Icing: very small crystals that quickly dissolve in liquids or can be used for decorating
desserts, like confectioners' sugar.
Caster: larger crystals than icing.
Granulated: basic table sugar, with larger crystals than caster or icing.
Preserving: very coarse sugar used as a preserve in jams and similar confections.
2.7 OVERVIEW OF BEET SUGAR PRODUCTION

Sugar production depends on large-scale operations that consist of several unit operations.
Successive unit operations are involved in separating sugar (sucrose) from non-sugars (nonsucrose). The non-sugars (impurities) are the undesirable substances.
Page | 11

Separation of sugar from non-sugars in fact is the aim of almost every step of sugar production.
The sugar separation is gradual and is accomplished in several stations. The improvement in
each station is expressed by the purity (sugar content as % of dry substance) of the product
from that station. As Figure 2.5 shows, the ultimate goal is to produce sugar with almost 100%
purity.
Cossette
Purity = 87%
Diffusion
Diffusion juice
Purity = 88%
Evaporator
Thin juice
Purity = 90%
Molasses
purity = 60%
Crystallization
Thick juice
Purity = 90%
Evaporation
Sugar
Purity = 100%
Figure 2. 5 Purity profile during Sugar production

In sugarbeet processing, the term station is used to denote the section of the factory that does
a particular job.
Sugar production is a large-scale operation divided into smaller unit operations. To process
sugarbeet and produce sugar, several unit operations will be employed. These include;
Fluid transportation
Heat transfer
Diffusion
Filtration
Sedimentation
Evaporation
Crystallization
Centrifugation
Drying
Page | 12

To change raw material (sugarbeet) into sugar, the sugar has to be separated from the nonsugars (all soluble substances except sugar) in the beet juice from sugar. Several stations are
required to separate non-sugars (unwanted components) from sugar (wanted component).
Sugarbeet processing is subdivided into 20 stations, which are explained in a systematic order
in later chapters. As table 2.1 shows, the first 13 stations (through the evaporation station)
make up the beet-end of the factory; the remaining stations are in the sugar-end.
Each station consists of two or more steps, totaling 80 to 85 steps. For example, the purication
station (the station with highest number of steps) consists of the following 13 steps: juice
heating, preliming, prelimed-juice heating, main liming, limed-juice heating, rst carbonation,
mud separation, mud thickening, rst-carbonation, ltration, rst-carbonation juice heating,
second carbonation, second-carbonation, ltration, and second-carbonation safety filtration.
Table 2. 1 Stations for beet sugar production
Beet-end
Sugar-end
Beet receiving and storage
14
Juice decolourization and sulfitation
Beet dry-cleaning
15
Juice storage
Beet conveying and fluming
16
Crystallization
Stone and trash separation
17
Molasses exhaustion
Beet washing and flume- water treatment
18
Centrifuging
Beet slicing
19
Sugar drying, storing and packing
Diffusion process
20
Production of specialty sugars
Pulp treatment
Milk of lime and carbonation gas production
10
Juice purification
11
Juice sedimentation and filtration
12
Steam production
13
Juice evaporation
Page | 13

Figure 2.6 below shows a simplified ow diagram of a typical beet-sugar production plant (the
numbers in parentheses indicate the stations). In this figure, in-process products (juices, syrups,
liquors, and massecuites) go through the factory along the solid line. By-products (pulp,
carbonation- lime residue, and molasses) and other materials (e.g. limestone, coke, and steam
used in processing) are also shown.
2.8 JUSTIFICATIONS FOR SUGAR BEET USE AS RAW MATERIAL
The following are some of the reasons as to why sugar beet has been chosen as the raw
materials for sugar production;
The sugar content in sugarbeet is approximately 30% more than sugarcane.
The cost of crop of sugarbeet is lesser than sugarcane.
Sugarcane crop takes around 1 year to mature while sugarbeet can be harvested in 7
months.
Sugar beet requires 6 to 8 irrigation cycles on the other hand, sugarcane requires at
least 16 irrigation cycles.
Page | 14

Fresh water
Beet receiving
& storage
Waste
water
Beet washing
Loose soil
& grit
Dry cleaning
Water
Fluming
Slicing
Cossettes
Diffusion
water
Diffusion
Stone &
trash
Stone and trash

separation
Diffusion
juice
CO2
Wet pulp
Pressing
Purification
Drying
Filtration
Pelleting
Sulphitation
Pellets
Ca(OH)2
Water
Evaporation
SO2
Sludge/mud
Crystallization
Centrifuging
Molasses
Drying
Screening
Sugar
Figure 2. 6 Flow diagram for beet sugar production
Page | 15
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION
3.1 HARVESTING
The timing of the harvest is determined by sugarbeet ripeness, average root size, and weather
conditions. Before harvesting, the mass of the root must be almost twice that of the crown, and
the leaves start to turn yellow. Harvesting time is the function of the following factors:
Air temperature
Length of sugarbeet storage
In places where temperatures do not permit long-term storage, the harvest is conducted on an
as-needed basis. Sugarbeet is harvested (dug) out of the ground by a harvester.
Beets are usually transported by large trucks or (depending on the proximity to the railroad), to
be stockpiled in the beet-storage areas (beet piling grounds) in piles 5 to 12 m high. Beets are
usually piled by mobile pilers.
Once harvested and transported to the factories, the beets are topped and scalped. Topping is
the removal of beet tops (petiole and leaves). Scalping is the cutting of the crown that follows
the topping process. Defoliators remove the tops from the beets immediately after harvesting.
Figure 3. 1 Topped beet (Wikipedia.com)
Page | 16

This is accomplished by two or three sets of ails, of which usually one or two sets are made of
rubber, but one set is made of steel. The beets are cut uniformly below the green leaf stalks of
the crown. Cutting the beets at the right level leaves a cut surface area of about 5 cm in
diameter. If beets are cut above the normal level, the beet tonnage increases but so does the
amount of non-sugars, which makes processing at the factory difficult. This also brings down
the average sugar content of the beets, causing a decrease in factory efficiency and sugar
production. In general, sugar losses during storage increase when beets are cut below or above
the normal level.
3.2 RECEIVING AND STORAGE
Sugar beets are delivered to the factory mostly by truck or by railcar (in some areas). Farmers
who are close to the factory might bring beets by tractor. Planning beet delivery to the
receiving station, particularly in those areas with short-period storage (due to high
temperatures) is of utmost importance.
3.2.1 Beet unloading and sampling
Beets arriving at the factory are unloaded into the receiving hoppers or piled on the beetstorage area. Two types of unloading systems are available:
Wet unloading
Dry unloading
Wet unloading is not popular because of high water usage and damage to beets if extensive
high-pressure equipment is used. In wet unloading, beets are pushed from the vehicle into the
ume by an overhead spray nozzle (re hose). The nozzles are usually operated from the
control room. The correct adjustment of water pressure is important in preventing beet
damage, so a pressure of about 2.5 bar (36.7 psi) is usually used. The amount of water used is in
the range of 225 to 550% on beet (van der Poel 1998).
Page | 17

Dry unloading is carried out in any of the following ways: Hydraulic side-dumping truck,
Hydraulic back-dumping truck, Side-tilting platform, back-tilting platform and Bottom-dump
trailer.
In the hydraulic side-dumping and back-dumping operation, hoisting equipment on the truck
lifts the bed of the truck to unload the beets. In the side-tilting operation, the vehicle moves to
a tilting platform.
The platform is then raised on one side to unload the beets from the lower side of the vehicle.
In the back-tilting operation the platform is raised from the front and the beets are unloaded
from the back of the vehicle. (Note: Bottom-dump trailers are not popular in beet
transportation.)
Pilers are used to pile beets and are usually mobile. A beet piler consists of a swing-around
receiving hopper that is positioned to receive the beets from the truck. It also contains a belt
conveyor and a large boom (up to 30 m). Some pilers are further equipped with an automatic
sampling device.
After a truck is emptied, the receiving hopper swings to admit the next truck. From the hopper,
beets drop onto the conveyor and are then lifted to another conveyor that carries them to a
screen where soil and trash are removed. A larger conveyor (up to 30 m), called a boom, carries
the beets to the storage piles. Sugar factories can pile beets 5 to 12 m high.
As the beets are passed over a screen, a portion of the soil is ltered out. The amount of
removed soil is typically about 50% of the soil attached to the beets.
To determine the beet gross weight (weight of beets and beet tare) at the receiving station,
each beet truck or railcar is weighed before unloading, and the weight (weight-in) is recorded
by a computer. After unloading of beets, beet tare from the piler is transferred back to the
truck and the vehicle is weighed again (weight-out). The difference of the weight gives the gross
beet weight.
Page | 18

Beet sampling is performed at the receiving station by a sampling device that is installed after
the weighing equipment. Beet sampling is performed automatically or manually from sugarbeet
loads. In the automatic method, a tube (called a sample tube) is lowered through the beet load
to take a sample of about 10 to 12 kg, which is sent to the beet lab. The following tests are
carried out:
Soil tare - the amount of non-beet delivered.
Crown tare - the amount of low sugar beet delivered.
Sugar content ("pol") - amount of sucrose in the crop.
Nitrogen content - for recommending future fertilizer use to the farmer.
3.2.2 Beet tare

Beets delivered to the factory contain tare (impurities) that has to be separated from the beets
during early steps of the process. Beet tare consists mostly of soil stuck to the beets after they
are removed from the ground. Other components in beet tare are clay, sand, stone, and trash
(leaves and weeds). Under good harvesting conditions, the tare varies from 2 to more than 8%
OB (on beet). In clay-type soil areas or if farmers harvest beets in wet weather, the tare can
increase significantly.
3.2.3 Beet storage
Delivered beets are piled and stored in beet-storage areas (beet piling grounds). Four types of
beet storage are available:
Factory beet storage: This type of storage is located in the factory. It is open and differs
in size (a few thousands to hundreds of thousands of tons of beets).
Remote beet storage: This type of storage is located near the factory (between the eld
and the factory). Is open, and medium to large size. It is used for long-period storing
until the beets are gradually transferred to the factory storage.
Page | 19
Clamp beet storage: This type of storage is located in the beet eld, is open, and is of
small size. It is used for short-period storing during the harvest, until the beets are
gradually delivered to the factory.
Deep-freezing storage: This type of storage is located in the factory, is open or closed,
and is of medium to large size. It is used for long-period storing. Forced-air ventilation is
used to cool and deep-freeze the beet piles.
3.2.4 Sugar and mass losses during storage

Sugar loss during storage is any sugar-content reduction that occurs from the time the beets
are weighed at the delivery to the storage and the time they are reweighed during processing
(usually after beet slicing). Post-harvested beets are still alive and continue to consume sugar.
The losses result from
Beet respiration
Microorganisms
The sugar loss during beet storage occurs in a two-step process.

Step 1: (12 22 11 ) is decomposed to produce invert sugar
12 22 11 + 2 6 12 6 + 6 12 6
Step 2: The invert sugar is decomposed to produce carbon dioxide (CO2), water and energy.
6 12 6 + 62 62 + 2 + (674 )
Later during processing, part of the invert sugar will decompose to some acid (e.g. lactic acid)
and the coloring substances will negatively affect the process. Invert sugar formation during
storage can be high (100 to 200 g per ton beet per day under normal storage conditions).
The intensity of sugar loss during storage depends on the following factors:
Microorganisms
Page | 20
Temperature
Dirt content
The following preventive actions can be taken to reduce sugar losses in beet piles:
Using forced-air ventilation: Is helpful during early and late stages of storage. During
the early days of storage, when the temperature is high, the forced air removes the
respiration heat from the piles. In this system, several ducts (channels) are installed
under the piles and air is forced through the piles by blowers.
Deep-freezing the beets: Is used in open and closed storages. The closed storages are
known as beet sheds.
Figure 3. 2 Effects of temperature on sugar loss in beets (van der Poel 1998)
3.3 BEET DRY-CLEANING
Beet Dry-cleaning of sugarbeet processing station includes a hopper, conveyor, and a large
vibrating screen. The equipment is installed outside the main processing building next to the
flume system.
The beet-dry-cleaning (dry-screening) station is to separate stone, sand, and part of soil from
the beets. Any clay (moistened soil) stuck to the beets cannot be separated by the dry-cleaning
system. Materials larger than about 12 mm, such as large stones and weeds are also excluded
from the separation at this station. But loose soil, sand, small stones, beet tops, and leaves can
be separated from the beets by their screening.
Page | 21

The separated materials are usually trucked to the eld. In the dry-cleaning station, the beets
are rst transferred from the storage area into the beet hopper using front-end loaders or
trucks. Beets can also be unloaded into the hopper of the dry-cleaning belt directly from the
truck or rail car when they are delivered to the factory. From the hopper, the beets are
elevated by a conveyor to a vibrating screen. Here, part of impurities is separated from the
beets by vibration (shaking). Then, a belt conveyor delivers the dry-cleaned beets to the ume
channel.
In the dry-cleaning station, three types of screening systems are usually used:
Cable screen
Grab-roller screen
Spiral-roller screen
The beet-dry cleaning station provides cleaner beets to the beet washer, so less wash water is
needed in the beet-washing process. This is an environmental advantage and a cost savings for
the factory.
3.4 BEET CONVEYING
Beets are conveyed using the dry-conveying system; front-end loaders transport the beets from
the factory beet storage to the beet hopper which is installed in front of the beet ume. The dry
system offers the following advantages over wet transportation:
Less loss of sugar during transportation
Less water usage
Page | 22
Figure 3. 3 Beet conveying operation (Mosen Asadi, 2007)

3.5 BEET FLUMING
The beet-flume system (water-transport system) transports the beets to the stone and trash
separators by the force of water. Fluming is possible because the sugarbeet has a density
slightly greater than that of water (beet density is about 1.1 Kg/m3).
Fluming requires water in the range of 300 to 500% on beet (OB). To save water and to control
the quantity of mud, flume water is treated for mud separation in the factorys waste water
ponds, and the treated water is returned to the flume. A flume-water clarifier can be used;
which allows several returns (recycles) of the water to the flume, while part of the water is
discharged to the ponds at each cycle. In the clarifier, the majority of the mud and solids are
removed. The flume-water clarication reduces considerably the amount of discharged
wastewater of the plant.
The beet flume is made of concrete or sheet metal; its U-shaped bottom has a slope of about
1.5%. Flumes are 1.0 to 1.3 m wide and about 1.0 m deep, depending on the processing
capacity of the factory. Flumes are built with a bypass that allows the fluming to continue if a
plug occurs.
The fresh water used in fluming is generally condenser water. During uming, high pressure
water should not be used because it damages the beets.
Page | 23
3.5.1 Stone separator
Figure 3. 4 Beet flume (Mosen Asadi, 2007)
Stone separators (stone or rock catchers) are installed around the flume system to separate
large stones (rocks) from beets. The stone separator operates based on the density difference
between beets and stones. In a waterbeetstone mixture, stones have higher density than
water and beet, causing the stones to drop and separate from the beets in the stone separator.
A bucket stone separator is used for this operation.
3.5.2 Trash separator
Trash (sugarbeet leaves and weeds) can clog the slicers knives, plug the diffuser, and bring
many impurities into the process. Therefore, the ume system contains a trash separator to
remove trash owing with the beets. A number of types of trash separators are used in sugar
processing. In the rake trash separator, the trash is caught on rakes that move against the ow
of the ume in an endless chain. The speed of the chain is a slow speed of about 0.2 m/s. The
trash is released from the rakes as the rakes are tilted outside the ume. In general, trash
separators can remove a large part of trash but not small trash and beet-chips (small beet
particles). Beet chips and small trash can be removed by using a vibrating chip separator which
is usually installed after the trash separator or the beet washer.
Page | 24
Figure 3. 5 Rake trash separator (Mosen Asadi, 2007)

3.6 BEET LIFTING TO BEET WASHER
Once inside the plant building, the beets are lifted from the uming channel into the beet
washer. The beet washer is located several meters higher than the ume to make the delivery
of washed beet to the slicers easier. Beets are lifted to the beet washer by one of the following
means:
Belt conveyor
Pump
Bucket conveyor
The most common way of feeding the beet washer is by way of the beet pump for following
reasons: it has lower initial investment, its easy to maintain, it needs less room.
The amount of wash water needed for uming and cleaning beets is high (about 200 to 500%
OB), depending on the beet-handling and cleaning system of the plant.
3.7 BEET WASHING AND FLUME-WATER TREATMENT
Beets that have been separated from stones and trash and partially washed during uming are
now moved to the main processing building of the plant by uming. Once inside the plant
building, the beets are lifted from the uming channel to feed the beet washer for the nal
cleaning.
The beet washer is installed in an open area next to the trash separator, and the washed beets
are transferred to the main building by a conveyor to feed the beet slicers. In the beet washer,
Page | 25

soil and clay stuck to the beets and sand are washed away before the beets enter the slicing
process. The beet washer not only cleans the beets but also removes most of the microbes
coming with the beets.
Figure 3. 6 Beet washing operations (Mosen Asadi, 2007)

The main job of the beet-washing station is to supply the slicing station with a steady ow of
clean beets. The beet washer is the last point for removing remaining tare, so its operation is
important to the performance of the further stations. In many ways, the beet-washing station
controls the slice rate of the factory because any stones or excess weeds can damage slicer
knives and cause delays in beet slicing.
The washing station must be maintained in a way that ensures that enough (but not overlled)
clean beets are always in the slicers hopper. Beets are cleaned in two separate washers.
Water discharged from the beet washer and from the ume system contains:
Small beet particles (chips)
Small trash particles
Mud
Wash water from the beet washer and ume system is pumped to a mud settling pond. The
upper ow from the pond is mixed with makeup water (usually condenser -water) to be reused
in the uming and beet washer.
The wash water is rst sent to the chip separator to separate beet -chips and trash particles
from the water. The separator removes the heavier beet chips from trash particles. After
Page | 26

separation, the beet chips are sent to the beet hopper and then to the slicers, and trash
particles are sent to the pulp presses to be pressed with pulp.
The water from the chip separator is discharged to the wastewater treatment system to be
cleaned and reused in the ume and beet washer.
3.7.1 Flume-water treatment
A coarse metal grate (a screen with large openings) is installed at the end of the beet washer to
separate water from the beets. The beets are then sprayed with fresh water. The chips are then
separated. Here, the ume water is directed to the chip-separation system and then to the
wastewater-treatment system. Otherwise, the ume water is directly sent to the wastewater
system.
3.7.1.1 Chip Separation from Flume Water
Beet chips are small, broken particles of beets that could not be separated in the earlier stages
of operation. A chip separator removes beet chips and small trash particles (weeds) left in the
water discharged from the beet washer.
The separator is a drum screen lter consisting of a vibrating screen with openings of about 0.2
mm, followed by a separating belt that separates the heavier beet chips from weeds by a rolling
mechanism (chips have the ability of rolling, while weeds do not).
After separation, the beet chips are sent by a conveyor to the beet hopper, which feeds the
slicers. Weeds are sent to the pulp presses. Chip separation has the following advantages:
It increases sugar recovery by recovering beet chips.
It decreases the load of solids entering the factorys wastewater system.
It increases the income by recovering beet chips and trash that would otherwise be
wasted.
3.7.1.2 Mud Separation from Flume Water

Used wash water from the beet washer or from the chip separator contains mud as well as
dissolved sugar leached from beets during uming and washing. The ume water is sent to the
Page | 27

mud-separation system (mud centrifuge), where the mud, sand, and trash (weeds) residue are
separated.
Muddy water from the beet washer and ume system is pumped to the mud-settling pond,
which has a short retention time (several days). The upper ow from the pond is mixed with
fresh water (usually condenser water) to be used in the beet ume and beet washer. The mudseparation system consists of the following elements:
Flume clarier
Mud-settling pond
Flume lter (trash lter)
Cake lter (usually lter press or centrifuge lter)
In this system, muddy water rst goes to the ume clarier. The clarier uses the density
difference between dirt and water for separation. The overow from the clarier is clean
enough to be sent to the uming and washing system. The underow from the clarier, which
contains mud and ne trash materials, is sent to the mud-settling pond and from there to the
ume lter (trash lter) to remove any trash and ber material from the mud and to prevent it
from entering the water treatment system.
The mud is then ltered by a lter press centrifugal lter to produce cake to ease its handling
process. The material recovered by the trash lter is returned to the pulp presses to become
part of the pulp production from the factory. Water from the trash screen is sent to the ume
pond and then to the wastewater treatment system. Trash separation prevents the mud ponds
from producing odor.
The ume clarier is used to remove mud from ume water. It consists of a large tank with a
shallow cone bottom that is 50 to 100 m in diameter and 2 to 4 m deep. The clarier contains a
slow-moving rake driven from a central shaft. There are arms connected to the rake.
The feed enters the center of the clarier, and the heavier particles ow downward and
gradually make a mud layer where the clear liquid stays on top. The clear water spills over the
Page | 28

edge of the tank into a trough. The rake arms gently move the mud to the center of the tank,
where it ows through a large opening and is pumped by the mud pump.
3.8 BEET SLICING
Slicing beets is the process of cutting beets into long, thin strips, called cossettes. In the slicing
station, a conveyor (usually the belt type) continuously delivers clean beets from the beet
washer to the beet hopper (a cone-shaped container) that feeds the beets to the slicers.
When equipped with the chip separator, the separated beet chips are also sent to the beet
hopper. The main function of the beet-slicing operation is to improve the diffusion operation
and the removal of sucrose from the beets. This is achieved mainly because of the increase of
the surface area of the beets. Increasing the surface area maximizes the following:
The contact area between the beet cells and the water in the diffuser
The movement of sugar from the cells to the diffusion juice
3.8.1 Cossette Quality

For complete removal of sugar by the diffusion process, the size and quality of the cossettes are
important. Generally, for the same result, thick cossettes need more diffusion time, or a higher
amount of diffusion water than thinner cossettes. Therefore, thin cossettes are desirable. The
desired characteristics for high-quality cossettes are as follows:
Uniform width (3 to 6 mm thick, square or V shape)
Uniform length (30 to 60 mm long)
The cossettes are then transferred to the diffuser.

3.9 JUICE DIFFUSION
3.9.1 The diffusion process
This process takes place in the diffuser (as shown in the diagram below), in which sliced beets
(cossettes) are kept in contact with hot water for about an hour to diffuse the juice from the
beet cells. The hot water (about 70 C) used in the diffusers destructs the beet cells to make the
Page | 29

movement of diffusing components possible. As the water moves ahead, it collects sugar
(sucrose) and non-sugars (non-sucrose) from the cossettes and becomes a concentrated impure
sucrose solution, known as diffusion juice (raw juice). The diffusion juice (with 85 to 88% purity)
is sent to the purification station for the removal of certain non-sugars (impurities). In the
meantime, the cossettes in the diffuser gradually lose almost all (about 98%) of their sucrose
and turn into pulp (de-sugared cossettes). The wet pulp is sent to the next station (Pulp
Treatment) to be pressed, dried, and pelletized and sold as a by-product of the process.
Figure 3. 7 Juice diffusion process (Mosen Asadi, 2007)

3.9.2 Denaturation
Denaturation (changing the nature), in chemistry, means destruction (alteration) of the cell
protoplasm by coagulation of its main component, protein, to make it permeable. In beet
processing, heat is generally used in the diffuser for denaturing the beet cells.
Figure 3. 8 Counter-current diffusion (Mosen Asadi, 2007)

In a continuous-countercurrent diffuser (see Figure above), rotating equipment moves the
cossettes continuously from one end, while water travels in the opposite direction. The
cossettes gradually lose their sucrose (about 98%) and turn into pulp (de-sugared cossette),
while the water gradually gains the sucrose and turns into diffusion juice, which usually
contains about 15% DS (dry substance) with a purity (%sucrose in dry substance) of 85 to 88%.
The rest of the sucrose (about 2%) stays with the pulp.
Page | 30

During diffusion, the juice is continuously pumped from the head-end (cossette side) of the
diffuser, and the wet pulp is discharged from the opposite side, known as the tail-end (pulp
side). The pulp is sent to pulp presses to be pressed. The pulp-press water from pulp presses is
heated and returned to the diffuser as part of the diffuser water supply.
3.9.3 Factors influencing the diffusion process
Factors influencing the diffusion operation are the following:
pH: Beet juice has a pH of 6.0 to 6.5. The optimum pH of diffusion juice is 5.8 to 6.0. At this pH,
sucrose inversion to invert sugar is at the lowest level. The acidification of diffusion water and
sometimes pulp-press water is commonly practiced in the diffusion operation to slightly lower
the juice pH and achieve the optimum value to prevent microbiological activity. Acidification
also helps in the pulp-pressing operation.
Draft: is the mass of diffusion juice leaving the diffuser relative to the mass of cossettes
entering the diffuser. It is expressed as percent on beet (% OB). For example, a draft of 120%
means that 120 t of juice is produced from 100 t of processed beets. Draft not only indicates
the amount of the diffusion juice but also helps determine the amount of diffusion water
entering the diffuser.
Low draft slows the movement of the cossettes-juice mixture and increases the risk of plugging
the diffuser. High draft means extra water has been added to the process and will need to be
evaporated later during evaporation. A draft of 110 to 130 is considered an optimum range
when processing undamaged beets.
Temperature: The optimum temperature for the diffusion operation of undamaged beets is 70
to 73 C.
Retention time: is the amount of time cossettes are in contact with beet juice. A complete
diffusion process takes place over a certain period. The retention time, used by diffuser
manufacturers for undamaged beet, ranges from 60 to 110 minutes.
Page | 31

Cossette quality: High-quality cossettes are necessary to produce good diffusion juice with high
purity without regard to the type of diffuser.
Microbial activity: Cossettes are a good medium for the growth of many kinds of microbes,
particularly thermophile bacteria (grows around 50C). This type of bacteria converts sugars to
acids (mainly lactic acid), which aids in pulp pressing but increases sugar losses. In addition, it
increases the soluble non-sugar content of the diffusion juice, which increases the amount of
lime used in juice purification and juice softening. As a rule, the lowest microbial activity is
observed when the diffuser is kept at 70 to 73C and at a pH of 5.8 to 6.0.
3.9.4 Adding pressing aids to the diffuser
Pressing aids (pressing agents) are chemicals added to the diffusion water to improve pulp
press-ability (the dewatering of pulp by pulp presses). The following chemicals are used as
pressing aids: gypsum, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, and aluminum chloride or aluminum
sulphate.
3.9.5 Adding antifoaming agent to the diffuser
Foam (a colloid-type material, consisting of small bubbles of a gas trapped in a liquid) slows the
movement of cossettes and juice in the diffuser, so an antifoaming agent is added to the
diffuser to break up the foam molecules and improve the movement of the cossettes-juice
mixture. The required amount of antifoaming agent is about 100 g/t of beet.
3.9.6 Adding biocide to the diffuser
Bacterial activity can lead to considerable sugar loss during the diffusion process. The use of a
biocide during the diffusion process helps reduce microbial problems, prevents inversion of
sucrose, and reduces acid (e.g., acetic, butyric, and lactic acids) formation.
Sultation is used because sulfur dioxide is a good biocide, which improves sugarbeet
processing by: disinfecting the diffusion juice, lowering the pH of the diffuser and improves the
pressing qualities of the wet pulp.
Page | 32

3.9.7 Diffuser type
The type of the diffuser used is the Silver-DDS slope diffuser. The Silver-DDS diffuser consists of
a U-shaped vessel, inclined at an angle of 11 to the horizontal. The cossettes move upward
with the help of two rotating-parallel screws. The speed of the screws can be varied between
0.5 and 1.3 RPM depending on the slice rate. The wet pulp is discharged by double scrolls from
the top-end (tail-end or pulp-end) where the diffusion water enters. The diffusion juice moves
downward through the cossettes and, at the low-end (head-end or cossettes side) of the
diffuser, passes through a screen before it is pumped to the next step of the process. The
screen separates the juice from the entering cossettes. There is no baffle or partition in this
diffuser. Steam jackets keep the temperature of the diffuser at around 70C. The cossettes are
heated at the low-end by the passing diffusion juice as the juice is cooled to about 25C.
3.9.8 Product and by-product of the diffusion process
Diffusion juice is the product and wet pulp is the by-product of the diffusion process. Before the
diffusion juice is directed to the purification process, it is screened to remove sand and pulp
particles.
Wet pulp is the by-product of the diffusion process. Wet pulp has a high moisture content of
about 90%. It is pressed to about 80% and dried to a moisture content of about 10% before
storage and transport. The dried pulp is valuable cattle feed, supplying carbohydrates, proteins,
and minerals. Pulp pressing, drying, and pelleting are the subject of the next section.
3.10 PULP TREATMENT
3.10.1 Introduction
This Station (see Figure below) consists of two steps: pulp pressing and pulp drying. When the
exhausted (de-sugared) beet cossettes leave the diffuser, they are called wet pulp, containing
about 90% water (10% dry substance [DS]) and almost all the beet pulp (beets brous
materials). The wet pulp still contains a considerable amount of sugar (sucrose). To recover the
sugar from the wet pulp and handle, store, and market the wet pulp economically, it must be
pressed and dried to decrease its moisture content to about 10% (90% DS). This is achieved in a
Page | 33

two-step process. First, the wet pulp is pressed in pulp presses to about 75% moisture content
(25% DS). The juice pressed from the pulp, called press water, is screened, heated, and
returned to the diffuser as part of the diffusion water. In the second step, the pressed pulp is
dried in pulp dryers to about 10% moisture content (90% DS).
Cassettes
Diffusion
Wet
pulp
Pulp press
Pressed
pulp
Press
water
Diffusion
(raw) juice
Pulp
drier
Dried
pulp
Pellet press
Molasses
Pressing
aid
Livestock feed
(storage and
shipment)
Figure 3. 9 Pulp treatment operations

3.10.2 Pulp pressing
The wet pulp leaving the diffuser is transported by a screw conveyor to the pulp-pressing
section. In the pulp presses, the wet pulp is pressed to a smaller volume with about 75%
moisture content (25% DS). (With the use of a pressing aid, pulp press-ability improves,
resulting in moisture content reduction to about 65 %.) The press water is collected in a tank
and the pumped to a screen, where fine pulp particles are removed and returned to the pulp
presses for repressing. The screened press water, called pulp press water, is then heated to 70
to 90C before being returned to the diffuser. The amount of pulp-press water is about 75 to
85% OB (on beet). Heating disinfects the press water before it is returned to the diffuser,
preventing sugar losses due to microbial activity.
It is cheaper to remove water from the wet pulp mechanically by pressing than by thermally
drying. The water content of the wet pulp can be reduced by the presses as much as practicable
before feeding the pressed pulp to the pulp dryer. The pulp-pressing operation is important
because it;
Removes about 80% of the total water present in the wet pulp
Provides part of the needed water for the diffusion process

Page | 34
Reduces the load to the waste water treatment system
Saves energy in pulp drying
The pulp press to be used is a horizontal twin screw pulp press.

3.10.3 Pulp drying
Pressed pulp is directed by a belt conveyor to the pulp dryer to produce dry pulp with about
10% moisture content. Wet-pulp particles are highly porous, so moisture can be easily removed
in the dryer, where heat is formed by the combustion of fuel with air to evaporate water from
the pulp.
Coal, oil, or natural gas can be used as the fuel in the pulp dryer. The type of dryer used is the
steam dryers.
Steam dryers use superheated steam from the boiler house for pulp drying. The vapor removed
from the pulp then serves as heat in the vapor users of the factory. Steam dryers do not
demand changes in the boiler house. Pulp drying by steam dryer provides the following
advantages compared with fuel-burning dryers:
Savings on energy cost
Reduction in air pollution
3.10.4 Pulp Pelleting

The dry pulp is transferred to pellet presses (pelletizers) to produce pelleted pulp (pellets).
Molasses is also added. The pellets are round, 6 to 16 mm in diameter and 25 to 50 mm in
length. Pelleting puts the pulp in a compact form (the bulk density of pellets is about triple that
of dry pulp).
The dry pulp from the dryer is supplied to a surge tank above the pellet presses. Then, the pulp
is mixed with steam or hot water to increase its temperature to 90C. For pelleting, dry pulp
must have 8 to 12% moisture content. The moist pulp is fed to the center of a rotating die in
the pellet press, and then forced to the die openings by the rollers. Knives, positioned on the
Page | 35

side of the die, cut the pellets to the desired length. The length can be changed by adjusting the
clearance between the die and the roller.
3.10.5 Pulp storage
The pulp storage is adjusted for temperature and humidity by ventilation and air circulation to
maintain the moisture content of the stored product at a desired level. When the air moves
through the pellets, it absorbs moisture and increases in temperature. Inadequate air
circulation and a cold climate cause moisture migration (due to the temperature difference
between the top and bottom of the pile), resulting in a hardening of the pellets. In addition,
there is the risk of mold formation
3.11 MILK-OF-LIME AND CARBONATION GAS PRODUCTION
This section involves preparation of two important chemicals used in Juice purification: milk-oflime (MOL) and carbonation gas (CO2 gas). It consists of two sections: calcining (the
decomposition of limestone in the limekiln to produce quicklime) and slaking (the mixing of
quicklime with water in the slaker to produce milk-of-lime). Raw materials for the limekiln are
limestone (CaCO3) and coke (C).
Figure 3. 10 Carbonation gas production (Mosen Asadi, 2007)
Page | 36

The milk-of-lime (MOL, carbonation lime or simply lime) and carbonation-gas (simply gas)
station consists of two steps:
Calcining: The decomposition of limestone (CaCO3) to quicklime (CaO) and carbon

dioxide gas (CO2) in the limekiln (solid-fired kiln) at about 1100C by using the heat
energy of the limekilns fuel
3 + + 2
Slaking: The mixing of quicklime with water or a diluted juice (often sweet water from
lters) in the slaker to produce lime, a suspension of Ca(OH)2 in water.
+ 2 ()2
In the limekiln operation, limestone and coke are weighed automatically, mixed together into
buckets in a limestone-to-coke ratio of about 10 to 1, and transported by a bucket elevator to
the top of the kiln. Then, the feed is discharged into the kiln through a hopper in an equal
distribution. The feed moves slowly down the kiln through three zones namely; preheating,
calcining and cooling.
Each zone occupies about one-third of the kilns height. The temperature in the middle of the
calcining (burning) zone is kept at about 1100C (the hottest of the three zones) to completely
convert the CaCO3 to CaO and CO2. After discharge from the bottom of the kiln, the quick-lime
(CaO) is transported by a belt conveyor to the lime slaker.
In the slaker, the CaO is mixed with water to produce lime. The lime is kept in a supply tank for
about 30 minutes to complete the reaction between lime and water. At this point, the lime is
ready to be used in the juice-purification station.
Carbonation gas is collected at the top of the kiln and piped to the gas scrubber (dust collector)
where lime particles are removed and the gas is cooled. The clean gas is directed to the gas
compressor to increase its pressure to about 1.7 atm. At this point, the carbonation gas is ready
for use.
Page | 37

3.12 JUICE PURIFICATION
3.12.1 Introduction
The diffusion juice from the diffusion process contains a considerable amount of non-sugars
(non-sucroses). In the juice-purification station, milk of lime (MOL) is added to the heated
diffusion juice in a few steps to precipitate and destabilize the non-sugars. Carbonation gas is
also added in two steps to precipitate the lime as calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) and to adjust the
pH and alkalinity of the juice. During operation, the precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC) is
separated from the juice in the clarifier, dewatered in the cake filters (lter presses or rotarydrum lters), and sold as carbonation-lime residue (CLR, one of the by-products of the factory)
in soil fertilizer, as a pH adjuster, and for other uses.
The purpose of juice purification is to remove certain non-sugars, suspended particles, and
colloids (e.g., dextran and colorants with high-molecular mass) from the diffusion juice to
produce a high-purity, colloid-free, and low-color juice with minimum hardness (lime salts).
During a typical purification process, a non-sugar elimination (NSE) efficiency of 20 to 30% is
achieved, and the remaining non-sugars become destabilized to the point where they are
harmless to the later operation and finally end up in molasses. Thin juice is the product of the
purification station, and carbonation-lime residue is its by-product.
In the liming step, the diffusion juice is limed (i.e. lime is added) to a certain alkalinity and pH to
precipitate some non-sugars. For example, sodium oxalate reacts with lime to precipitate ()
calcium oxalate (CaC2O4):
()2 + 2 2 4 2 4 +2
In the carbonation step, the limed juice is carbonated (i.e., gas is added) to a certain alkalinity
and pH to convert the un-reacted lime to precipitate calcium carbonate:
()2 + 2 3 + 2
Page | 38

The precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC) is removed from the juice by settling and filtration to
produce clear juice. The goals of juice purification are as follows:
Removal of all insolubles substances
Removal of certain soluble substances (insolubles)
Production of thermo-stable juice with minimum hardness
In the purification station, 20 to 30% of non-sugars, such as invert sugar, colloids and coloring
substances, are removed. As a rule, each kg (ton or any mass unit) of non-sugars carries 1.5 kg
(ton or any mass unit) of sugar to molasses. This means that non-sugars elimination saves the
30 to 45% of sugar. In addition, during purification, all insoluble substances (diffusion juice
contains about 2% insoluble solids) are removed, making further operations easier. The product
of the purification station is a juice, known as thin juice.
3.12.2 Pre-liming
Pre-liming is the step of purication where a small amount of lime (about 0.2 to 0.7% on juice)
is added to the heated diffusion juice (about 86C) until optimum conditions for the pre-liming
operation (pH of about 8.5 and an alkalinity of about 0.1) are reached. The liming time of the
juice in this step is about 10 to 15 minutes.
The non-sugars that are removed during pre-liming cannot be removed adequately in main
liming. If pre-liming is controlled properly, most of the colloids, invert sugar, proteins,
phosphates and sulfates in the diffusion juice are precipitated and removed later by
sedimentation and filtration.
3.12.3 Main liming
Main liming (main defecation) is the step of purication where lime (at about 1.0 to 2.5% OB) is
added to the heated prelimed juice (about 88C).
Unlike preliming, in main liming the lime used is much more than can be dissolved in the juice
for the following reasons:
Page | 39
To act as an adsorbent for the adsorption of non-sugars (lime has a high adsorption
capacity).
To act as an aid for the filtration process to improve the lterability of the juice.
The most important reactions occurring during main liming are the following:
Decomposition of invert sugar into colorants and acids and the formation of oxalic acid
Decomposition of amino acids such as glutamine and asparagine into their ammonium
salts
3.12.4 First carbonation

First carbonation is the step of purification where the carbonation gas is added to the heated
limed juice (about 90C) until the optimum conditions for the first-carb juice (pH of 10.8 to 11.0
and alkalinity of 0.08 to 0.11) are reached. The gassing time of the juice in this step is about 10
minutes.
After the first-carbonation process, the juice becomes slurry, named rst-carbonation slurry. In
the juice are suspended solids visible to the naked eye as individual substances. Carbonation
slurry consists of calcium carbonate (55 to 60%), organic compounds (10 to 15%), and water. To
separate the solids from the juice, the first-carbonation slurry is treated in clariers (settlers) or
thickening lters. The separation of the solids converts the rst-carb slurry into claried juice,
which is nearly free of suspended solids, and a thickened by-product called carbonation mud.
First-carb juice separated from mud in the clarier or thickening lters is ltered to remove the
remainder of solid particles in pressure-leaf lters because these solids would otherwise partly
re-dissolve in the second carbonation.
3.12.5 Second carbonation
Second carbonation is the step of purification where carbonation gas is added to the filtered
and heated rst-carb juice until optimum conditions for the second-carb juice (pH of 9.0 to 9.2
and alkalinity of 0.02 to 0.03) are reached. Before the filtered first-carb juice is entered into the
second-carb tank, it is heated to about 92C in the second-carb heaters to prevent formation of
calcium bicarbonate in the juice. The main functions of the second carbonation are:
Page | 40
To precipitate still-existing un-reacted lime
To decrease the hardness content of the juice to minimum
To decrease the pH of the juice to an optimum level for the next station
After second carbonation, the juice is filtered in second-carb filters (pressure-leaf filters) to
form the thin juice which is transferred to the next stage for evaporation.
Page | 41

From diffuser
(raw juice)
Heating
(86C)
Preliming (0.20.7 CaO OB)

Heating
(88C)
Heating
(90C)
Main liming (1.02.5 Cao OB)
First carbonation
0.08-0.11 alkalinity
Mud
thickening
Heating
(92C)
Milk- oflime

(MOL)
Lime
slaker
Lime kiln
Mud
separation
st
1 carb
filtration
Carbonation
gas
Sulphur stove
Second carbonation
0.02-0.03 alkalinity
SO2
2nd carb
filtration
Thin juice to
evaporators
Figure 3.11 Flow diagram for juice purification operation(Mosen

Asadi, 2007)
Page | 42

3.13 SULPHITATION
Juice sulfitation is the process of adding sulfur dioxide (SO2) to the juice to reduce color and
prevent color formation in the next steps of operation. SO 2 inhibits the browning (Maillard)
reaction that forms coloring compounds during evaporation and crystallization. It is usually
used before the evaporation (to thin juice) and crystallization (to thick juice or standard liquor)
process at about 30 ppm on juice.
Sulphur dioxide gas is produced in a sulphur stove. The sulfur stove is an apparatus in which
sulfur is burned to form sulfur dioxide, in accordance with the following reaction;
+ 2 2
Sulfur dioxide made with the sulfur stove may be introduced into the juice with a steam injector
or with the aid of gas pumps.
3.14 EVAPORATION
3.14.1 Introduction
Evaporation (vaporization) is the process of concentrating a solution by boiling to convert some
of the liquid to vapor. The temperature difference between the heating medium (steam) and
feed is the driving force (cause) of evaporation. In concentrating a solution theres two classes
of evaporation involved:
Heating evaporation (conversion of liquid to vapor by heating under normal pressure)
Flashing evaporation (conversion of liquid to vapor by heating under vacuum)
In the sugar processing, flashing evaporation is used to obtain a lower boiling temperature of
the juice, which decreases the required heat. Low pressure decreases the boiling point (BP) of
water (at a lower pressure, water boils at a lower temperature), resulting in a heat-efficient
operation (saves energy). To save more energy, heat exchangers preheat the feed before it is
introduced to the evaporators. For evaporation, heat (flow of energy from a hotter object to a
colder object) is needed to convert molecules of the solution to the vapor state. Evaporators
are mainly used to concentrate the solution.
Page | 43

In the sugar factory, water is evaporated from juice in two stations:
Evaporation station
Crystallization station
In the evaporation station, thin juice with about 15% dry substance (DS) and about 8.8 pH is
concentrated to produce a thickened juice with about 60% DS and about 8.7 pH, which is called
thick juice. Thin juice consists of nonvolatile solutes (sucrose and non-sucrose substances) and a
volatile solvent (water). During evaporation, only the solvent (water) evaporates; solute (sugar
and non-sugars) does not. This is the reason why the purity of the juice does not change during
evaporation (purity is not relevant to water content), assuming no decomposition of sucrose
occurs.
To obtain a low boiling temperature in the evaporators, a condenser keeps the juice under
vacuum, usually with the help of a vacuum pump placed between the evaporator and the
condenser. This means that the juice must be pumped out of the evaporators. The steam
pressure to the first effect is 300 kPa. The final effect operates at near atmospheric pressure.
The concentrator uses vapor from the second-effect or third-effect evaporator and operates at
a slightly negative pressure (about 70 kPa).
As mentioned previously, the functions of the evaporation station in a sugar plant can be
summarized as follows:
Concentrates thin juice
Produces condensate for boilers
Produces vapor and condensate for heat and condensate users
The proper integration of these three functions results in efficient energy usage in the plant.
(Steam production in the boiler house, its distribution, and its utilization in the heat exchangers
and evaporators, are important to the energy efficiency of sugar plant.
Besides economic aspects, the color increase between thin juice and thick juice during
evaporation is important. In normal beet processing and with SO 2 applied to the thin juice
before entering the evaporators, a reasonable color rise (below 20%) between the thin juice
and the thick juice is an indicator of proper evaporation operation.
Page | 44

In the evaporation station, thin juice with about 15% DS is heated in the thin-juice heaters to
about 90C. Then it is pumped into the evaporators to increase its concentration to about 60%
DS. The steam gives up its heat to the juice and leaves the evaporators as vapor and
condensate.
The concentration of the thin juice is usually achieved in the multiple effect evaporators.
3.14.2 Multiple effect evaporators
A multiple-effect evaporation station in sugar beet processing consists of usually five effects
(quintuple-effect evaporators). Often, each effect consists of two evaporators, called bodies.
For example, a five-effect evaporation station with two bodies in each effect contains 10
evaporators.
Figure 3. 11 Multi-effect evaporator system (Mosen Asadi, 2007)

A single-effect evaporation operation is not efficient because the vapor has a large amount of
energy and low pressure hence multiple effect evaporators are used. It is universal practice to
feed the thin juice into the first effect, throttle juice from the first effect into the second effect,
throttle juice from the second effect into the third effect, and so on to the last effect. Water is
evaporated in each effect and so as the juice progresses through the evaporators, its density
increases. Juice from the last effect is called thick juice and is pumped to high melter for further
preparation prior to crystallization process.
Page | 45

It is also a general practice for the steam and vapor flow to be parallel to the juice flow. Exhaust
steam is piped into the first-effect steam chest. On condensing, this steam gives most of its heat
to the juice in the first effect. The exchange of heat causes the juice to boil. Vapor from the
boiling first-effect juice collects in the evaporator dome and is piped into the vapor or steam
chest of the second effect. First-effect vapor in the set-and-effect vapor chest gives most of its
heat to the juice in the second effect, and so produces second-effect vapor. This process
continues down through the evaporators until the vapor from the last effect is led to a
condenser.
This condenser maintains the last vapor at a low pressure, usually below atmospheric pressure
and so under a vacuum, and consequently at a low temperature. As a result, each evaporator
effect acts as a condenser for the preceding effect. Hence each succeeding vapor pressure, and,
of course, temperature, is proportionately lower, with the lowest vapor pressure in the last
effect under control by the condenser.
Single-effect evaporation needs roughly 1 kg of steam to evaporate 1 kg of water in the
product. But in multiple-effect evaporation, 1 kg steam entering the first effect can evaporate
as many kilograms of water as there are effects in the system.
After evaporation, the percentage of sucrose in the "thick juice" is 50-65 %. Crystalline sugars,
produced later in the process, are added to the juice and dissolved in the high melter (thick
juice treatment)
3.15 SYRUP CRYSTALLIZATION
Crystallization, in sugar technology, is mass transfer of sugar molecules from the syrup to the
solid particles (seeds) to form crystals. Crystallization leaves impurities in the syrup (known as
mother liquor). Crystallization is one of the most effective separation techniques, providing an
impurity-elimination effect of up to 99.9%. In other words, impurities are excluded from the
crystallization process and pure solute is the only substance that crystallizes (granulated-refined
sugar contains above 99.9% sucrose and raw sugar (96 to 99%). Crystallization occurs when the
syrup is supersaturated and other conditions are met.
Page | 46

In beet sugar processing, crystallization occurs when solute (in our case, sucrose) moves from a
supersaturated solution (in our case, impure sucrose solution) and attaches to the crystal
structure. This crystallization process can be achieved through two classes:
Flashing crystallization (crystallization by evaporation under vacuum)
Cooling crystallization (crystallization by cooling)
In flashing crystallization, water is evaporated under vacuum (at about 74C) and seed is
applied, causing crystallization to occur because the water present in the mother liquor is not
enough to hold sugar molecules. In flashing crystallization, the presence of a vacuum decreases
the boiling point (BP) of the syrup, preventing the inversion of sucrose and saving energy.
In cooling crystallization, the temperature of the massecuite lowered to about 40C, causing
crystallization to occur because the water present in the mother liquor holds less sugar
(solubility decreases with decreasing temperature).
3.15.1 Beet sugar syrup crystallization
The crystallization process is described below:
3.15.1.1 Thick juice treatment
The purity of the evaporator thick juice is increased by dissolving in it crystalline sugars. This
takes place in the melter.
The intermediate sugar crystals are always dissolved in the thick juice provided they are higher
in purity than the thick juice with the intermediate sugar dissolved in it. In the melter there is
also addition of filter aid in the form of diatomaceous earth. This material is best added to one
of the melter sugar scroll conveyors, very complete dispersion being obtained in this manner.
The thick juice is filtered to produce standard liquor, which is then pumped to the vacuum-pan
storage tanks.
Also addition of sugar crystals makes the thick syrup saturated. This is necessary in sugar
production process as it will facilitate faster crystallization process in the vacuum pan.
Page | 47

3.15.1.2 Crystal formation
Super-saturation must be established in a solution for crystallization to occur. A state of supersaturation is attained by boiling the standard liquor under vacuum (flash evaporation). Also
evaporation is done under vacuum for the following reasons:
To reduce the boiling point (BP): The presence of the vacuum increases the
temperature difference (T) between steam and the boiling material, so the material
boils at a lower temperature (the higher the DT, the lower is the BP). Toward the end of
crystallization, the massecuite contains about 90% DS, which equals a boiling-point
elevation (BPE) of about 20C. This raises the BP to 120C, which causes a high color
formation if the process was not performed under vacuum.
To avoid inversion: At low temperatures, the inversion of sucrose to invert sugar is

minimal.
To save energy: The energy is saved because of the lower BP of the syrup.
White pan
A
Standard
liquor
Sugar
High-green
syrup
Mixer A
Low green
syrup
High raw
pan B
Mixer B
Mixer B
Centrifuge B
Centrifuge A
Low pan C
Cooling
crystallization
B- Sugar
Evaporator
Thick juice
Melter
C-sugar
Figure 3. 12 Three-stage crystallization
Centrifuge C
Molasses
Page | 48

The vacuum in the vacuum pan is maintained to correspond to a syrup boiling point of 75-80 C.
The vacuum occurs by a condenser and a vacuum pump placed between the vacuum pan and
the condenser.
The standard liquor (with purity of about 93%) from the vacuum pan storage tanks is pumped
to the vacuum pan. The liquor is boiled at a reduced boiling temperature until it becomes
supersaturated. To begin crystal formation, the liquor is either "shocked" using a small quantity
of powdered sugar or is "seeded" by adding a mixture of finely milled sugar (200g in 50m3 of
liquor) and isopropyl alcohol. The seed crystals are carefully grown through control of the
vacuum, temperature, feed-liquor additions, and steam. When the crystals reach the desired
size, the mixture of liquor and crystals, known as massecuite or fillmass, is discharged to the
mixer. From the mixer, the massecuite is poured into high speed centrifuges, for separation of
crystals from mother liquor.
3.15.2 Centrifugation and washing of crystals
3.15.2.1 Centrifugation
Centrifugation separates the sugar crystals from the mother liquor (liquid around the crystals)
in the massecuite by using centrifuges. A centrifuge is a machine that separates solid from
liquid by centrifugal force (FC), which is produced by high speed rotation (about 1200
revolution per minute, RPM). The FC pushes the mother liquor through the screen of the
basket. Sugar crystals are too large to pass through and retain on the screen. During
centrifuging, the mother-liquor components stay intact because the centrifugal operating has
no effect on solutions. Centrifuges with a higher FC can handle more concentrated massecuites.
In the centrifugal operation, the following factors are important:
Centrifugal force
Massecuite temperature
Massecuite concentration
The centrifugal force (FC) pushes the rotating material from the center of rotation to the side.
FC is developed by rotation (the faster the spinning, the greater the FC).
Page | 49

Massecuite is centrifuged directly after it is discharged from the pan. When crystallization is
complete, the massecuite from the pan is discharged into the mixer (a cylindrical tank with a
mixing device) to wait for the centrifuging process. When the loading step of the centrifuge
starts, the gate of the mixer is opened, and the massecuite is discharged into the centrifuge. In
the centrifuge, the massecuite is rotated in the centrifuge basket, which has a perforated wall
covered with a metal screen.
Revolution per minute of the centrifuge increases constantly to a predetermined speed to
increase the FC, which is evenly distributed over the entire height of the basket. FC pushes the
massecuite toward the baskets wall, discharging the mother liquor through the basket screen.
The sugar crystals are too large to pass through and build up a layer 150 to 180 mm (6 to 7 in.)
thick on the basket. In the meantime, most of the mother liquor, known as high-green (Agreen) syrup, is removed. However, the crystals still contain a thin layer of mother liquor and
appear yellow, so the crystals must be washed.
3.15.2.2 Washing
Sugar crystals are washed because of the following reasons:
Increase the purity of the sugar
Decrease the ash content of the sugar
Decrease the color of the sugar
For washing, wash water at about 80C is used. The amount of wash water used depends on
the type of massecuite, the sugar color, and the ash content requirements of the white sugar.
White crystals are usually washed twice, which increases the purity of the sugar and decreases
its color.
The crystals are sprayed for a few seconds with hot water, while the basket rotates at
maximum revolution per minute. During washing, the spray nozzle is moved up and down to
wash the crystals uniformly. The runoff syrup discharged during this period is directed to a
separate tank. This syrup is called wash syrup and has a higher purity than high-green syrup
Page | 50

because part of the crystals is dissolved during washing. Constant rotation continues until the
preset mass (or volume) of sugar crystals is reached.
The wash water, which contains a small quantity of sucrose, is pumped to the vacuum pans for
processing. Also the syrup that was separated from the sugar crystals in the centrifuge is serves
as feed liquor for the "second boiling" and is introduced back into the vacuum pans along with
standard liquor and recycled wash water. The process is repeated once again, resulting in the
production of molasses, which can be further desugarized using an ion exchange process called
deep molasses desugarization. Molasses that is not desugarized can be used in the production
of livestock feed or for other purposes.
As the washing process continues, more liquor and wash water pass through the basket to
achieve the desired moisture content (about 0.3%). The rotation is slowed and mechanical
brakes stop the basket. RPM decreases to discharge speed, the discharging device opens to
discharge the crystals from the machine. A plow (blade) removes all remainders of the crystals
from the basket. The wet sugar falls onto a screw conveyor, which moves the sugar to an
elevator to feed the sugar dryer. At this time, the centrifuge is ready to start the next cycle.
3.16 SUGAR DRYING AND COOLING
The wet sugar discharged from the centrifuge has moisture content of 0.1 to 1% (depending on
the amount of washing during centrifuging and the centrifuges efficiency) and a temperature
of about 60 C. This moisture is removed by drying in the sugar dryer.
The process of drying and cooling sugar consists of removing water from wet sugar to the
desired level and cooling the sugar to the norm. As wet sugar dries, the surface moisture is
actually evaporating from the sucrose solution around the crystals.
Most of the water in wet sugar is on the surface of the crystals in the form of a saturated
sucrose solution with high purity (very close to 100%) and high concentration (about 80%).
The wet sugar is dried and cooled in the sugar dryer to a moisture content of about 0.05% and a
temperature below 35C. The sugar loses more moisture and cools during transportation from
Page | 51

the dryer to the silo or in the packing station. To ensure that the sugar is safe for packing and
shipping, it is usually held for 24 to 72 hours (depending on its moisture content) under
sufficient air current with low relative humidity. During this process, known as sugar
conditioning, the sugar reaches the equilibrium moisture content, and its temperature is
reduced. The conditioned sugar has a moisture content of about 0.03%, has an ambient
temperature, and is free flowing. Sugar with such properties is safe for storing, shipping in bulk
form, or shipping in a bag.
After the wet sugar is discharged from the centrifuges, a screw conveyor, belt conveyor, or
bucket elevator moves it into the wet sugar box (bin). The wet box works as a hopper feeding
the wet sugar to the sugar dryer. In the dryer, the heat of the wet sugar usually evaporates the
water in the sugar. If the moisture content of the wet sugar is higher than normal (more than
1%), additional heat is necessary to dry the sugar.
Water exists in wet sugar in three forms:
Surface (free) moisture: Exists on the crystal surface. The surface layer contains most of
the water present in the crystal.
Interior (bound) moisture: Exists near the surface of the crystal. It takes about 24 to 72
hours for the bound moisture to escape, depending on the properties of the
conditioned air (flow rate, temperature, and relative humidity).
Inherent moisture: Exists completely inside the crystals. The amount of inherent
moisture is extremely small and is difficult to remove but does not create any problem
in packing or storing of the sugar.
Most of the moisture in wet sugar is surface moisture, so the main part of the heat is used to
vaporize surface water, which is easily removed in the dryer. Almost all the remaining moisture
left in the crystals is bound moisture present inside crystals and is removed only over time.
Therefore, the removal of bound moisture to a desired level (below 0.03%) continues during
the cooling and conditioning of the sugar.
Page | 52

Usually, the sugar is cooled to 25 to 35C, depending on the dryer-cooler availability in the plant
and the temperature of the weather. A louver dryer with a cooling zone at the last section to
cool the dried hot sugar is used.
In the rotary louver dryer, sugar crystals are in partial fluidization by the action of the louvers
mounted on a rotating drum. Air passes a heater to give the optimum conditions for drying and
then is forced by a fan into the dryer. In the dryer, the air moves upward at about 0.5 m per
second through the screen and then through the sugar, leaving at the discharge end. The
countercurrent movement of the sugar and air in the dryer prevents the dry sugar dust from
mixing with the wet crystals. The dried and cooled sugar leaves the discharge end at an inclined
angle to the air discharge.
3.17 PACKAGING AND STORAGE
After the sugar leaves the dryer, it is ordinarily screened to remove very coarse or very fine
materials, or both, and is then either sent to bulk storage, or more usually is placed in packages
suitable for distribution to the trade and stored until required.
During bulk storage, sugar conditioning is also achieved. Sugar conditioning refers to holding
sugar in a current of adequate air for a certain period after the sugar is discharged from the
dryer so that the crystals can lose their bound water and reach the equilibrium moisture
content. (Sufficient time is needed to move bound water out of the crystals.) If bound water is
not removed and sugar is stored in a place without air ventilation, caking occurs. Therefore,
sugar must be conditioned to a safe temperature (about 25C) and moisture content (about
0.03%) in the cooler or in the silo with a complete ventilation system. The properties and the
amount of airflow through the crystals are important. Conditioned air with 20 to 25C and 55 to
60% relative humidity (RH) creates the best conditioning environment and corresponds to a
sugar moisture-content of about 0.03%. In addition, the airflow rate is also important to
achieve a complete conditioning operation and prevent condensation.
Page | 53

Scales: Automatic scales are normally used for all weighing, and although they are capable of
considerable accuracy, the filled packages must be check weighed at regular intervals, and
minor adjustments made to ensure continued accuracy.
Granulated-refined (GR) sugar is packed in different sizes from a 5 g (teaspoon) bag, called a
packet (for use in restaurants and other commercial places), up to 1000 kg. In general, sugar
packs (packages) are divided into two sizes:
Industrial size: Packs more than 10 kg
Retail size: Packs up to 10 kg
Page | 54
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 MASS AND MATERIAL BALANCES
Basis: 85,000 Kg/ hr.
We have 300 working days in a year.
Analysis of beet without tare (typical washed beet)
Mass = 0.5- 2.0 kg
Density 105-1100 kg/m3
Bulk density = 650-700 kg/m3
Beet tare 2-8% on beet (OB), (Mosen Asadi 2007)
Average beet tare (non-beet material) of 5.2% is used in material balance.

4.1 STORE
The store keeps the raw beet temporarily to ensure continuity of supply to the cleaning section.
The period of storage is usually up to a maximum of 30 days. Also, temperatures are kept low
(1-30C) to avoid sugar losses due to temperature decomposition:
Sugar loss per day per ton beet (Ms)
= 140 100.0343 (Vukov, 1977)
T= temperature
Assumptions:
Sugar loss on the beet during storage amount to 1.5% OB due to microbial action
85,000 kg/hr
raw beet
S1
Store
Storage
S2
83,725 kg/hr
raw beet
Page | 55
Table 4. 1 Mass balance for storage section

Components
Input (kg/hr)
Output (kg/hr)
Stream
S1
S2
Raw beet
85,000
83,725
4.2 DRY SCREENING

In dry screening, the beets are pre-cleaned without using water just before being washed in the
beet washer. The purpose of this station is to remove any beet tare (Stones, sand and part of
the soil) that could otherwise enter the flume system and the beet washer with the beets so
that less wash water is needed later in the beet-washing process.
Assumptions:
1.7% OB containing stones, sand and soil are removed.
83,725 kg/hr
raw beet
S2
S3
Dry screening
82,302 kg/hr
raw beet
S4
1,423 kg/hr Stones
Table 4. 2 Mass balance around dry screener

Components
Input (kg/hr)
Output (kg/hr)
Stream
S2
S3
S4
Raw beet
83,725
82,302
Stones, Sand & Soil
1,423
Total
83,725
82,302
1,423
Page | 56

4.3 FLUME
The fluming system uses wet system (water) to transport beets from the dry screening area to
the next station (stone and trash separation).
Assumption:
Sugar loss of 0.4% OB to water (Fort Collins, 1982)
400% OB of water is introduced in the flume (Fort Collins, 1982)
82,302 kg/hr
raw beet
S3
329,208 kg/hr
Water
Raw beet = 82,302 kg/hr
Flume
Flume
Purit
y =S
5
60%
Purit
S6
Water = 329,620 kg/hr

Total = 411510 kg/hr
y=
100
Table 4. 3%Mass balance around flume
Components
Input (kg/hr)
Output (kg/hr)
Stream
S3
S5
S6
Raw beet
82,302
81,890
Water
329,208
329,620
Total
82,302
329,208
411,510
4.4 STONE SEPARATOR

The mixture of beets and water in the flume goes through the stone separator for removing
stones. These coarse impurities must be removed completely to prevent damage to the beet
slicers.
Assumptions:
1 % OB of stones is removed
S6
Stone separator

Total = 411,922 kg/hr
S8
S7

Stones = 1,232 kg/hr

Page | 57

Table 4. 4 Mass balance around stone separator
Components
Stream
Raw beet
Water
Stones
Total
Input (kg/hr)
S6
82,302
329,620
411,922
Output (kg/hr)
S7
S8
81,070
329,620
1,232
410,690
1,232
4.5 TRASH SEPARATOR

A trash separator removes trash (sugar beet leaves and weeds) flowing with the beets.
Assumptions:
0.5% OB of trash is removed
Water=329,620kg/hr
Water=329,620kg/hr
S7
Beet=81,070kg/hr
Trash separator
S9
Total=410,690kg/hr
Beet=80,644kg/hr
Total=410,284kg/hr
S10
Trash=406
kg/hr
Table 4. 5 Mass balance around trash separator

Components
Input(kg/hr)
Output(kg/hr)
Streams
S6
S8
S9
Beet
81,070
80,664
Water
329,620
329,620
Trash
406
Total
410,690
410,284
406
4.6 WASHER
The beets are lifted from the fluming channel to feed the beet washer for the second last
Cleaning. Soil and clay stuck on the beets, and sand are washed away. Beet washing also
removes most of the microbes coming with the beet.
Page | 58

Assumptions:
2.1 % OB of tare is removed.
10 % OB of water is left with the material exiting the washer.

Water=7,921 kg/hr
Water=329,620kg/hr
S9
Beet=80,644kg/hr
S11
Washer
Beet=79,211 kg/hr
Total=87,132 kg/hr
Total=410,284kg/hr
S12
Mud, small beet particle &
small trashes= 1,453 kg/hr
Water= 321,699 kg/hr
Total= 323,152kg/hr
Table 4. 6 Mass balance around washer

Components
Input(kg/hr)
Streams
S9
S11
S12
Beet
80,664
79,211
Water
329,620
7,921
321,699
1453
410,284
87,132
323,152
Tare+ beet particles

Total
Output(kg/hr)
4.7 DEWATERING SCREEN

The main job of dewatering screen is to supply the slicing station with a steady flow of clean
beets. At this station fresh water is introduced resulting in further removal of soil and clay on
beet.
Assumptions:
Page | 59
150% OB of fresh water is introduced into the dewatering screen.
98% of the water from the washer station is removed
0.3% OB of tare (mud and small trashes) and small beet particles are removed from the
incoming beet.
Fresh water= 118817 kg/hr
S13
Water=158 kg/hr
Water=7921 kg/hr
Beet=79,211 kg/hr
S11
Dewatering screen
S14
Beet=78,973 kg/hr
Total=87,131 kg/hr
Total=87,132 Kg/hr
S15
Mud, small beet particle & small
trashes= 238 kg/hr
Discharge water= 126580 kg/hr
Total= 126,518kg/hr
Table 4. 7 Mass balance around dewatering screen

Components
Streams
Beet
Water
Fresh water
Discharge water
Tare+ beet particles
Total
Input (kg/hr)
S11
79,211
7,921
87,132
S13
118,817
118,817
Output(kg/hr)
S14
S15
78,973
158
126,580
238
79,131
126,518
Page | 60

4.8 CHIP SEPARATOR
In the chip separator small, broken particles of beets that could not be separated in the earlier
stages of operation are recovered. Water discharged from the washer and dewatering screen is
pumped through a chip separator with 0.2mm screen where small, broken particles are
retained.
Assumptions:
Chip separator has an efficiency of 90%

99.9% of water is removed
Water= 321,699Kg/hr
Tare + small beet particles=1453 Kg/hr
Total = 323,152 Kg/hr
S12
Tare+ small beet

particle = 238 Kg/hr
Discharge water=
126580 Kg/hr
Water=448 Kg/hr
S15
S16
Chip separator
Tare + small beet

particles= 1,691 Kg/hr
S17
Beet=1,522 Kg/hr
Total=1970 Kg/hr
Total= 126,518 Kg/hr

Water= 448,279 Kg/hr
S18

Tare + small beet particles= 169 Kg/hr
Water= 447,831 Kg/hr
Page | 61
Table 4. 8 Mass balance around chip separator

Components
Streams
Water
Tare+ small beet
particles.
Broken beet
Total
S12
321,699
1,453
Input(kg/hr)
S15
126,580
238
S16
448,279
1,691
323,153
323,153
449,970
Output(kg/hr)
S17
S18
448
447,831
169
1,522
1,970
480,000
4.9 SLICER
In the slicing station, a belt conveyor continuously delivers clean beets from the beet washer to
the beet hopper (a cone-shaped container) that feeds the beets to the slicers. The main
function of the beet-slicing operation is to improve the diffusion operation and the removal of
sucrose from the beets. The beets are reduced to small sizes known as cossettes of uniform
width, 4 mm thick and 40 mm long (Mosen Asadi, 2007).
Assumption:
Negligible mass loss of beet

Water= 448kg/hr
Beet =1,522kg/hr
Total = 1,970 kg/hr
S17
Water=606 kg/hr
S14
S19
Water= 158kg/hr
Water= 606 kg/hr
Beet =78,973kg/hr
Beet =80,495 kg/hr
Slicer
Slicer
S20
Cossettes=80,495 kg/hr
Total=81,101 kg/hr
Page | 62

Table 4. 9 Mass balance around slicer
Components
Streams
Water
Beet
cossettes
Total
S14
158
78,973
79,131
Input(kg/hr)
S17
448
1,522
1,970
S19
606
80,495
81,101
Output(kg/hr)
S20
606
80,495
81,101
4.10 DIFFUSER
In diffusion station, the sliced beets are kept in contact with hot water (70C) for about an hour
to diffuse the juice from the beet cells. The hot water is introduced counter currently. As water
moves ahead, it collects sugar (sucrose) and non-sugar (non-sucrose) from the cossettes and
become a concentrated impure sucrose solution known as diffusion juice. Also in this station
the following are added:
Sulphur (iv) oxide
Calcium chloride
Antifoaming agent
Assumptions (Mosen Asadi, 2007):
Diffusion juice contains 85% water and 15 % dry substance (DS)
The dry substance consists of 86.5% sucrose, 1.0 % insolubles and 12.5 % non-sucrose.
100g/ton. Of antifoaming agent is added.
0.23kg/ton. Of SO2 is added.
0.125% OB of CaCl2 is added
96% of sucrose is removed based on 15% sucrose content in cossettes.
Diffusion water content is based on the following formula

. = . +
Where:
Mc=Mass of cossettes
MDIFF.J =Mass of diffusion juice (18.4%OB)
MPP=Mass of pressed pulp (111% OB)
Page | 63

Diffusion water=
23665 kg/hr
Wet pulp Water=63, 583 kg/hr

Dry substance= 1,298 kg/hr
S24
CaCl2=100 kg/hr
Total= 64,881 kg/hr
S23
SO2= 24 kg/hr
S28
S25
S21
Water=75,947 kg/hr
Sucrose=11,593 kg/hr
Cossettes= 80,495 kg/hr
S26
Diffuser
S20
Water= 606 kg/hr
Non sucrose=1,675 kg/hr

Insolubles = 134 kg/hr
Total= 81,101 kg/hr
S22
Total= 89,349 kg/hr
S27
Anti foaming
agent=8 kg/hr
Wet pulp Water=72,388 kg/hr

Dry substance= 8,043 kg/hr
Total= 80,431 kg/hr
Table 4. 10 Mass balance around diffuser

Components
Input(kg/hr)
Streams
S20
S21
S22
S23
Output(kg/hr)
S24
S28
S26
S27
Cossettes
80,495
Water
606
75,947
SO2
24
Antifoaming
agent
CaCl2
100
100
Diffusion water
23,665
23,665
Wet pulp water
63,583
72,388
Dry substance
1,298
8,043
Sucrose
11,593
Non sucrose
1,673
Insolubles
134
Total
81,101
24
23,665
100
23,765
64,881
89,349
80,431
Page | 64

4.11PULP PROCESSING
In this section, the quantity of water in the pulp emanating from the diffuser is reduced.
Assumptions:
The quantity of water is reduced from 90% to 60% (Mosen Asadi, 2007).
DS = 1,298 kg/hr
S28
DS = 8,043 kg/hr
S27
Wat
er =
63,5
83
S29
Pulp Processing
Water = 8,805 kg/hr

DS = 6,745 kg/hr
DS =
129
8
Table 4. 11 Mass balance for pulp processing

Components
Stream
Water
Dry substance (DS)
Total
Tot
Input
al = (kg/hr)
648 S27
81 72,388
S28
S29
63,583
8,805
8,043
1,298
6,745
64,881
15,550
S27
S2780,431
Output (kg/hr)
4.12 JUICE PURIFIER

Juice purification is used to remove certain non-sugars, suspended particles and colloids from
the juice to produce a high purity, colloidal-free and low-color juice with minimum hardness. In
the juice-purification station, the thin juice goes through liming followed by carbonation
substations.
Page | 65

4.12.1 Liming
Milk of lime (MOL) is added to the heated diffusion juice to precipitate and destabilize the
nonsugars.
35% of non-sugars is removed
4% OB of milk of lime is used
Invert sugars forms the major fraction of the nonsugars removed.

Water= 75,947 kg/hr
Sucrose= 11,593 kg/hr
Non sucrose= 1,675
kg/hr
Insoluble= 134 kg/hr
Total= 89,349 Kg/hr
Water=
S26 75,947 kg/hr
MOL= 536 kg/hr
S30
Water= 76,181 kg/hr
Non sucrose= 1,675

kg/hr
S31
Non-sucrose= 1,089
kg/hr
Total= 89,349 kg/hr
Liming
MOL= 55 kg/hr
Total= 89,885 kg/hr
Table 4. 12 Mass balance for liming

Components
Input (kg/hr)
Output (kg/hr)
Stream
S26
S30
S31
Water
75,947
76,181
Sucrose
11,593
11,593
Non-sucrose
1,675
1,089
Insoluble
134
967
Milk of lime
536
55
Total
89,349
536
89,885
Page | 66

4.12.2 Carbonation
CO2 is added to diffusion juice to precipitate excess lime and adjust pH and the alkalinity of the
juice
Assumptions:
0.7 % OB( to purification section) CO2 is used

CO2= 94 kg/hr
Water= 76,181 kg/hr
S32
Water= 76,194 kg/hr

Non sucrose= 1,089 kg/hr
S31
Carbonation
Sucrose= 11,593kg/hr
S33
Insolubles= 967 kg/hr
Insolubles= 1,041 kg/hr
MOL= 55 kg/hr
S34
Total= 89,885 kg/hr
Total= 89,917 kg/hr
CO2= 62 kg/hr
Table 4. 13 Mass balance for carbonator

Components
Input (kg/hr)
Output (kg/hr)
Stream
S31
S32
S33
S34
Water
76,181
76,194
Sucrose
11,593
11,593
Non-sucrose
1,089
1,089
Insoluble
967
1,041
Milk of lime
55
CO2
94
62
Total
89,885
94
89,917
62
4.13 FILTRATION
After the first and second carbonations, the precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC) and nonsucrose substances (non-sugars) are filtered to produce clear juice, known as thin juice.
In the filtration section, the raw juice is passed through membrane filter press followed by
rotary drum filter which brings about the separation of PCC and non-sugars from clear juice.
Page | 67

Assumptions:
The carbonation lime residues produced by filter press contains 70% solid content and
that produced by rotary drum filters has about 50% solid content.
Negligible amount of sucrose and non-sucrose are lost during filtration.
Water= 76,194 kg/hr

S33
Insolubles= 1,041 kg/hr
Rotary
drum
Water= 76,194 kg/hr
Water= 76,194 kg/hr
Total= 89,188 kg/hr
S35
Total= 89,136 kg/hr
Filter
press
S37
Total= 89,917 kg/hr
S36
S38
Table 4. 14 Mass balance for filter system

Components
Input (kg/hr)
Output (kg/hr)
Stream
S33
S35
S36
S37
S38
Water
76,070
76,194
76,194
Sucrose
11,593
11,593
11,593
Non sucrose
1,089
1,089
1,089
Insolubles
1,041
312
729
156
156
Total
89,917
89,188
729
89,032
156
4.14 EVAPORATOR
This is unit is the heat center and is concerned with concentrating the thin juice.
Assumptions:
In this operation, thin juice with about 15% dry substance (DS) is concentrated to
produce a thickened juice with about 60% DS. (Mosen Asadi, 2007)
Page | 68
Scale formation is negligible, hence no loss of non-sucrose content of thin juice.
No sugar loss during evaporation

S40

Sucrose = 11,593 kg/hr
Non-sucrose = 1,089 kg/hr
Water = 8,559 kg/hr

S39
S41
Evaporator
Evaporator
Evaporator
Insoluble = 156kg/hr
Insoluble = 156 kg/hr
Total =89,032 kg/hr
Total = 21,397kg/hr
Table 4. 15 Mass balance on evaporator

Component
Input (kg/hr)
Output (kg/hr)
Stream
S39
S40
S41
Water
76,194
67,635
8,559
Sucrose
11,593
11,593
Non-sucrose
1,089
1,089
Insoluble
156
156
Total
89,032
67,635
21,397
4.15 CRYSTALLIZER
The crystallizer carries a mass transfer of sugar molecules from the syrup to the solid particles
to form crystals. Crystallization system involves both the boiling system and the centrifuging.
4.15.1 Boiler system
Boiling concentrates the syrup under vacuum (at about 74C) to the desired DS and supersaturation for seeding.
Page | 69
95% water is lost in the evaporation in the boiler
No sugar losses in the process
Amount of seeding is negligible
Purity of crystals attained is 100%

Water = 8,131 kg/hr.
Water = 8,559 kg/hr
Water 428 kg/hr
S42
S41
Non-sucrose = 1,089 kg/hr.
S43
Boiling Pan
Non-sucrose = 1,089 kg/hr.
Table 4. 16 Mass balance around boiling pan

Component
Input (kg/hr)
Output (kg/hr)
Streams
S41
S42
S43
Water
8,559
8,131
428
Sucrose
11,593
11,593
non-sucrose
1,089
1,089
insoluble
156
156
Total
21,397
8,131
13,266
4.15.2 Centrifuge
The centrifugal station is used to separates the sugar crystals from the mother liquor (liquid
around the crystals) in the massecuite by using centrifuges .
Molasses purity is 58%
3% (per weight of massecuite) wash water is used.
82% 0f crystals are separated.

Page | 70
11% of water remains with the sugar crystals
Water = 398kg/hr
Water 428 kg/hr
S45

S44
Centrifuge
S46
Water = 91 kg/hr
Total =9,624 kg/hr
S47

Molasses

Water = 735kg/hr
Non- sucrose =1,089 kg/hr
Total = 4,040 kg/hr
Table 4. 17 Mass balance around centrifuge

Component
Input (kg/hr)
Output (kg/hr)
Stream
S44
S45
S46
S47
Water
428
398
91
735
Sucrose
11,593
9,533
2,060
Non-sucrose
1,089
1,089
Insoluble
156
156
Total
13,266
398
9,624
4,040
Page | 71

4.16 DRYER
In this unit, the moisture content of sugar is reduced to about 0.05% (Mosen Asadi, 2007)
Water vapour = 46 kg/hr
S48

Water= 91kg/hr
S46
Total= 9,624 kg/hr
S46
Dryer
Dryer
S49
S49
Table 4. 18 Mass balance around dryer

Component
Output (kg/hr)
Stream
S46
Water= 45 kg/hr
Total= 9,578 kg/hr
Total = 9,578 Kg/hr

Water = 45 kg/hr
Output (kg/hr)
S48
S49
Total = 9,578 kg/hr
Water
91
46
45
Sucrose
9,533
9,533
Total
9,624
46
9,578
Page | 72
5.0 ENTHALPY BALANCES

5.1 ASSUMPTIONS
A reference temperature of 25 is used in the analysis
Correlation for the heat capacity of water as a function of temperature is given:

1 . = 32.243 + 19.239 104 + 10.555 106 2 3.59 109 3
Steam for heating is available at 4 bar ( low pressure boiler)

Latent heat steam at 4 bar = 2133.40 kJ/kg.
The heat capacity of the streams do not vary with temperature
The specific heat of the juice is calculated using the dry substance of the juice (DS juice)
based on the formula below:
, = 4.187 (1 0.006 ) /.
Enthalpy changes associated with precipitation reaction is negligible

5.2 DIFFUSER
In this unit, the sliced beets are kept in contact with hot water (700C) for about an hour to
diffuse the juice from the beet cells. The hot water is introduced counter currently.
Cp of thin juice = 4.1832 kJ/kg.
Cp of diffusion water = 4.187 kJ/kg.
Cp of wet pulp = 4.184 kJ/kg.
Sensible heat loss = 0.04%
Steam (140C)
7,802 kg/hr
Cossettes (25C)
81,101 kg/hr
Diffuser water (70C)

23,266 kg/hr
Thin juice (70C)

89,349 kg/hr
Diffuser
Wet pulp (70)

80,431 kg/hr
Pulp water (70C)
80,431 kg/hr
Pulp water (65C)

64,881 kg/hr
Steam (140C)
7,802 kg/hr
QL
Page | 73

Table 5. 1 Enthalpy balance around diffuser
Components
Input (kJ/hr)
Output (kJ/hr)
Cossettes
Thin juice
16,819,413
Diffusion water
4,458,840
Wet pulp
15,143,548
Pulp water
10,864,972
Heat supplied by steam
16,645,808
Losses
6,658
Total
31,969,620
31,969,620
5.3 HEAT EXCHANGER 1

This unit is used to raise the temperature of thin diffusion juice from 70C to 86C for optimal
liming process.
Cp of thin juice = 4.187 kJ/kg.
Losses=0.06%
Steam in (140)
3,011.91kg/hr
Thin juice (70)

89,349 kg/hr
Heat Exchanger 1
QL
Thin juice (86)

89,349 kg/hr
Steam condensate (80)

3,011 kg/hr
Table 5. 2 Enthalpy balance around Heat Exchanger 1

Components
Thin juice
Heat provided by steam
Losses
Total
Input (kJ/hr)
16,819,413
7,182,250
24,001,663
Output (kJ/hr)
23,997,354
4,309
24,001,663

This unit is used to raise temperature from 86C to 90C for optimal carbonation process.
Page | 74

Cp of water = 4.187 KJ/kg.
Cp of thin juice = 4.1832 KJ/kg.
Losses = 0.04 %
Steam (140C)
954 kg/hr
Heat Exchanger 2
Thin juice (86C)

89,032 kg/hr
Thin juice (900C)

89,032 kg/hr
QL
Condensate steam (90)

954 kg/hr

Component
Thin juice
Heat provided by steam
Losses
Total
Input (kJ/hr)
21,973,881
2,235,526
24,209,407
Output (kJ/hr)
24,208,513
594
24,209,407
5.5 EVAPORATOR
This is unit is the heating center and is concerned with concentrating the thin juice. In this
operation, thin juice with about 15% dry substance (DS) is concentrated to produce a thickened
juice with about 60% DS.
In this unit, the temperature of the diffusion is raised from 90C to 130C by using saturated
steam at 4 bars from the low pressure boiler. Saturated steam at 140C was used.
Saturated steam in (140C)
77,472 kg/hr
Thin juice (90C)

89,032 kg/hr
Evaporated water = 67,635 kg/hr
Thick juice (130C)

21,397 kg/hr
Evaporator
QL
Steam condensate out (140C)
77,472 kg/hr
Page | 75
Table 5.4 Enthalpy balance around the Evaporator

Component
Input (kJ/hr)
Output (kJ/hr)
Diffusion Juice
24,208,513
9,372,945
Evaporated water
180,998,023
Steam
166,162,455
Total
190,370,968
190,370,968
= 166,162,456 kJ/hr
=
166,162,456
=
= 77,472 /
( )
2144.8

This unit reduces the temperature from 130C to 90C to facilitate the decolourization process
and to stop milliard reactions which lead to colour formation.
Losses = 0.04%
Cp of thick juice = 4.1719 kJ/kg. C
Cooling water (25C)
15,379 kg/hr
Thin juice (130C)

21,397 kg/hr
Exchanger 3
QL
Thick juice (90C)

21,397 kg/hr
Cooling water out (80)

15,379 kg/hr
Page | 76

Component
Input (kJ/hr)
Output (kJ/hr)
Thick Juice
9,372,945
5,829,837
Cooling water
3,541,690
Losses
1,417
Total
9,372,945
9,372,945

This unit reduces the temperature further to 60C to avoid melanization reaction which leads to
brown colour formation.
Losses = 0.04%
Cp of thick juice = 4.1719 kJ/kg.C
Cooling water (25C)
18,268.18 kg/hr
Thick juice (90C)

21,397 kg/hr
Heat
Exchanger 4
QL
Thick juice (60C)

21,397 kg/hr
Cooling water (60C)

18,268.18 kg/hr
Table 5. 6 Enthalpy balance around Heat Exchanger 4.

Component
Thick Juice
Cooling water
Losses
Total
Input (kJ/hr)
5,802,299
0
5,802,299
Output (kJ/hr)
3,124,315
2,676,377
1,606
5,802,299
Page | 77

5.8 CRYSTALLIZATION
5.8.1 Boiling pan
Boiling concentrates the syrup under vacuum (at about 74C) to the desired DS and supersaturation for seeding.
Solubility of sucrose (at 90% purity and 74C) = 3.36 kg sucrose/kg water
Heat of crystallization = 136.36 kJ/kg (Kilmartin and Van Hook, 1950)
Losses = 0.04%
Hv, latent heat of vaporization of steam at 74C = 2635.3 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of steam in at 140C = 2733.9 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of steam condensate out at 140C = 589.1 kJ/kg
Cp of massecuite = 4.1627 kJ/kg. C
Saturate steam (140C)
9,153.47 kg/hr
Standard liquor (60C)

21,397 kg/hr
Boiling pan
QL
Evaporated water (74C)

8131 kg/hr
Massecuite (74C)
13266 kg/hr
Steam condensate (140C)

9,153.47 kg/hr
Page | 78

Table 5. 7 Enthalpy balance around a boiling pan
Component
Standard liquor
Massecuite
Evaporated water
Crystals
Steam
Losses
Total
Input (kJ/h)
3,124,315.05
1,384,691.04
19,632,367.69
24,141,373.78
Output (kJ/h)
2,705,896.53
21,427,624.30
7,852.95
24,141,373.78
5.8.2 Centrifuge
The centrifugal station is used to separates the sugar crystals from the mother liquor (liquid
around the crystals) in the massecuite by using centrifuges.
Cp of massecuite = 4.162 kJ/kg.
Cp of molasses = 1.775 kJ/kg. (Rovillard E. E. A, 1985)
Cp of wash water = 4.187 kJ/kg.
Cp of wet sugar (Bubnik et al., 1995)
= 4.187 0.0297 4.6 105 + 7.5 105
Where: DS = Dry substance content (for pure sucrose solutions, DS = S)
T = temperature ()
P = purity (for solutions P=100)
Cp of sucrose = 2.15 kJ/kg.
Wash water (80)
398kg/hr
Massecuite (74)
13,266 kg/hr
QL
Centrifuge
Sugar (60)
9,624 kg/hr
Molasses (60)
4,040 kg/hr
Page | 79
Table 5. 8 Enthalpy balance around Centrifuge

Component
Massecuite
Wash water
Sugar
Molasses
Losses
Total
Input (kJ/hr)
2,705,896
91,653
2,797,549
Output (kJ/hr)
1,723,050
1,046,523
27,975
2,797,549
5.9 DRYER
In this unit, the moisture content of sugar is reduced to about 0.05% (Mosen Asadi, 2007)
Cp, Air= 1.006 kJ/kg.
Cp, Sugar =2.15 kJ/kg.
Latent heat of vaporization of water = 2140 kJ/kg.
Losses = 0.004%
Hot air + water vapour (80C)
15,021 kg/hr
Wet sugar (60C)

9,624 kg/hr
Dryer
QL
Dry sugar (70C)

7,579 kg/hr
Hot air (80C)

14,975 kg/hr
Table 5. 9 Enthalpy balance around the Dryer

Components
Wet sugar
Hot air
Dry sugar
Water vapour
Losses
Total
Input (kJ/hr)
72,4206
1,129,863
1,854,070
Output(kJ/hr)
826,566
926,768
98,716
121
1,854,070
Page | 80
CHAPTER SIX
6.0 EQUIPMENT SIZING AND SPECIFICATION
The sizing and specification of various equipment used in beet sugar processing plant, are
shown in the table below.
Table 6. 1 Equipment Specifications
1. Hopper
2. Belt conveyor 1
Equipment code
Service
Type
Material
Capacity
Length
Width
Height
Number
Equipment code
Service
Belt width
Belt inclined length
Belt speed
Material
3. Screen 1
4. Stone Separator
Belt inclination
Driver motor type
Equipment code
Service
Type
Length
Width
Material
Screen action
Equipment code
Service
Type
Length of chain
Width
Height
H1
Temporal storage of sugar beets.
Wedged shaped with elongated outlet.
Stainless steel
23.6 m3
12.4m
6.5m
3.8m
1
BC1
Conveying raw sugar beets from the
hopper to the screen.
0.5m
6m
9.2m/s
Two-ply polyester fabric with
polyurethane.
40
0.25 HP shaft-mounted gear motor
SR1
Removal of loose soil and small stones
from the sugar beet.
Screener-Rectangular Deck
3.8m
1.5m
Stainless steel 304
Vibratory/screen action
SS
Separation of large stones(rocks) from
sugar beets
Bucket stone separator
4.75m
1.25m
1.88m
Page | 81
5. Trash Separator
6. Beet pump
7. Washer
8. Screen 2
9. Belt conveyor 2
Material
Size of the opening
Equipment code
Service
Type
Material
Length of chain
Speed of the chain
Equipment code
Service
Type
Power
Material
Equipment code
Service
Type
Material
Capacity
Diameter
Length
Arm speed
Equipment code:
Service
Type
Material
Length
Width
Equipment code
Service
Belt width
Belt speed
Material
10. Screen 3
Belt inclination
Driver motor type
Equipment code
Service
Type
Carbon steel
0.1m
TS
Removal of trash flowing with the
beets.
Rake trash separator
Carbon Steel
7.5m
0.2m/s
BP
Pumping of the flume from the trash
separator to the beet washer
Rotary lobe pump
50.1 kWhr/tone feed
Cast iron
WS
Removal of the soil stuck on the beets.
Arm washer
Carbon Steel
34.36m3
2.5m
7m
5 rpm
SR2
Separation of beets from water and
sprinkling with clean water.
Screen-Rectangular Deck
Stainless steel
2.5m
1.5m
BC2
Conveying of beets from the
dewatering screens to the slicer.
0.5m
7m
8.8m/s
polyurethane.
30
SR3
Recovery of broken beets.
Page | 82
11. Belt conveyor 3
Material
Length
Width
Screen action
Equipment code
Service
Belt width
Belt speed
Material
12. Slicer
13. Belt conveyor 4
14. Diffuser
Belt inclination
Driver motor type
Equipment code
Service
Type
Slicing capacity
Number of knives
boxes
Number of knives per
box
Length of knives
Width of knives
Material
Equipment code
Service
Belt width
Belt speed
Material
Belt inclination
Driver motor type
Equipment code
Service
Type
Description
Stainless steel
2.5m
1.5m
Vibratory/shaking action
BC3
Conveying recovered broken beets
from recovery screens to belt conveyor
2.
0.5m
5m
8.8m/s
polyurethane.
30
SL
Cutting of beets into long, thin
strips(cossettes)
Drum slicer
3200 tonnes/day
22
6
200mm
5.6mm
Stainless steel
BC4
Conveying the cossettes to the diffuser
1m
8m
100m/min.
polyurethane cover.
20
DF
Contacting of sliced beets with hot
water to diffuse the juice out of the
beet cells.
Sliver-DDS slope diffuser
U-shaped vessel, inclined to the
horizontal, with two rotating
horizontal screws.
Page | 83
15. Heat Exchanger 1
17. Lime Tank
Inclination
Speed of screw
Capacity
Material
Equipment code
Service
Type
Equivalent length
Equivalent width
Area
Number of plates
Material for plate
Material for frame
Equipment code
Service
Type
Equivalent length
Equivalent width
Area
Number of plates
Material for plate
Material for frame
Equipment code
Service
Type
Holding time
Capacity
Diameter
Height
Material
Number
Equipment code
Service
Type
Equivalent length
Equivalent width
Area
Number of plates
11
0.9 rpm
2,145 tonnes/day
Carbon steel
HE1
Raising the temperature of diffusion
water to 70C
Plate and frame
1.2m
0.5m
70 m2
400
Stainless steel 316
Carbon steel
HE2
Raising the temperature from 70C to
86C for optimal liming process.
Plate and frame
1.5m
0.5m
80m2
501
Stainless steel 316
Carbon steel
LT
Addition of milk of lime to heated
diffusion juice to precipitate and
destabilize the non sugars.
Dome topped with a stirrer
30 minutes
26.39m3
2.56m
5.51m
Stainless steel
2
HE3
Raising the temperature from 86C to
90C for optimal carbonation.
Plate and frame
1m
0.5m
50m2
334
Page | 84
19. Carbonation Tank
20. Rotary Drum Filter
22. Press Filter
Material for plate

Material for frame
Equipment code
Service
Type
Holding time
Capacity
Diameter
Height
Material
Number
Equipment code
Service
Area
Diameter
Height
Material
Number
Equipment code
Service
Type
Equivalent length
Equivalent width
Area
Number of plates
Material for plate
Material for frame
Number
Equipment code
Service
Area
Thickness of frame
Number of frames
Filtration time
Number of plates
Flow rate
Material for plate
and frame
Material for rack
Material for filter
Stainless steel 316

Carbon steel
CT1
Addition of CO2 to the diffusion juice.
45 minutes
23.86m3
2.4m
4.8m
Stainless steel
3
RDF
Removal of mud from thin diffusion
juice.
23.52m2
2m
3.74m
Carbon steel
3
HE4
Maintaining temperature at 90C for
optimal second carbonation process.
Plate and frame
1.3m
0.5m
70m2
402
Stainless steel 316
Carbon steel
2
PF
Removal of solid particles to produce a
clear thin juice (safety filtration).
12m2
20mm
6
3136 seconds
402
0.0235 m3/s
AISI 321 Stainless steel
Polypropyrene
Page | 85
23. Sulphitation Tank
23. Syrup Tank 1
24. Evaporator
25. Syrup Tank 2
26. Melter
cloth
Number
Equipment code
Service
Type
Holding time
Capacity
Diameter
Height
Material
Number
Equipment code
Service
Type
Holding time
Capacity
Diameter
Height
Material
Number
Equipment code
Service
Type
Area
Capacity
Capacity per effect
Material
Equipment code
Service
Type
Holding time
Capacity
Diameter
Height
Material
Number
Equipment code
Service
Type
Holding time
Capacity
Length
2
ST
Addition of SO2 for decolourization.
Dome topped with agitator
45 minutes
23.54m3
2.465m
5m
Stainless steel
1
SYT1
Holding of thin diffusion juice
temporarily.
Dome topped
20 minutes
14.5m3
3m
6m
Stainless steel
1
EV
Concentration of the thin juice.
Four effect evaporator
47.26m2
14.5m3
17,806.4 kg/hr
Stainless steel
SYT2
Holding thick juice temporarily
Dome topped
30 minutes
14.5m3
1.35m
5.4m
Stainless steel
2
MLT
Dissolving intermediate sugar crystals.
Cuboidal shaped
30 minutes
14.5m3
2.4m
Page | 86
27. Boiling Pan
28. Mixer
29. Centrifuge
30. Screw Conveyor 1
Width
Height
Material
Number
Equipment code
Service
Type
Area
Capacity
Capacity per effect
Material
Equipment code
Service
Type
Holding time
Capacity
Diameter
Height
Material
Number
Equipment code
Service
Type
Speed
Loading capacity per
cycle
Diameter
Height
Material
Number
Equipment code
Service
Type
Speed
Conveying length
Spiral diameter
Screw speed
Standard power
Material
Equipment code
2.4m
2.4m
Stainless steel
1
BP
Concentrating syrup under vacuum.
Vacuum boiling pan
26.45m2
14.5m3
7,132.3 kg/hr
Stainless steel
MX
Holding thick juice temporarily
Dome topped tank with agitator.
20 minutes
8.5m3
1.75m
3.5m
Stainless steel
3
CF
Separation of sugar crystals from
mother liquor
Continuous centrifuge.
1200 rpm
2000 kg
1m
1.25m
Stainless steel
3
SC1
Conveying of high green syrup from
the first centrifuge to the second
boiling pan
LS screw conveyor.
1200 rpm
2.5m
0.2m
50 rpm
1.5 kW/2 HP
Stainless steel AISI 304
SC2
Page | 87

Service
34. Feeder
Type
Speed
Conveying length
Spiral diameter
Screw speed
Standard power
Material
Equipment code
Service
Type
Speed
Conveying length
Spiral diameter
Screw speed
Standard power
Material
Equipment code
Service
Type
Speed
Conveying length
Spiral diameter
Screw speed
Standard power
Material
Equipment code
Service
Area
Diameter
Cylinder height
Height of bottom
frustrum
35. Rotary dryer
Equipment code
Service
Area
Diameter
Conveying of low green syrup from the

second centrifuge to the third boiling
pan
LS screw conveyor.
50 rpm
2.5m
0.2m
50 rpm
1.5 kW/2 HP
SC3
Conveying of molasses from the third
centrifuge to the molasses exhaustion
unit.
LS screw conveyor.
50 rpm
2.5m
0.2m
50 rpm
1.5 kW/2 HP
SC4
Conveying of sugar from the first
centrifuge to the rotary drum dryer.
LS screw conveyor.
75 rpm
8m
0.3m
75rpm
1.5 kW/2 HP
FD
Directing and controlling flow of sugar
to the dryer.
1.03m2
1.15m
4.6m
1m
RD
Reducing moisture content of sugar.
35.03m2
2.06m
Page | 88
38. Screen 4
Length
Retention time
Solid hold up
Height of flights
Width of flights
Number of flights
Peripheral speed of
the shell
Shell thickness
Drum orientation
Equipment code
Service
Type
Area
Length
Shell diameter
Tube diameter
Material
Equipment code
Service
Type
Speed
Conveying length
Spiral diameter
Standard power
Material
Equipment code:
Service
Type
Length
Width
Inclination
Rate of sugar
movement
Screen action
Material
10.51m
15.71 minutes
9%
0.2575m
0.1262m
13
4.06rpm
11.56mm
4
HE5
Raising temperature of air to 100C
Shell and tube
16.65m2
8m
171mm
15.75mm
Stainless steel
SC5
Conveying of dried sugar to the size
separation screens.
LS screw conveyor.
70 rpm
10m
0.25m
1.5 kW/2 HP
SR4
Separating oversized and undersized
sugar particles.
4m
2m
40
1.4m/s
Vibratory/shaking action
Stainless steel
Page | 89
CHAPTER SEVEN
7.0 EQUIPMENT DESIGN
7.1 DESIGN OF A ROTARY DRUM DRYER BY MOSE O. LAMECK- CPE/41/08
7.1.1 INTRODUCTION
Drying
Drying of solids is the removal of relatively small amount of water or other liquids in the solid;
so as to reduce the amount of liquid to an acceptable low value. Drying is usually done prior to
the packaging after the final overall process.
The removal of the liquid from the solids by drying is achieved by thermal vaporization. In
contrast to the vaporization where liquid is removed by boiling; thermal vaporization uses air to
remove water in the form of vapour.
Drying is usually governed by the principle of transport of heat and mass. When a moist solid is
heated to an appropriate temperature, moisture vaporizes at or near the solid surface and the
heat required (sensible heat and heat of vaporization) for drying is usually supplied by a hot
gas. As soon as some of the surface moisture vaporizes, more moisture is transported from
inside the solid to its surface. Moisture can be removed from within a solid by a variety of
mechanisms depending upon the nature and type of the solid and its state of agglomeration.
The mechanism of moisture transport in different solids may be broadly classified into:
transport by capillary forces
liquid diffusion
pressure induced transport
vapour diffusion
The mechanism that dominates depends on the nature of the solid, its pore structure and the
rate of drying. In granular solids like sugar, moisture transport occurs due to capillary forces so
long as there is enough moisture on the bulk of the solid.
Page | 90

Drying of sugar
The deterioration of sugar is retarded and the loss in the test is reduced if the moisture content
of the sugar is reduced. The water content of raw sugar is generally within the range 0.5-2%.
Within the dryer, this may be reduced to between 0.2- 0.5%. This gives saving in two directions:
the sugar keeps better
the polarization and the titre increases immediately in proportion to the water removed, and if
for example the polarization increases from 97.8 to 98.2, the financial gain so realized is much
greater than the loss of weight due to the water evaporated.
The enthalpy present in wet sugar entering the sugar dryer sometimes is usually sufficient to
dry itself to the desired level without need for additional heat. But, in normal operation,
additional heat is provided in form of hot air to ensure that there is sufficient enthalpy to
achieve the desired drying.
7.1.2 ROTARY DRUM DRYER
A typical adiabatic counter current air heated rotary drum dryer is commonly used in drying of
wet sugar. A rotary drum dryer consists of a slowly rotating, slightly inclined cylindrical shell fed
with the moist sugar at the upper end. The sugar flow along the rotating shell gets dried and
leaves the dryer at the lower end.
Supply of heat to the wet solid may be done directly or indirectly. Accordingly, a rotary dryer is
called direct heat rotary dryer or indirect heat rotary dryer. In a dryer of the former type, the
wet solid is dried in direct contact with a hot gas flowing parallel or counter current with the
wet solid. In an indirect heat dryer, on the other hand, heat is supplied through the shell wall of
the dryer by a hot flue flowing outside. A low flow rate of air is maintained within the shell to
carry away the evaporated water.
For drying of sugar, direct heat rotary dryer with counter current flow of hot air is used.
Page | 91
Figure 7. 1 Schematic picture of a direct-heat counter current rotary dryer

Why rotary drum dryer
There are different types of dryers which can be used in the drying of sugars. They include:
rotary louver dryer, rotary tray dryer, fluidized bed dryer and rotary drum dryer.
The following salient features of rotary drum dryer, justifies why it qualifies to be used over the
other types of dryers. They include:
Ideally suited for large capacity applications and uneven particle size distribution.
Continuous operation and versatile application.
Low operating & maintenance cost.
Low energy consumption.
Dry and moisture control, minimum up to 5% or less, and meet the material widely.
Reliable, simple operation, convenient maintenance, safe, and durable.
Page | 92

Construction and operating features of a rotary drum dryer
Figure 7. 2 Countercurrent rotary drum dryer assembly
The major parts of a direct heat counter current rotary dryer assembly are shown in the figure
above. The shell is made of a suitable metal or alloy. The major internals are the flights
running along the shell of the dryer. It is essential to keep the solid mixed up as it flows in order
to avoid agglomeration or formation of lumps.
The flights do this job. As the shell rotates, the flights lift the flowing solid and shower it in the
air stream so as to avoid agglomeration. This also ensures a good contact between the solid and
the hot gas and continuously exposes the solid so that drying of the particle occurs uniformly.
The flights project radially from the shell wall.
The operating features of a rotary drum dryer are described as follows:
a. Flow types
Countercurrent flow which is used in the design of this rotary dryer ensures more uniform
distribution of the temperature driving force along the shell; there is a substantial temperature
difference between the gas and the solid all through. Nearly dry solid comes in contact with
Page | 93

fresh hot gas and the temperature of the solid is substantially raised to complete drying if there
is some bound moisture.
Parallel flow unit can also be used. The wet solid comes in contact with the fresh hot gas.
Because the solid has enough moisture in it, its temperature remains close to wet bulb
temperature of water till most of the moisture is removed. By that time the gas temperature
decrease significantly because of supply of heat for drying.
b. Gas heating
Hot flue gases may sometimes be directly used for drying. But because of the possibility of the
sugar being contaminated in contact with the flue gas, a clean heating gas is necessary.
Therefore, air is heated in a tubular heat exchanger and fed to the dryer.
c. Solid feeding
The solid-feeder should push the wet solid into the dryer at the top end but should not allow
the drying gas to escape through it. A screw feeder is most convenient because it acts as a gasseal too. A chute extending into the shell may also be used for feeding.
d. Dust collection
The exit gas from a rotary dryer often carries over or entrains considerable amounts of fines. If
the carryover of dust is substantial, the gas is led to a cyclone or bag filter to separate the fines.
If there is excessive dusting, the mass flow rate of the hot gas in the dryer is kept low. In this
design, a cyclone is designed as a recovery system.
e. Support and drive of the dryer
A full-scale rotary dryer has a huge weight and is supported on assemblies of trunnion and
thrush roll. Anti-friction pillow blocks can also be used. A motor of high rating rotates the dryer
through a speed reduction device and a girth gear on the periphery of the shell. The shell is
properly insulated against heat loss to the ambient.
f.
Heat efficiency
This is the fraction of the thermal energy of the hot gas that is utilised for drying. It is also
referred to as thermal efficiency. The rest of the supplied energy leaves the dryer with the gas
Page | 94

or is lost to the ambient. The heat efficient of a rotary dryer may vary from about 20% to 80%
depending upon the operating temperature.
7.1.3 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN
Introduction
The objectives of chemical engineering design are to determine:
Mass and energy balance calculations.
Shell diameter and length.
The solid hold up and the retention time.
Mass balance
Data
Feed stream: 9,624 kg/hr to be dried from 1% moisture content to 0.5%
Assumption (Mosen Asadi, 2007):
50% of water in the feed stream is removed as vapour.
Taking a basis of 1 hour:

Amount of water present in the feed stream= 91 kg
50
The amount of water removed from wet sugar as vapour= 100 91 = 46

The amount of water present in the dry sugar exit stream= 91-46 = 45 kg
Quantity of hot air into the dryer:
= 3.188
= 11,477 / ( )
Total amount of exit gas from the drier = +

= 11,477 + 46 = 11,523
Page | 95

Amount of dry sugar from the dryer=
= 9,624 46 = 9578 kg
Hot air + Water vapour
= 11,523 kg/hr
S48
Wet sugar
Water= 91 kg/hr
Total= 9,624 kg/hr
S46
Dryer
Dry Sugar
Sucrose= 9, 533 kg/hr
Water= 42 kg/hr
Total= 9,578 kh/hr
S49
S50
Hot Air= 11,477 kg/hr
Table 7.1 Mass balance around the dryer

Component
Stream
Sucrose
Water
Hot air
Total
Input (kg/hr)
S46
9,533
91
9,624
S50
11,477
11,477
Output (kg/hr)
S48
46
11,477
11,523
S49
9,533
45
9,578
Enthalpy balance
Data
Cp, Air= 1.006 kJ/kg.
Cp, Sugar =2.15 kJ/kg.
Latent heat of vaporization of water = 2140 kJ/kg.
Reference temperature= 25C
Page | 96

Energy carried into the dryer can be calculated as follows:
= +
= 0 + ( 0 )
= 9624 2.15(60 25) + 4.18 0.009(60 25) = 736,878 /

= 0 + 0 + 0
= 11,477 1.006 100 25 + 0.01 2140 + 1.884 0.01(100 25) = 1,127,764 /
, = 736,878 + 1,127,764 = 1,864,642 /
Energy carried out of the dryer can be calculated as follows:
= +
= 0 + ( 0 )
= 9578 2.15(70 25) + 4.18 0.005(70 25) = 835,680 /

= 0 + 0 + 0
11,477 1.006 74 25 + 0.015 2140 + 1.884 0.015(74 25) = 950,052 /
, = 935,680 + 950,052
= 1,785,732 /
Energy loss to the environment can also be calculated as follows:

=
= 1,864,642 1,785,732 = 78,910
Page | 97

Hot air + water vapour (74C)
15021 kg/hr
Wet sugar (60C)

9,624 kg/hr
Dry sugar (70C

9,578 kg/hr
Dryer
Hot air (100C)

14,975 kg/hr
QL
Table 7.2 Enthalpy balance around the dryer

Components
Input (kJ/hr)
Output(kJ/hr)
Wet sugar
736,878
Hot air
1,127,764
950,052
Dry sugar
835,680
Losses
78,910
Total
1,864,642
1,864,642
SHELL DIAMETER AND LENGTH

Data
Wet sugar inlet temperature = 60C
Dry sugar outlet temperature= 70C
Inlet gas temperature= 100C
Outlet gas temperature= 74C
Inlet solid mass flow rate= 9624 kg/hr = 2.673kg/s
Solid inlet moisture content= 0.01 kg/kg dry solids
Page | 98

Solid outlet moisture content= 0.005 kg/kg dry solids
Specific heat capacity of sugar= 2.15 kJ/kg.
Specific heat capacity of water vapour= 1.88 KJ/kg.
Specific heat capacity of air = 1.006 kJ/Kg. C
Latent heat of vaporization = 2257.1 kJ/kg
For a counter current flow rotary drum dryer, the diameter and length of this dryer are
calculated as follows:
For a mass flow of solid of 2.673 kg/s and inlet and outlet moisture of 0.01 kg/kg dry solids and
0.005kg/kg dry solids respectively, the mass of water evaporated = 2.673(0.01-0.005)=
0.013365 kg/s.
For a unit mass of solids, the heat duty includes (Ref. temperature=25):
= ( + ) . = 2.15 + 0.01 4.18 60 25
= 76.713 /
= ( + ) . = 2.15 + 0.005 4.18 70 25
= 97.6905 /

=
= 0.01 0.005 2257.1 = 11.2855 /

= +

= 97.6905 + 11.2855 76.713 = 32.263 /
Page | 99

Converting this heating duty to kilo Watts:
Heating duty, Q= 32.2632.673=86.24 kW
The humid heat of the entering air is 1.03 kJ/kg. and making heat balance:
1 1 + =
(7.1.1)
1 (1 2 )
Where:

1
And:
KJ
.
Kg
1 2
In this case:
1 1 + 0.01 =
86.24
= 3.22/
1.03(100 74)
3.22
and: mass flowrate of air, 1 = 1.01 = . /

The dryer diameter is then found from the allowable mass velocity of air and the entering air
flow and for a mass velocity of 0.95 kg/m2s (Richardson and Coulson Chemical Engineering;
Volume 2), the cross sectional area of the dryer is:
3.188
= 3.35582
0.95
Equivalent to a diameter of
43.3558
0.5
= .
Page | 100

The length of the dryer is also calculated as follows:
60C
70C
74C
Heat
100C
() =
1 2
ln
1
2
: 1 = 74 60 = 14
: 2 = 100 70 = 30
=
14 30
ln
14
= 21
30
, :
(7.1.2)
0.0625 0.67
where:

2
In this case:
=
86.24
= .
0.0625 2.06 0.950.67 21
This gives a length ratio of (10.51/2.05)= 5.2, which is a reasonable value for a rotary drum
dryer.
Page | 101

Retention time and solid hold up
There are four components of particle movement along the drum dryer:
Gravitational, due to slope of the drum
Drag of the gas on the particle
Bouncing of the particle on impact with the bottom of the dryer
Rolling of the particles in the bed at the bottom of the dryer
The time of passage in the rotary dryer resulting from the four components above can be
estimated by the relationship developed by Friedman and Marshall (1949) as shown below:
=
0.3344 0.6085
+
(7.1.3)
0.9
0.5
Where:
.

.

3

In this design, the following data is used:
= 10.51
= 0.07 .
= 4.06 /min
( )
Page | 102

= 2.06
= 191.28
3 , (= 1.225 /3 )
, =
191.28
= 156.14 3 /
1.225
= 160.4 /
= 0.5
Substituting these values in the residence time equation:
= 10.51
0.3344
0.6085 156.14
+
0.07 4.060.9 2.06
160.4 0.50.5
= .
The residence time is defined as holdup divided by feed rate (Kelly and ODonnell, 1977). This
definition can be given by the expression:
=
. (7.1.4)
Where:
,
.
(/)
Substituting in the expression:
15.71 =
160.4
, = 15.71 160.4 = ,
Page | 103

Expressing this solid holdup in terms of the fraction of the shell volume occupied by the solid at
any time:
=
2 2.062 10.51
=
= 35.03 3
4
4
= 800 /3
, =
, % =
2,520
= 3.15 3
800
3.15
= %
35.03
The rotary drum dryer operates with 8-15% of their volume filled with materials (Miskell and
Marshall, 1956), hence this sold holdup percentage is within the expected range.
7.1.3.6 Summary of Chemical Engineering Design
Table 7.3 Chemical engineering design summary
Quantity of hot air to the dryer
Energy supplied by hot air
Dryer diameter
Dryer length
Retention time
Solid hold up
11,477 kg/hr
950,052 kg/hr
2.06m
10.51m
15.71 minutes
9%
7.1.4 MECHANICAL DESIGN

In the mechanical design of a rotary drum dryer, the chemical engineer is responsible for
developing and specifying the basic design information for the specialist engineer.
In this design of rotary drum dryer, the following areas are covered:
Page | 104
Materials of construction.
Size and number of lifting flights.
Shell thickness of the rotary drum dryer.
The peripheral speed of the shell.
The orientation of the rotary drum.
Materials of construction
The most important characteristics to be considered when selecting a material of construction
are: (Coulson and Richardsons Chemical Engineering Vol. 6)
1. Mechanical properties:
Strength-tensile strength.
Stiffness-elastic modulus (Youngs modulus).
Toughness-fracture resistance.
Hardness-wear resistance.
Fatigue resistance.
Creep resistance.
2. The effect of high and low temperatures on the mechanical properties.

3. Corrosion resistance.
4. Any special properties required; such as, thermal conductivity, electrical resistance, magnetic
properties.
5. Ease of fabrication forming, welding, casting.
6. Availability in standard sizes plates, sections and tube.
7. Cost.
Material of construction chosen for this design will be AISI 316 stainless steel on product
contact parts and AISI 304 stainless steel on the outside parts.
Page | 105

The size and number of lifting flights
A sufficient number of flights must be distributed across the drum. The volume of material
transported by the flights should be between 8% and 15% of the total volume inside the dryer
(Baker, 1983). This fact is related to the optimum dryer loading. Values below this range will
lead to wastage of energy and values above this range will lead to heterogeneity of the final
product.
The flight height in a direct dryer is one-eighth of the dryer diameter and the flight count per
circle is 2D, where D is the diameter in feet (Perry and Green, 1999).
The ratio between the area occupied by the solids in the flights (S) and the load of the solids in
the flight (h*) may be given by the following relationship (Schofield and Glikin, 1962):
= (7.1.5)
Where:

2

Based on the above formula, the following data is used:

, ( ) =
= 0.125 2,748.54 = 348.07
, = 450 = 0.7854
, = 10.51
Page | 106

, = 800 /2
Thus, substituting in formula:
348.07 0.7854 = 10.51 800
= 0.03252
=
1
1
= 2.06 = .
8
8
=
0.0325 = 0.2575
Solving:
, = .
Solving for the number of flights:
= 2
= 2.06 = 6.76
, = 2 6.76 =
Shell thickness of a rotary drum dryer
The thickness of the wall of the cylinder (shell) is calculated based on the following expression:
=

(7.1.6)
2
Where:
2

Page | 107

2
The design internal pressure is 10% above normal pressure
= 1.1
The rotary drum operates at atmospheric pressure i.e. 101.32 Kpa
Therefore, the design pressure is:
= 1.1 101.32 = 111.45
Also, from standard tables, typical design stress at 21 C (LMTD) is 14.2 N/mm2 and the
recommended joint factor is 0.85.
Substituting in the formula above for shell thickness;
=
0.1115 2060
= 9.56
2 0.85 14.2 0.1115
Adding the corrosion allowance of 2 mm

The shell thickness= 9.56 + 2= 11.56 mm
Peripheral speed of the shell
The speed of rotation of a rotary drum dryer is given by the following formula (Hugot, 1986)
=
10 1.63
. . (7.1.7)
Where D is the diameter of the drum in meters

For this design, the speed of rotation is:
=
10 1.63
= .
2.06
Page | 108

Orientation of the drum dryer
The rotary drum is usually set at a slope to the horizontal, which will facilitate the movement of
the sugar from end to end of the drum, being repeatedly lifted and dropped through the
counter current air flow.
For this design an orientation of 4 (0.07 rad.) to the horizontal is used (Key, 1972).
Summary of Mechanical Engineering Design
Table 7. 1 Mechanical Engineering design summary
Material of construction
Height of lifting flights
0.2575m
Width of lifting flights
0.1262m
Number of lifting flights
13
Shell thickness
11.56mm
Peripheral speed of the shell
4.06 rpm
Drum orientation to the horizontal
7.1.5 DESIGN OF AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT OF A ROTARY DRUM DRYER

For efficient and effective operation of rotary drum dryer, some auxiliary components are
needed. These auxiliary equipment include:
Air heater
Recovery system
Thermal design of air heater

A single-pass shell and tube heat exchanger will be used.
For the air to be heated, the following data is used:
Air inlet temperature= 25 C
Air outlet temperature = 100C
Page | 109

Specific heat capacity of air = 1.006 kJ/kg. C
, = = 11,477 1.006 100 25 = 865,939.65
, =
= 680 2
For a counter current heat exchanger, logarithmic mean temperature difference ( ) is
calculated as follows:
145C
Steam
145C
100C
Air
25C
() =
1 2
ln
1
2
: 1 = 145 25 = 120
: 2 = 145 100 = 45
120 45
ln
120
= 76.5
45
865,939.65
=
= 16.65 2
680 76.5
Tube details
Taking a triangular pattern with a 1.25do pitch
Page | 110

Tube pitch
According to TEMA (Tubular Exchangers Manufacturers Association) standards the
recommended tube pitch for a triangular pattern tube arrangement is given by:
= 1.25 = 1.25 19.05 = 23.81
Tube dimensions
The tube thickness (gauge) is selected to withstand the internal pressure and give an adequate
corrosion allowance. Steel tubes for heat exchangers are covered by British Standards (BS 3606)
cover.
Taking standard tube length and outside diameter:
L=8 m (8000mm)
do = (19.05mm)
Standard tube thickness for steel tubes:
Fir the outside diameter TEMA standards give a thickness of 0.065 in (1.65mm)
The tube inside diameter is given by:
19.05 2 1.65 = 15.75
Tube count
The number of tubes is given by:
=
(7.1.8)
Where:
AT is the total heat transfer area of the tubes
at is the heat transfer area of one tube
Page | 111

= 0
= 19.05 103 8 = 0.4788 2
= 16.652
, =
16.65
= 35
0.4788
Shell diameter
The shell diameter must be selected to give a fit to the tube bundle as is practical; to reduce
bypassing round the outside of the bundle. The clearance required between the outermost
tubes in the bundle and the shell inside diameter will depend on the type of exchanger and the
manufacturing tolerances.
The shell diameter is calculated from the bundle diameter and the shell bundle clearance as
follows:
, = 0
(7.1.9)
Where k1 and n are constants of particular tube passes and arrangements
, ( ) = 19.05 10
35
0.319
1
2.142
= 0.171 171
, = , +
Using shell- bundle clearance charts for fixed heat exchangers:
At Db= 305 mm
= 11
, = + 11
Page | 112

= 171 + 11 = 182
Baffle spacing
Baffles are used in the shell to direct the fluid stream across the tubes, to increase the fluid
velocity and so improve the rate of transfer. The baffle spacing is taken as 0.3 times the shell
diameter. In this design the spacing is:
= 0.3 182 = 54.6
This baffle spacing leads to a very high pressure drop on the shell side; it is therefore doubled to
yield 109.2 which gives an acceptable pressure drop.
Design of a recovery system
In the operation if a rotary drum dyer, the exit air has sugar particles in form of dust which if
left to the atmosphere will cause loss of sugar and pollution of the atmosphere. A cyclone has
been used as recovery system of this sugar from the exit air.
Cyclone separators provide a method of removing particulate matter from air streams at low
cost and low maintenance that would otherwise end up in the atmosphere. In general, a
cyclone consists of an upper cylindrical part referred to as the barrel and a lower conical part
referred to as cone.
The volumetric flowrate of the cyclone chamber can be calculated based on the following
relationship (Simpson and Parnell, 1995):

273 +
10330
3
+
22.4
(7.1.10)
1
2
273
10330 +
=
Where:
.
, .
Page | 113

.

1
2
From the online cyclone operating pressure calculator P actual = 22,262 mmWG.
The following data is used for the calculation of volume:
= 11,477
= 91
= 100
Substituting in the equation above:
=
11,477
91
273 + 100
10330
+
22.4
3 /
28.84 18.02
273
10330 + 22,262
3
= 3,909
= 1.086 3 /
The area of the chamber can be obtained by the relationship below:

=
The velocity of exit air from the dryer in a countercurrent flow = 1.05 m/s (Hugot, 1986)
, =
1.086
= 1.03 2
1.05
2
4
Page | 114
4
=
4 1.03
= .
Using an aspect ratio of 4:1 for cylindrical height to diameter we can obtain the dimension for
the height of the cylindrical shell part of the cyclone as:
= 4 1.15 = .
Using a cylindrical cone of 60 (www. niro.com):
=
tan 60
2
, =
1.15
tan 60 = .
2
Summary of design of auxiliary equipment

Table 7. 2 Auxiliary equipment design summary
Area
length
Tube diameter
Number of tubes
Shell diameter
Baffle spacing
AIR HEATER
16.65 m2
8m
15.75 mm
35
171 mm
54.6m
RECOVERY SYSTEM
Area
Diameter
Cylindrical height
Height of the bottom cone
1.03 m2
1.15 m2
4.6 m
1m
Page | 115

7.2 DESIGN OF A PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER BY KIMATHI HARRISON MUTHIORAH - CPE/16/08
7.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Heat transfer predicts the energy transfer which may take place between material bodies as a
result of temperature difference. This energy transfer is defined by thermodynamics as heat.
Heat transfer supplements the first and second principles of thermodynamics by providing
additional experimental rules which may be used to establish energy-transfer rates. The science
of heat transfer explains how and at what rate the exchange will take place.
Three modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation. When heat flows
through a body by the transference of momentum of individual atoms or molecules without
mixing, it is said to flow by conduction.
When heat flows by actual mixing of warmer portions with cooler portions of the same
material, the mechanism is known as convection. Convection is restricted to the flow of heat in
fluids. Radiation is term given to the transfer of energy through space by means of
electromagnetic waves. Radiation is transmitted, reflected, or absorbed when matter appears
in its path while it is passing through a space.
The transfer of heat to and from process uids is an essential part of most chemical processes.
The application of the principles of heat transfer to the design of equipment to accomplish a
certain engineering objective is of extreme importance, for in applying the principles to design,
the individual is working toward the important goal of product development for economic gain.
Plate heat exchangers are used extensively in the food and beverage industries, as they can be
readily taken apart for cleaning and inspection. Their use in the chemical industry will depend
on the relative cost for the particular application compared with a conventional shell and tube
exchanger.
In this design problem, it is needed to raise the temperature of the thin beet juice from a
temperature of 76C to a temperature of 86C to enable optimum liming process. A plate heat
Page | 116

exchanger was chosen because of its advantages over the shell and tube design which are
discussed later in this section.
A gasketed plate heat exchanger consists of a stack of closely spaced thin plates clamped
together in a frame. A thin gasket seals the plates round their edges. The plates are normally
between 0.5 and 3 mm thick and the gap between them 1.5 to 5 mm. Plate surface areas range
from 0.03 to 1.5 m2, with a plate width: length ratio from 2.0 to 3.0. The size of plate heat
exchangers can vary from very small, 0.03 m2, to very large, 1500 m2. The maximum flow-rate
of fluid is limited to around 2500 m3/h. Corner ports in the plates direct the flow from plate to
plate. The plates are embossed with a pattern of ridges, which increase the rigidity of the plate
and improve the heat transfer performance. Plates are available in a wide range of metals and
alloys; including stainless steel, Aluminium and titanium.
Figure 7. 3 Gasketed plate heat exchanger

(Heat Exchangers, Kevin D. Rafferty, 2002)
Page | 117

Advantages
1. Superior thermal performance.
Plate heat exchangers are capable of nominal approach temperatures of 10 F compared to a
nominal 20 F for shell and tube units. In addition, overall heat transfer coefficients (U) for plate
type exchangers are three to four times those of shell and tube units.
2. Compact design.
The superior thermal performance of the plate heat exchanger and the space efficient design of
the plate arrangement results in a very compact piece of equipment. Space requirements for
the plate heat exchanger generally run 10% to 50% that of a shell and tube unit for equivalent
duty. In addition, tube cleaning and replacing clearances are eliminated.
3. Ease of maintenance.
The construction of the heat exchanger is such that, upon disassembly, all heat transfer areas
are available for inspection and cleaning. Disassembly consists only of loosening a small number
of tie bolts.
4. Expandability and multiplex capability.
The nature of the plate heat exchanger construction permits expansion of the unit should heat
transfer requirements increase after installation. In addition, two or more heat exchangers can
be housed in a single frame, thus reducing space requirements and capital costs.
5. Availability of a wide variety of corrosion resistant alloys.
Since the heat transfer area is constructed of thin plates, stainless steel or other high alloy
construction is significantly less costly than for a shell and tube exchanger of similar material.
6. Plates are attractive when material costs are high.
Plates are less expensive to fabricate when the materials costs tend to be high.
Page | 118

Disadvantages
1. Temperature limitation
The maximum operating temperature is limited to about 250 C, due to the performance of the
available gasket materials.
2. Gasket selection
The selection of a suitable gasket is critical.
3. Low pressure operation
A plate is not a good shape to resist pressure and plate heat exchangers are not suitable for
pressures greater than about 30 bar.
Flow of heat exchanger fluids
Figure 6.2 illustrates the nature of fluid flow through the plate heat exchanger. The primary and
secondary fluids flow in opposite directions on either side of the plates.
Figure 7. 4 Nature of fluid flow through the plate heat exchanger

(www.alfalaval.com)
7.2.2 DESIGN PROCEDURE
The design procedure is similar to that for shell and tube exchangers.
1. Calculate duty, the rate of heat transfer required.
2. If the specification is incomplete, determine the unknown fluid temperature or fluid
flow rate from a heat balance.
3. Calculate the logarithmic mean temperature difference,
Page | 119

4. Determine the logarithmic mean temperature correction factor, .
5. Calculate the corrected mean temperature difference, = .
6. Estimate the overall heat transfer coefficient.
7. Calculate the surface area required.
8. Determine the number of plates required (
9. Decide the flow arrangement and the number of passes.

10. Calculate the film heat transfer coefficients for each stream.
11. Calculate the overall coefficient, allowing for fouling factors.
12. Compare the calculated with assumed overall coefficient, if satisfactory, say -0% to
+10% error, proceed. If unsatisfactory, return to step 8 and increase or decrease the
number of plates.
13. Check the pressure drop of each stream

Heat exchanger duty
The heat exchanger duty, (Q) is given by the following expression:
= 7.2.1
Where,
= , ,
= , /,
= , /. ,
= , .
The general equation for heat transfer across a surface is:
= 7.2.2
Where,
= , ,
= , /2 ,
Page | 120

= , 2 ,
= , ,
Logarithmic mean temperature difference

This is normally calculated from the terminal temperature differences: the difference in the
fluid temperatures at the inlet and outlet of the exchanger. For counter-current flow the
logarithmic mean temperature is given by:
=
1 2 (2 1 )
7.2.3
ln 1 2 /(2 1 )
Where,
= log ,
1 = , ,
2 = , ,
1 = , ,
2 = , .
Temperature correction factor
To estimate the true temperature difference from the logarithmic mean temperature by a
correction factor is applied to allow for the departure from true counter-current flow:
= 7.2.4
Where,
=
=
For plate heat exchangers, it is convenient to express the logarithmic mean temperature
difference correction factor, , as a function of the number of transfer units, NTU, and the flow
arrangement (number of passes) as shown in figure 7.3 below.
The number of transfer units is given by:
Page | 121

=
1 1
7.2.5
Figure 7. 5 Log mean temperature correction factor for plate heat exchangers
(Chemical Engineering Design, Coulson & Richardsons, Volume 6, pg. 760)
Heat transfer coefficient
The equation for forced-convection heat transfer in conduits is used for the plate heat
exchangers.

= 0.26 0.65 0.4 ( )0.14 .7.2.6
Where
= .
Page | 122

=
= .
= () , , .
= = / , 2 1
= , /
= , 2
There is no heat transfer across the end plates, so the number of effective plates will be the
total number of plates less two.
Pressure drop
The plate pressure drop can be estimated using a form of the equation for flow in a conduit.
This equation is given below.
= 8
2
.7.2.7
2
Where,
= /
The value of the friction factor will depend on the design of plate used. For preliminary
calculations the following relationship can be used for turbulent flow:
= 0.6 0.3 . . . .7.2.8
The pressure drop due to the contraction and expansion losses through the ports in the plates
must be added to the friction loss. This is calculated by the equation below.
2
= 1.3
.7.2.9
2
Where = , ,
= , /
Page | 123

= =
2
4
, 2
= ,
=
7.2.4 PROCESS DESIGN
The design is based on the plate heat exchanger 1, which is used to heat the thin juice from
70C to 86C using steam at 4 bar. A schematic of the heat exchanger is shown in the diagram
below.
Steam in (140C)
3,011 kg/hr
Thin Juice (70C)
Thin Juice (86C)
Heat Exchanger 1
89,349 kg/hr
89,349 kg/hr
Condensate out (140C)
QL
3,011 kg/hr
Table 7. 3 Properties of heating and cooling fluids of

Heat Exchanger 1
Property
Thin Beet Juice (cooling fluid)
Mass flow rate (kg/s)
24.82
3
Density (kg/m )
1580.00
2
Viscosity (Ns/m )
0.057
Specific heat capacity (kJ/kg.K)
4.1719
Prandlt number
5.6
Inlet temperatures (C)
70.00
Outlet temperatures (C)
86.00
Thermal conductivities (W/m. C) 0.18
Steam (heating fluid)

0.837
2.163
1.377 x 10-5
2.340
1.051
140.00
140.00
0.031
Page | 124

Calculations
Heat Exchanger duty
The heat exchanger duty is calculated using equation 7.2.1.
= 24.82 4.1719 16
= 1656.69
Logarithmic mean temperature difference
The LMTD is determined using equation 7.2.3
=
140 70 (140 86)

140 70
(140 86)
= 61.65
Mean temperature difference (MTD)
The Number of Transfer Units (NTU) is determined by equation 7.2.5:
=
143.61 40
= 1.264
81.99
A 1: 1 pass arrangement is selected.

From figure 7.3, the temperature correction factor is determined.
= 0.96
The mean temperature difference is determined using equation 7.2.4:
= 0.96 61.65 = 59.18
The overall heat transfer coefficient is estimated to be 350 2 . . (Chemical Engineering
Design, Coulson & Richardsons, Volume 6)
Area of heat transfer
The area of heat transfer is calculated using the equation 7.2.2,
Page | 125

=
1656.69 103
80 2
350 59.18
Number of plates
Selecting an effective plate area of 0.75 m2, effective length of 1.5 m and width of 0.5 m, the
number of plates is then determined. (Actual plate size will be larger to accommodate the
gasket area and ports).
. =

7.2.10

=
80
107
0.75
Number of channels per pass

Allowing for an end plate,
=
107 1
= 53
2
A plate spacing of 3mm, a typical value (Chemical Engineering Design, Coulson & Richardsons,
Volume 6.) is chosen, then:
= .7.2.11
= 3 103 0.5 = 0.0015 2
= 2 3 103 = 6 103
Thin juice
Channel velocity
Page | 126

The channel velocity is given by the expression below:
=

1
1
7.2.12
24.82
1
1
= 0.198 /
1580 0.0015 53
Reynoldss Number (Re)

=
1580 0.198 6 103

=
= 33.04
0.0567
Nusselt number (Nu)

= 0.26 0.65 0.4 7.2.13
= 0.26 33.0400.65 5.60.4 = 5.03
Plate film coefficient
From expression for Nusselt number, the plate film coefficient is calculated.
=
.
. .7.2.14
= 0.6
5.3
= 530 2 .
6 103
Steam
Channel velocity
=
0.837
1
1
= 4.867 /
2.163 0.0015 53
Reynoldss number (Re)

=
2.163 4.867 6 103

=
= 4587.5
1.377 105
Nusselt number (Nu)

= 0.26 0.65 0.4
= 0.26 4587.50.65 1.0510.4 = 63.63
Page | 127

= 0.031
63.63
= 328.76 2 .
6 103
Overall heat transfer coefficient

The overall heat transfer coefficient is given is given by the expression below:
1
1
1
1
1
=
+ +
+
+
.7.2.15

Where,
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
1
1
1
0.6 103
1
1
=
+
+
+
+
= 0.005622
530 1800
16.2
328.76 10000
= 177.88 2 .
This value of is too low compared to the initial estimate of 350 2 . , therefore the
number of channels per pass is increases to 120.
Number of plates
. = 2 120 + 1 = 241
Thin juice
Channel velocity
=
24.82
1
1
= 0.087 /
1580 0.0015 120

Page | 128

1580 0.087 6 103
=
=
= 14.55
0.0567
Nusselt number (Nu)
= 0.26 0.65 0.4 = 0.26 14.550.65 5.60.4 = 2.95
=
.
2.95
= 0.6
= 295 2 .
6 103
Steam
Channel velocity
=
0.837
1
1
= 2.15 /
2.163 0.0015 120

2.163 2.15 6 103
=
=
= 2026.34
1.377 105
Nusselt number (Nu)
= 0.26 0.65 0.4
= 0.26 2026.340.65 1.0510.4 = 37.41
= 0.031 (37.41/ 6 103 ) = 193.29 2 .
The overall heat transfer coefficient
1
1
1
0.6 103
1
1
=
+
+
+
+
= 0.00926
295 1800
16.2
193.29 10000
= 108.04 2 .
53
Overall coefficient required, = 350 120 = 154.58 2 .

Increasing the number of channels per pass is increases to 210.
Number of plates
Page | 129

. = 2 210 + 1 = 421
Thin juice
Channel velocity
=
24.82
1
1
= 0.05 /
1580 0.0015 210

1580 0.05 6 103
=
=
= 8.34
0.0567
Nusselt number (Nu)
= 0.26 0.65 0.4 = 0.26 8.340.65 5.60.4 = 2.06
=
.
2.06
= 0.6
= 205.56 2 .
6 103
Steam
Channel velocity
=
0.837
1
1
= 1.23 /
2.163 0.0015 210

=
2.163 1.23 6 103

=
= 1157.80
1.377 105
Nusselt number (Nu)

= 0.26 0.65 0.4
= 0.26 1157.800.65 1.0510.4 = 26
= 0.031 (26/ 6 103 ) = 134.33 2 .
Page | 130

1
1
1
0.6 103
1
1
=
+
+
+
+
= 0.013
134.33 1800
16.2
205.56 10000
= 76.91 2 .
53

Increasing the number of channels per pass to 250;
Number of plates
. = 2 250 + 1 = 501
Thin juice
Channel velocity
=
24.82
1
1
= 0.04 /
1580 0.0015 250

1580 0.04 6 103
=
=
= 6.69
0.0567
Nusselt number (Nu)
= 0.26 0.65 0.4 = 0.26 6.690.65 5.60.4 = 1.78
=
.
2.06
= 0.6
= 178 2 .
6 103
Steam
Channel velocity
=
0.837
1
1
= 1.03 /
2.163 0.0015 250
Page | 131

=
2.163 1.03 6 103

=
= 1001.65
1.377 105
Nusselt number (Nu)

= 0.26 0.65 0.4
= 0.26 1001.650.65 1.0510.4 = 23.66
= 0.031 (23.66/ 6 103 ) = 122.24 2 .
1
1
1
0.6 103
1
1
=
+
+
+
+
= 0.014
178 1800
16.2
122.24 10000
= 71.42 2 .
53
The value of obtained (71.42 2 .) is satisfactory.

=
=
Pressure drops
The plate pressure drop is estimated using equation 7.2.7
Thin juice
The friction factor is determined using equation 7.2.8
= 0.6 (6.69)0.3 = 0.34
, = . = 1.5 1 = 1.5
1580 0.042
= 8 0.34 1.5 6 103
2
= 852.52
2
Page | 132

, 100, = 0.00785 2
= (24.82/1580)/0.00785 = 2.00/
= 1.3 1580
22
= 4,108 2
2
= 852.52 + 4,108 = , . /
Steam
The friction factor is determined using equation 7.2.8
= 0.6 (1001.65)0.3 = 0.075
, = . = 1.5 1 = 1.5
2.163 1.032
= 8 0.075 1.5 6 103
2
= 167.09/2
, 100, = 0.00785 2
= (0.837/2.163)/0.00785 = 49.29 /
= 1.3 2.163
49.292
= 3,416.40 N/m2
2
= 167.09 + 3,416.40 = , . /
Table 7. 4 Chemical properties of the plate heat exchanger to be designed
Design parameter
Number of plates
Pressure drop on thin juice side
Pressure drop in steam side
Overall heat transfer coefficient
Specification
501 plates
250 channels
4,967 N/m2
3,584 N/m2
71.42 W/m2.C
Page | 133

The plate heat exchanger consists of a pack of corrugated metal plates with portholes for the
passage of the two fluids between which heat transfer will take place.
The plate pack is assembled between a fix frame plate and a movable pressure plate and
compressed by tightening bolts. The plates are fitted with a gasket which seals the interpolate
channel and directs the fluids into alternate channels. The plate corrugations promote fluid
turbulence and support the plates against differential pressure.
The plate and the pressure plate are suspended from an upper carrying bar and located by a
lower guiding bar, both of which are fixed to a support column.
Upper bar
Column
Follower
Head
Plate package
Lower bar
Tie bolts
Figure 7. 6 Gasketed plate heat exchanger components (www.graham-mfg.com)
Page | 134

Frame
The heat exchanger consists of a frame plate (Head), a pressure plate (Follower), a carrying bar,
a lower bar and a column. Tightening bolts are used to press the plates together. The frame is
constructed from carbon steel.
Plates
The plate package consists of plates with a groove along the rim of the plate and around the
ports. The plates are constructed from stainless steel alloy 316. The chevron plate design is
used as shown below. The chevron angle is 25.
Figure 7. 7 The chevron plate used in the gasketed plate heat exchanger
(www.graham-mfg.com)
Gaskets
The groove provided in the plates holds the special gasket. The purpose of this gasket is to
prevent intermixing of the media and leakage to the outside. The gaskets are selected to suit
the actual combination of temperature, chemical environment and fluid properties. Nitrile
(NBR) clip-on gaskets shown in Figure 6.6 below are used in the plate heat exchanger as they
are oil resistant and fat resistant.
Page | 135
Figure 7. 8 Clip-on gasket used in the plate heat exchanger

Wall shear stress
The wall shear stresses on the plates can be calculated from the equation below:
2
=
. .7.2.16
2
Where,
= ,
=
= , /
= , /3
The friction factor can be estimated from the equation developed by Shah and Bhatti, 1988.
1
3
=
7.2.17
2
Where,
=
Page | 136

Thin juice side
The friction factor is calculated as,
1
2 1.78 5.63
=
= 0.30
6.69
The shear stress from equation 7.16 is then:
0.30 1580 0.042
= 0.38
2
=
Steam side
The friction factor is calculated as,
2 23.66 1.0513
=
= 0.05
1001.65
The shear stress from equation 7.2.16 is then:
=
0.05 2.163 1.032

= 0.06
2
Table 7. 5 Mechanical design summary of the plate heat exchanger

Design parameter
Equivalent length of plate
Equivalent width of plate
Plate thickness
Material of construction of plate
Plate spacing
Pass Arrangement
Plate configuration
Gasket material
End plate thickness
Port diameter
Tightening bolts
Number of tightening bolts
Material of construction of frame
Specification
1.5m
0.5m
0.6mm
Stainless Steel 316
3mm
1:1
250 channels
Chevron with chevron angle of 25
Nitrile (NBR) or EPDM
50mm
100mm
M39
4 short, 4 long.
Carbon Steel
Page | 137

7.3 DESIGN OF A PLATE AND FRAME FILTER (FILTER PRESS) BY NTAHER MOHAMED SALEHCPE/20/07
7.3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the simplest of terms, filtration is a unit operation that is designed to separate
suspended particles from a fluid media by passing the solution through a porous
membrane or medium. As the fluid or suspension is forced through the voids or pores of
the filter medium, the solid particles are retained on the medium's surface or, in some
cases, on the walls of the pores, while the fluid, which is referred to as the filtrate,
passes through. A filtration system can be shown schematically as in the figure below;
Suspension
Medium
Driving force
(Pressure drop P)
Filtration
equipment
Filtrate
Figure 7. 9 Schematic diagram of a filtration system

In order to obtain fluid flow through the filter medium, a pressure drop P has to be
applied across the medium; it is immaterial from the fundamental point of view how this
pressure drop is achieved but there are four types of driving force:
Gravity
Vacuum
Pressure
Centrifugal
There are basically two types of filtration used in practice: the so-called surface filters are
used for cake filtration in which the solids are deposited in the form of a cake on the upstream side of a relatively thin filter medium, while depth filters are used for deep bed
Page | 138

filtration in which particle deposition takes place inside the medium and cake deposition on
the surface is undesirable.
In a surface filter, the filter medium has a relatively low initial pressure drop and, as can
be seen in Figure 7.3.2, particles of the same size as, or larger than, the openings wedge
into the openings and create smaller passages which remove even smaller particles from
the fluid. A filter cake is thus formed, which in turn functions as a medium for the
filtration of subsequent input suspension.
Figure 7. 10 Mechanism of cake filtration (Ladislav Svarovsky, 2000)
In a depth filter - Figure 7.3.3 - the particles are smaller than the medium openings and
hence they proceed through relatively long and tortuous pores where they are collected
by a number of mechanisms (gravity, diffusion and inertia) and attach to the medium by
molecular and electrostatic forces.
Suspension
Filter
medium
Figure 7. 11 Mechanism of deep bed filtration (Ladislav Svarovsky, 2000)
Of the two types of filtration, cake filtration has the wider application, particularly in the
chemical industry (because of the higher concentrations used).
Page | 139

7.3.2 FILTRATION FUNDAMENTALS
In filtration the bed steadily grows in thickness. It may be noted that there are two quite
different methods of operating a batch filter. If the pressure is kept constant then the rate of
flow progressively diminishes, whereas if the flow rate is kept constant then the pressure must
be gradually increased. Because the particles forming the cake are small and the flow through
the bed is slow, streamline conditions are almost invariably obtained, and, at any instant, the
flow rate of the filtrate may be represented by the following form of equation;
1 1 3
=
=
. . (7.3.1)
5 (1 )2 2
Where,
(/)
, (3 /)
(2 )
()
(1 )

(/)
(/2 )

In deriving this equation it is assumed that the cake is uniform and that the voidage is constant
throughout.
For incompressible cakes e in equation (1) may be taken as constant and the quantity,
3 [5(1 )2 2 ] is then a property of the particles forming the cake and should be constant
for a given material.
Thus,
1 (P)
=
. (7.3.2)

Where,
Page | 140

5(1 )2 2
=
3
Equation (2) is the basic filtration equation and r is termed the specific resistance which is seen
to depend on e and S. For incompressible cakes, r is taken as constant.
7.3.2.1 Flow rate- pressure drop relationships
Clean medium
At the beginning of batch cake filtration, the whole pressure drop available (i.e. the driving
force) is across the medium itself since as yet no cake is formed. As the pores in the medium
are normally small and the rate of flow of filtrate is low, laminar flow conditions are almost
invariably obtained.
Darcy's basic filtration equation relating the flow rate Q of a filtrate of viscosity
through a bed of thickness L and face area A to the driving pressure P is
=
(7.3.3)
Where is a constant referred to as the permeability of the bed. Equation (3) can be written as,
=
. . (7.3.4)
Where R is called the medium resistance.

Medium with a cake forming on its face
The filtrate flow rate at constant driving pressure becomes a function of time because the liquid
is presented with two resistance in series, one of which, the medium resistance R may be
assumed constant and the other, the cake resistance increases with time.
=
. (7.3.5)
( + )
Page | 141

As the resistance of the cake may be directly proportional to the amount of cake deposited (for
incompressible cakes) it follows that
= . . . . (7.3.6)
Where the mass of cake is deposited per unit area (kg m -2) and is the specific cake
resistance (m kg-1).
Substitution of equation (6) in (5) gives
=
. . (7.3.7)
+
Pressure drop
The pressure drop P may be constant or variable with time depending on the characteristics
of the pump used or on the driving force applied. If it varies with time the function
= () is usually known.
Face area of the filter medium
The face area of the medium A is usually constant, but with a few exceptions such as in the
case of equipment with an appreciable cake build-up on a tubular medium or a rotary
drum.
Liquid viscosity
The liquid viscosity is constant provided that the temperature remains constant during
the filtration cycle and that the liquid is Newtonian.
Specific cake resistance
The specific cake resistance should be constant for incompressible cakes but it may
change with time as a result of possible flow consolidation of the cake and also, in the
case of variable rate filtration, because of variable approach velocity.
Average specific cake resistance can be determined as follows
Page | 142

1
1
=

( )
. (7.3.8)
where is the pressure drop across the cake.

An experimental empirical relationship can sometimes be used over a limited pressure range
= 0 ( ) . . (7.3.9)
where 0 is the resistance at unit applied pressure drop and n is the compressibility index
obtained from experiments.
Using equation (9), the average cake resistance can be shown to be (from equation 7.3.8)
= (1 )0 ( ) . (7.3.10)
Mass of cake deposited per unit area
The mass of cake deposited per unit area w is a function of time in batch filtration
processes. It can be related to the cumulative volume of filtrate V filtered in time t by
= . (7.3.11)
where c is the concentration of solids in the suspension (mass/unit volume of the filtrate).
Medium resistance
The medium resistance R should normally be constant but it may vary with time as a
result of some penetration of solids into the medium and sometimes it may also change
with applied pressure because of the compression of fibres in the medium.
7.3.3 FILTER SELECTION
Filtration equipment is commercially available in a wide range. Proper selection must be based
on detailed information of the slurry to be handled, cake properties, anticipated capacities and
process operating conditions. One may then select the preferred operational mode (batch,
semi-batch or continuous), and choose a particular system on the above considerations and
economic constraints.
Page | 143

The most suitable lter for any given operation is the one which will fulll the requirements at
minimum overall cost. Since the cost of the equipment is closely related to the ltering area, it
is normally desirable to obtain a high overall rate of ltration. This involves the use of relatively
high pressures although the maximum pressures are often limited by mechanical design
considerations.
Although a higher throughput from a given ltering surface is obtained from a continuous lter
than from a batch operated lter, it may sometimes be necessary to use a batch lter,
particularly if the lter cake has a high resistance, since most continuous lters operate under
reduced pressure and the maximum ltration pressure is therefore limited. Other features
which are desirable in a lter include ease of discharge of the lter cake in a convenient
physical form, and a method of observing the quality of the ltrate obtained from each section
of the plant. These factors are important in considering the types of equipment available.
The main factors to be considered when selecting equipment and operating conditions are:
i) The properties of the uid, particularly its viscosity, density and corrosive properties.
ii) The nature of the solidits particle size and shape, size distribution, and packing
characteristics.
iii) The concentration of solids in suspension.
iv) The quantity of material to be handled, and its value.
v) Whether the valuable product is the solid, the uid, or both.
vi) Whether it is necessary to wash the ltered solids.
vii) Whether very slight contamination caused by contact of the suspension or ltrate with
the various components of the equipment is detrimental to the product.
viii) Whether the feed liquor may be heated.
ix) Whether any form of pre-treatment might be helpful
Cake filters are used when the desired product of the operation is the solids, the filtrate, or
both. When the filtrate is the product, the degree of removal from the cake by washing or
blowing with air or gas becomes an economic optimization. When the cake is the desired
Page | 144

product, the incentive is to obtain the desired degree of cake purity by washing, blowing, and
sometimes mechanical expression of residual liquid.
In the operational sense, some filters are batch devices, whereas others are continuous. The
variety of solid-liquid separation equipment is so great that only a brief selection are presented
here.
a) Batch filters. Examples include:
Nutsche filters
Horizontal plate filters
Filter press
Liquid bag filter
Pressure leaf filter
Centrifugal discharge filter
b) Continuous cake filters include:
Rotary drum filter
Scraper-discharge filter
String-discharge filter
Coil-filter
The type of equipment chosen for the filtration operation is the filter press. A lter press is
suitable because the solid content is not so high that frequent dismantling of the press is
necessary. The reason being that the amount of precipitate produced during the rst
carbonation is much higher than during the second carbonation hence the use of a filter press
in filtering the juice in the second-carb juice.
Plate-and-frame filter
Plate-and-frame presses operate discontinuously and use pressure to lter and press the mud
to produce cake. At the start of ltration in a plate-and-frame press, some solid particles begin
to deposit on the lter medium to form a layer of thin cake. After this brief initial period, the
Page | 145

cake does the ltration, not the lter medium. When a certain amount of cake is built up, the
cake is washed to remove the remaining sugar.
Figure 7. 12 Scheme to show the principle of plate-and-frame presses

(Svarovsky, 2000)
A plate-and-frame press consists of several sets of two square plates (one for juice and the
other for water inlet) and a frame. The face of the plates is covered with lter cloth. The
arrangement of plates and frame starts with a solid head and continues in the following way:
juice plate, frame, water plate, frame, juice plate, frame, water plate, and so on. The sets sit
vertically in a metal rack, and a screw squeezes them together.
Figure 7. 13 A typical filter press (Mosen Asadi, 2007)

Page | 146

Filter press has been chosen over a rotary drum filter for the following reasons:
1. Sugar loss: Sugar loss to cake produced by lter presses accounts for about 0.7% on
sugar entering the factory. With vacuum lters, the losses are 0.9 to 1.4%. Less sugar is
left in the cake produced with lter presses because of better de-sweetening and better
pressing mechanisms.
2. High dry substance content: Filter presses produce cake with about 70% DS, but rotarydrum lters produce cake with about 50% DS. Therefore, while in the lime pond, the
product of drum lters need decanting to reduce its moisture content. This costs extra
expenses.
3. Quality of ltrate: Filter presses can produce clear juice, but ltrate from rotary-drum
lters still contains some suspended solids
Design equations for batch filter cycles
A typical cycle can be represented by;
= + + + = 1 +

+ + +
. . (7.3.12)

Where the subscripts f, c, d and w are used to respectively indicate values during the filtration,
consolidation, de-liquoring and washing phases of a cycle of total duration : the term
denotes filter downtime, for cake discharge and cloth cleaning.
Process design calculations for filtration are based on the general filtration equation stated as
2
=
. (7.3.13)
( + )
Where is the cumulative volume of the filtrate, the filter medium area, the filtration
pressure, the viscosity of liquid, the effective feed concentration and the medium
resistance.
The cake properties are related to the filtration pressure according to (Wakeman and Tarleton,
1994) the following equations
Page | 147

= 0 (1 )
= 0
= 1 +
Where is the density of liquid, the ratio of mass wet/ dry cake, the mass fraction of
solids in the feed and 0 ,, 0 and are empirical constants.
The cake thickness is given as
=
[ 1 + ]
(1 )
Substituting = into equation (12) yields the volume of the filtrate

=
The filtration time is obtained from
(1/)
0
Which can be approximated using trapezium rule integration by:
() ()1 1
1
+
2
1
The mass of solids on the filter medium is given as

=
Page | 148

For a given , the mass of cake liquid ( ), mass of cake solute ( ) and cake moisture
content () are respectively given by
=
=
= 100
Where is the solute concentration in the feed.

7.3.4 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN
The objectives for the chemical engineering design is to determine:
1. Number of frames
2. Plate thickness
3. Time of filtration
4. Cake deposition/discharge
5. Feed temperature
6. Filtration pressure
7. Mass of cake solute
8. Mass of cake liquid
9. Cake moisture content
After the second carbonation, the small amount of precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC) and
insoluble compounds are filtered to produce clear juice, known as thin juice. The impurities
removed as Insolubles include; oxalates, phosphates, sulphates, colloids, pectins, nitrogenous
compounds, organic non-sucroses and inorganic non-sucroses.
The design is determined for the equipment used in filtering carbonation mud to remove
Insolubles.
Assumptions made are;
Page | 149

i) The cake is compressible.
ii) The slurry feed is at constant temperature. This ensures constant viscosity of slurry.
iii) Sucrose and non-sucrose (soluble) losses are negligible in the cake
Slurry
Water= 76,194 kg/hr
Sucrose= 11,593 kg/h
Non-sucrose= 1089 kg/hr
Total= 89,188 kg/hr
Filter press
Filtrate
Water=76,124 kg/hr
Sucrose=11,593 kg/h
Non-sucrose=1089 kg/hr
Insolubles= 156kg/hr
Total= 88,962 kg/hr
Wet cake
Water= 70 kg/hr
Total= 226 kg/hr
Data necessary for process design calculations:
Concentration of solids in the entering stream ( > )

=
Concentration of solids in the wet cake
312 /
100% = 0.3498%
89,188 /
156 /
100% = 69.03%
226 /
Rate of wet cake formation
.
0
Where is the mass flow rate of entering stream = 24.77 kg/s
Hence,
=
24.77 0.35
= . /
69.03
Additional data necessary (Mosen Asadi, 2007):

Page | 150

Mass flow rate of solids = 226 kg/hr
Mass flow rate of clarified juice = 88,962 kg/hr
Time necessary to dismantle = 900 s
Time to reassemble = 900 s
Time to drop cake from each plate = 30 s
Density of slurry = 1090 kg/m3
Density of cake, = 2700 kg/m3
Density of filtrate, = 1050 kg/m3
Viscosity of filtrate = 0.075 kg/m.s
Specific cake resistance, r av = 2.211011 m/kg
Porosity of cake, = 0.225
Pressure drop across cake, P = 4 bar
Plate thickness
Let,
= Number of frames
= Frame thickness
The time to complete one batch cycle is given by equation (7.3.11)
= + + + = 1 +

+ + +

Time to remove cake from all the plates (Chemical Engineering Design, Coulson, Volume 2)
=
Time to complete one cycle
= + 1800 + 30
Overall rate of filtration
Page | 151

=
7.3.14)
+ 1800 + 30
The total volume of filtrate per cycle is given as

=

. (7.3.15)
,
Rate of filtration
=
Mass of filtrate
=
88,962 /
= 24.71 /
3600
Rate of filtration
=
24.71 /
= 0.0235 3 /
1050 /3
Volume of cake deposited by unit volume of filtrate is given as (Chemical Engineering Design,
Coulson: Volume 2)
=
1 1
Concentration of the insoluble in the entering stream

=
312 /
= 0.003498
89,188 /
Volume of cake deposited by unit volume of filtrate is therefore

=
0.003498 1050
1 0.003498 1 0.225 2700 0.003498 0.225 1050
= 0.001762
The frames are assumed to be square with side of 1m,

Page | 152

Volume of frames
= 2
Where = 1 1 = 1 2
Volume of frames= 1 2 = 2
Using equation (7.3.13),
=
2
2
=
= 1135.07
0.001762
Given equation (7.3.12),
2
=
( + )
Upon integrating at V=0 when t=0 and V=V when t=tf yields,
2
2
=
2

Substituting the values obtained in the above equation yields
(2 1)2 6 105
(1135.07)2
=
2
2.21 1011 0.075 0.001762
2.4 106
6.442 10 =
29.205 106
5
= 78.39 105 2 . . (7.3.15)

Substituting the above results into equation (7.3.13i)
0.0235 =
1135.07
78.39 105 2 + 1800 + 30
Making the subject of the above equation

184216.52 + 42.3 + 0.705 = 1135.07
Hence
Page | 153

184216.52 + 42.3
=
. (7.3.16)
1135.07 0.705
is a minimum when = 0, that is when:
209.099 106 2 259745 48013 = 0
Solving the above quadratic equation yields:
= . .
Number of frames
It is determined by using equation (7.3.14) and substituting the obtained values from the above
calculations for the plate thickness:
184216.5 0.01582 + 42.3
1135.07 0.0158 0.705
= 5.12
Therefore a minimum of 6 frames must be used.
The sizes of frames which will give exactly the required rate of filtration when six are used are
given by substituting the value of = 6 into the equation:
0.0235 =
1135.07 6
78.39 105 2 + 1800 + 30 6
Or:
184216.52 6810.42 + 46.53 = 0
Solving the above equation yields:
= 0.0090 0.0279
Thus, 6 frames of thickness either 9 mm or 27.9 mm will give exactly the required ltration rate;
intermediate sizes give higher rates.
Thus any frame thickness between 9 mm and 27.9 mm will be satisfactory. In practice, however
20 mm (0.78 in) frames have been chosen.
Filtration area
The area of filtration is determined as follows:
Page | 154

=2
= 2116
=
Where is the length and width of the square plates.
Time of filtration
This is determined using equation (7.3.14i):
= 78.39 105 2
Since the chosen thickness is = 0.020 ,
= 78.39 105 0.022
=
Total time for filter batch cycle
The time to complete one batch cycle is given by equation (7.3.11) written here as
= + 1800 + 30
= 3136 + 1800 + 30 6
= + 1800 + 30
=
Cake deposition
This is determined using the following equation:
=
= 0.001762
0.0235
12
= 3.450 106 /
Page | 155

Volumetric flow rate of liquid in the exit stream
This is determined as follows:
=
Where = 3 (/3 )
=
2700
=
= 9.493 /3
1 1 1 1 1 1
=
24.77 0.003498
9.493
= 9.13 103 3
Table 7. 6 Summary of Chemical Engineering design
Design parameter
Rate of cake formation
Filtrate volumetric flow rate
Total filtration area
Filtration time
Total time for filter batch cycle
Number of frames
Thickness of frame
Filter pressure difference
Filter operating temperature
Specification
0.126 kg/s
0.0235 m3/s
12 m2
3136 seconds
5116 seconds
6
20 mm
4 bar
80 C

The plate-and-frame press consists of several sets of two square plates (one for juice and the
other for water inlet) and a frame. The face of the plates is covered with lter cloth. The
arrangement of plates and frame starts with a solid head and continues in the following way:
juice plate, frame, water plate, frame, juice plate, frame, water plate, and so on. The sets sit
vertically in a metal rack, and a screw squeezes them together. Each cycle consists of the
following steps:
Page | 156

1. Filtration: Feed is pumped into one end of the assembly and passes through an inlet channel,
which runs through the entire assembly. The channel feeds the frames, where the solids
gradually are collected. The juice passes the lter cloth and the plates, enters the juice-outlet
channel, and goes out from the discharge end. Filtration continues until juice no longer ows
out the discharge end. When the frames are full of solid (it usually takes one hour), the press is
said to be jammed.
2. Cake washing: The inlet for feed is closed and wash water (about 60C) enters to de-sweeten
the cake.
3. Cake drying: Low-pressure steam or compressed air is blown through the cake to reduce the
water content of the cake.
4. Cake emptying: The assembly is opened manually to drop the cake from the plates.
5. Cleaning: The plates, frames, and lter cloths are cleaned for next cycle.
Material of construction
Many factors have to be considered when selecting engineering materials, but for chemical
process plant the overriding consideration is usually the ability to resist corrosion.
The most important characteristics to be considered when selecting a material of construction
are (Coulson and Richardsons Chemical Engineering Vol. 6):
1. Mechanical properties:
Strength-tensile strength.
Stiffness-elastic modulus (Youngs modulus).
Toughness-fracture resistance.
Hardness-wear resistance.
Fatigue resistance.
Creep resistance.
2. The effect of high and low temperatures on the mechanical properties.

3. Corrosion resistance.
Page | 157

4. Any special properties required; such as, thermal conductivity, electrical resistance,
magnetic properties.
5. Ease of fabrication forming, welding, casting.
6. Availability in standard sizes plates, sections, tube.
7. Cost
The structural frame and other external parts of the filter which is used to support the entire
filter press will be made of AISI 304 stainless steel. This material contains the minimum Cr and
Ni that give a stable austenitic structure.
The plates and frames which are 1 m 1m in dimension will be constructed using AISI 321
stainless steel. It has a slightly higher strength than type 304, and is more suitable for relatively
high-temperature use.
In construction of the liner pipes, AISI 321 stainless steel is used.
Filter medium/cloth
The lter cloth must meet general requirements for any type of lter and particular
requirements for individual lters. In general, the lter cloth must have the following
properties:
Retains solids
Not plug easily
Produce clear filtrate
Be not expensive
Be thermally resistant
Be chemically resistant
Be strong and not wear easily
Allow solids to be discharged easily
Page | 158

The lter cloth made from polypropylene meets all the above requirements. Hence it is chosen
as the material for the filter medium. It is resistant to hydrochloric acid less than 3% (used for
cleaning).
Filter plate type
The type of frame and plate used is the caulked and gasketed shown below.
Figure 7. 14 Caulked and gasketed frame (www.durcofilters.com)

Slurry inlet pipe diameter
The slurry inlet pipe diameter is calculated from the equation of economic pipe diameter
(Coulson and Richardsons Chemical Engineering Vol. 6).
For stainless steel pipe:
, = 260 0.53 0.37
Where,
= , /
= , /3
= ,
, = 260 24.770.53 10900.37
, = . ,
Filtrate outlet pipe diameter
The outlet pipe diameter is calculated from the equation of economic pipe diameter (Coulson
and Richardsons Chemical Engineering Vol. 6).
Page | 159

For stainless steel pipe:
, = 260 0.53 0.37
Where,
= , /
= , /3
= ,
, = 260 24.710.53 10500.37
, = . ,
Flanges
Standard flanges (Coulson and Richardsons Chemical Engineering Vol. 6) are used in the plate
and frame filter to join the pipes to the filter structure. The following is a detail of the
specifications.
Figure 7. 15 Steel welding neck flanges, 6 bar
= 139.7
= 240 , = 18, 1 = 48, 4 = 178, = 3, 2 = 18, = 200, 3 = 155, = 8 (All
dimensions in mm)
Bolting type M16 with 8 bolts.
Page | 160

Valves
A valve selected for shut-off purposes should give a positive seal in the closed position and
minimum resistance to ow when open. Since the filter will be cleaned on an hourly basis a
plug valve is chosen for the filter press. This valve is also directional.
Table 7. 7 Summary of mechanical design
Design parameter
Motor type
Material of construction for rack (supporting)
Material of construction of liner pipes
Material of construction of plates and frames
Inlet pipe diameter
Outlet pipe diameter
Filter cloth
Plate and frame type
Pump type
Pumping pressure
Pipe inlet and outlet thickness
Specification
Hydraulic
AISI 304 stainless steel
125 mm
125 mm
Polypropylene
Caulked and gasketed
Centrifugal
6 bar
7.35 mm
Page | 161
CHAPTER EIGHT
8.0 PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The measurement of a process variable, the comparison of that variable with its respective set
point, and the manipulation of the process in a way that will hold the variable at its set point
when the set point changes or when a disturbance changes the process is known as process
control. Process control is used to maintain a variable in a process plant at a set point or to
cause it to respond to a set point change. The most common method used in process control is
the PID (proportional, integral, derivative) control algorithm.
Instruments are provided to monitor the key process variables during plant operation. They
may be incorporated in automatic control loops, or used for the manual monitoring of the
process operation. They may also be part of an automatic computer data logging system.
Instruments monitoring critical process variables will be tted with automatic alarms to alert
the operators to critical and hazardous situations.
A control system consists of four stages. First, the item to be controlled must be measured. This
reading must then be compared with some desired value, called the set point. Depending on
the result of this comparison, a decision must be made whether some variable(s) in the process
should be changed. Then if a change is indicated, the amount of change required must be
determined and it must be instituted. The comparison, decision making and size change
determination are considered part of the controller.
8.2 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL OBJECTIVES
The primary objectives of the designer when specifying instrumentation and control schemes
are (Coulson and Richardson, volume 6),
1. Safe plant operation:
a) To keep the process variables within known safe operating limits.
Page | 162

b) To detect dangerous situations as they develop and to provide alarms and
automatic shut-down systems.
c) To provide interlocks and alarms to prevent dangerous operating procedures.
2. Production rate: To achieve the design product output.
3. Product quality: To maintain the product composition within the specied quality
standards.
4. Cost: To operate at the lowest production cost, commensurate with the other
objectives.
8.3 THE FEEDBACK CONTROL LOOP
Feedback control utilizes a loop structure with negative feedback to bring a measurement to a
desired value, or set point. A block diagram of a typical process control loop is shown in Figure
below, with key elements of the loop being the controller, valve, process, and measurement.
Note that in addition to the set point entering the loop, there is also a load shown. Changes in
set point move the process to anew value for the controlled variable, whereas changes in load
affect the process resulting in a disturbance to the controlled variable.
Load
Set point
Controller
Valve
Process
Controlled
variable
Measurement
Figure 8. 1 Block diagram of a control loop

The control loop must respond to either a change in set point or a change in the load, by
manipulating the valve in a manner that affects the process and restores the controlled variable
to its set point. Reacting to set point changes is called servo operation, and reacting to load
Page | 163

changes is called regulator operation. Control loop performance is determined by the response
characteristics of the block elements in the loop: the controller, valve, process and
measurement.
The components of the feedback control loop system will include:
Primary sensors: thermocouples, resistance temperature detectors (RTD) or

thermometers for temperature; orifice plates, turbine, magnetic flow meters for flow
and differential pressure cells for pressure or level.
Transmitters: Transmitters convert the sensor signal into a control signal for use by
recorders, indicators or controllers (for flow, temperature, pressure, etc.)
Controllers: typically proportional (P), proportional-integral (PI) or proportional-integralderivative (PID) forms or model based controllers.
Signal conditioning: ensuring signals are normalized for processing (based on range and
zero of instruments).
Final control elements: normally control valves and the diaphragms or motors that drive
the valve stem, plus the basic valve characteristic (proportional, equal percentage, quick
opening).
8.4 TYPICAL CONTROL SYSTEMS

Flow, level, and pressure are process variables that can be controlled by manipulating their own
process stream. Flow control is typically used to establish throughput, whereas level and
pressure are measures of liquid and gas inventory, which must be maintained to establish the
overall process material balance.
8.4.1 Flow controller
Flow control is probably the most common control loop in most processes. Typically a liquid or
gas flow rate is maintained in a pipe by a throttling valve downstream of the measurement.
These consist of flow meters (liquid and gas) which measure, report and record fluctuating flow
variables for the necessary counter action to be taken.
Page | 164
Figure 8. 2 Flow controller used to control the flowrate of

CaCl2 and anti-foaming agent to the diffuser
8.4.2 Pressure controller
Pressure in a pipe line may be controlled by manipulating either the inlet or outlet flow.
Pressure is an integrating process, usually with negligible dead time; therefore high gain and
long integral time are recommended tuning. A pressure regulator is a self-contained valve and
field controller with high gain about a preset set point.
Figure 8. 3 Figure showing a pressure controller used to maintain

the correct pressure in a boiling pan
Page | 165

8.4.3 Temperature controller
Various thermal sensitive instruments are used to regulate this parameter; they may be thermostats,
thermocouples or digital thermometers. These transmit temperature data to controllers which then
regulate the amount of steam or cooling water supplied to the equipment in question.
Figure 8. 4 showing a temperature controller used to control the flow of steam to heat
exchanger thus controlling the temperature of exit stream flowing to carbonation tank 1
8.4.4 Level controller

Level control can be designed into the process with gravity, pressure and elevation determining
outlet flow. They are installed to detect rising levels of fluids in holding vessels and prevent
spillage upon attaining the maximum capacity.
Figure 8. 5 showing a level controller used to maintain

thin juice level inside the carbonation
Page | 166
CHAPTER NINE
9.0 ECONOMIC AND PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Chemical plants, like any other investment are built to make a profit, and an estimate of the
investment required and the cost of production are needed before the profitability of a project
can be assessed.
An acceptable plant design must present a process that is capable of operating under
conditions which will yield profit. Since net profit = total income all expenses, it is essential
that the chemical engineer be aware of different types of costs involved in manufacturing
process. Capital must be allocated for direct plant expenses (e.g. raw material, labour,
equipment) and indirect expenses (e.g. administration, sales). The total investment for any
project consists of fixed capital investment and the working capital.
Factors affecting investment and production costs
(i)
Equipment cost is a major cost in a chemical process industry. A reduction can be

made by the use of idle equipment capacity, purchase of second hand equipment, use
of standard type equipment. For fabricated equipment, invite quotations.
(ii)
Price fluctuations in salaries and wages - wages fluctuate from time to time and place to
place.
(iii)
Company policies - about labour, safety regulations, depreciation calculations etc.
(iv)
Rate of production and operating time - when equipment stands idle labour costs are
usually low but other costs such as maintenance, protection and depreciation continue.
Fixed costs remain the same irrespective of production rate. Total product cost
increases as rate of production increases. At Break-even point
Total product cost = Total income (all products sold)
(v)
Government Policies on imports and exports - rate of depreciation, income tax, and
environment regulations etc.
Page | 167

9.2 PLANT DEVELOPMENT TIMELINE
9.2.1 Expected Dates
Commencement of construction : June 2014
Completion of construction: June 2016
Commencement of operation: January 2017
9.2.2 Plant Operation Specifications

Daily Operation Time: 24 hrs
Number of shifts: 3
Weekly Operation Time: 6 days with every 7th day used for equipment cleaning and maintenance.
9.3 CAPITAL INVESTMENT

9.3.1 Fixed Capital Investment (FCI)
This is the capital needed to supply the necessary manufacturing and plant facilities. It can be
manufacturing or non-manufacturing cost. It includes:
Direct cost
Purchased equipment
Purchase equipment installation
Instrumentation and control
Piping
Electrical equipment and materials
Buildings (including services such as heating, air-conditioning etc)
Yard improvement
Service facilities :
-
Utilities - steam, water etc.
facilities e.g. electric, substation, ref. Plant
non-process equipment - e.g. office furniture
distribution and packaging

Page | 168
Land
Indirect cost
Engineering and supervision
Construction expenses
Contractor's fee
Contingency
9.3.2 Working Capital (WC)

Working capital is the additional money needed, above what it cost to build the plant to start
the plant up and run it until it starts earning income. It includes the cost of:
1. Value of raw material inventory usually estimated as 2weeks delivered cost of raw
materials;
2. Value of product and by product inventory estimated as 2weeks cost of production;
3. Cash on hand estimated as 1 weeks cost of production;
4. Accounts receivable products shipped but not yet paid forestimated as 1months cost
of production;
5. Credit for accounts payable feedstock, solvents, catalysts, packaging, etc. received but
not yet paid for estimated as 1 months delivered cost;
6. Spare parts inventory
Most of the working capital is recovered at the end of the project. Working Capital is estimated
to be 14.2% of the FCI.
Total Capital Investment
The total investment needed for a project is the sum of the fixed capital investment (FCI) and
working capital (WC).i.e.
= +
Page | 169

9.3.3 Estimation of the Cost of Purchased Equipment
Before the plant is fully operational, all the necessary equipment components must be
purchased and installed. The costs for all the equipment in our plant is obtained based on the
formula below, Chemical Engineering Design Principles Practice and Economics of Plant and
Process Design, 1983.
= +
Where:
=
, =
=
=
Based on Marshall and Swift Equipment Cost Indexes
2006 = 499.6
2011 = 585.7
= 585.7 499.6 = 1.1723 ( 2006. )
Page | 170

Table 9. 1 Purchased equipment cost
Ce(BASE YEAR
2006), $
Ce(CURRENT YEAR
2011), $
NUMBER OF
EQUIPMENT
TOTAL , $
22.3246
16,662.31
19,533.22
19,533.22
12
25,080.00
29,401.28
29,401.28
340
14
25,760.00
30,198.45
30,198.45
21000
340
10
24,400.00
28,604.12
28,604.12
16.00
21000
340
16
26,440.00
30,995.61
30,995.61
Screen 1
3.80
400
120
14.44
2,132.80
2,500.28
2,500.28
Screen 2
2.50
400
150
6.25
1,337.50
1,567.95
1,567.95
Screen 3
2.50
400
150
6.25
1,337.50
1,567.95
1,567.95
Screen 4
4.00
400
150
16
2,800.00
3,282.44
3,282.44
Stone separator
4.75
400
300
22.5625
7,168.75
8,403.93
8,403.93
Trash separator
7.50
200
240
56.25
13,700.00
16,060.51
16,060.51
Beet pump
121.10
3300
48
1.2
316.063
18,471.00
21,653.55
21,653.55
Pump 1
26.00
3300
48
1.2
49.8848
5,694.47
6,675.63
6,675.63
Pump 2
26.16
3300
48
1.2
50.2534
5,712.16
6,696.37
6,696.37
Pump 3
26.20
3300
48
1.2
50.3456
5,716.59
6,701.56
6,701.56
Pump 4
26.20
3300
48
1.2
50.3456
5,716.59
6,701.56
6,701.56
Pump 5
25.80
3300
48
1.2
49.4247
5,672.38
6,649.74
6,649.74
Pump 6
25.80
3300
48
1.2
49.4247
5,672.38
6,649.74
6,649.74
Pump 7
7.20
3400
52
1.5
19.3196
4,404.62
5,163.54
5,163.54
Washer
33.00
900
400
0.8
16.3988
7,459.51
8,744.78
8,744.78
Slicer
81.10
1220
990
0.9
52.2539
52,951.37
62,074.89
62,074.89
Diffuser
25.99
100
14000
0.7
9.78058
137,028.05
160,637.99
160,637.99
Heat exchanger 1
70.00
1100
850
0.4
5.47065
5,750.06
6,740.79
6,740.79
EQUIPMENT
SIZE, S
Hopper
177.00
5500
500
0.6
Belt conveyor 1
12.00
21000
340
Belt conveyor 2
14.00
21000
Belt conveyor 3
10.00
Belt conveyor 4
Page | 171

Heat exchanger 2
80.00
1100
850
0.4
5.7708
6,005.18
7,039.87
7,039.87
Heat exchanger 3
50.00
1100
850
0.4
4.78176
5,164.50
6,054.34
6,054.34
Heat exchanger 4
70.00
1100
850
0.4
5.47065
5,750.06
6,740.79
6,740.79
Lime tank
Carbonation tank
1
Carbonation tank
2
23.92
5900
900
0.7
9.22854
14,205.68
16,653.32
33,306.64
23.86
5900
900
0.7
9.21233
14,191.09
16,636.22
49,908.66
15.90
5900
900
0.7
6.93391
12,140.52
14,232.33
28,464.65
Sulphitation tank
23.54
5900
1200
0.7
9.12566
16,850.80
19,754.19
19,754.19
Syrup tank 1
31.40
5700
700
0.7
11.1648
13,515.36
15,844.05
47,532.16
Syrup tank 2
Rotary drum
filter
14.50
5700
700
0.7
6.50066
10,250.46
12,016.62
24,033.24
23.52
-45000
57000
0.3
2.57888
101,996.18
119,570.12
119,570.12
Filter press
0.60
32000
18000
0.5
0.7746
45,942.74
53,858.67
107,717.35
Evaporator
47.26
18000
14000
0.6
10.1087
159,522.10
187,007.76
748,031.03
Melter
14.50
14000
15400
0.7
6.50066
114,110.20
133,771.39
133,771.39
Boiling Pan
8.82
17500
13500
0.6
3.69217
67,344.23
78,947.64
236,842.93
Mixer
14.53
5500
620
0.8
8.50771
10,774.78
12,631.27
37,893.82
Centrifuge
Screw conveyor
1,2,3
1.00
24000
26000
0.8
50,000.00
58,615.00
175,845.00
2.50
21000
340
2.5
21,850.00
25,614.76
76,844.27
Screw conveyor 4
8.00
35000
378
38,024.00
44,575.54
44,575.54
Screw conveyor 5
10.00
35000
391
10
38,910.00
45,614.19
45,614.19
Feeder
Rotary drum
dryer
Total purchased
equipment cost,
IE
1.03
2700
500
0.7
1.02091
3,210.45
3,763.61
3,763.61
35.03
-7400
5400
0.9
24.5469
125,153.10
146716.9771
1.00
146,716.9771
2,577,226.63
Page | 172

Table 9. 2 Total capital cost estimates
Direct cost
Purchased Equipment cost
Cost ($)
purchased Equipment cost

Equipment Delivery cost
100.00%
10.00%
2,577,226.63
257,722.66
Delivered Equipment cost, ID
2,834,949.29
Direct Cost
% of ID
Cost ($)
Purchased Installation
39.00%
1,105,630.22
Instrumentation and control

Piping installed
13.00%
31.00%
368,543.41
878,834.28
Electrical
Buildings
10.00%
29.00%
283,494.93
822,135.29
Yard Improvement
Service Facilities
Land
Total Direct Plant Cost
10.00%
55.00%
6.00%
283,494.93
1,559,222.11
170,096.96
8,306,401.42
Indirect cost
% of ID
Cost ($)
Engineering & supervision

Construction
32.00%
34.00%
907,183.77
963,882.76
Contractors fee
Contingency
18.00%
36.00%
510,290.87
1,020,581.74
Startup expense
Total indirect cost
35.00%
992,232.25
4,394,171.40
Total FCI (Fixed Capital investment)
12,700,572.82
Table 9. 3 Total capital cost
Total FCI
Working capital
Total Capital investment (FCI)
% of TCI
14.29%
Cost ($)
12,700,572.82
85.71%
2,097,862.47
14,798,435.29
Page | 173

9.3.4 Total Product Cost
This is the cost involved in the manufacture of goods and sale of products. It can be estimated
on one of the three bases:
Daily basis
Unit-of-product basis
Annual basis
The annual basis is chosen for the calculation of the total product cost because it smoothes the
effect of seasonal variations; if the equipment are not in use full time, it takes care of; more
convenient to calculate cost for plant operation on less full capacity; convenient for infrequent
but large production expenses.
Total production cost is made up of:
1. Manufacturing costs and
2. General Expenses.
Manufacturing cost is divided into:
Direct production costs
Raw material cost
Power and utilities cost
Operating labour
Royalties
Maintenance and repair
Laboratory charges
Catalysts and solvents
Fixed charges
These are costs not affected by the level of production and include
Depreciation
Taxes(property)
Insurances
Page | 174
Rent
Plant overheads costs
Medical
Safety and protection
General plant overhead- payroll, packaging, restaurant, recreation, salvage, labs and
storage.
The general expenses

These are costs associated with management and administrative activities not directly related
to the manufacturing process. They include:
Administration cost
Ware housing
Distribution and marketing costs
Research and development
Raw Materials Cost Estimates

Table 9. 4 Annual raw material cost estimates
Name of material
Price, $/tonne
Annual amount
tonne/yr.
Annual raw
material, $/yr.
Raw sugar beet
49.40
612,000.00
30,232,800.00
Carbon dioxide
Anti-foaming agent
20.00
220.00
676.80
57.60
13,536.00
12,672.00
Calcium hydroxide
Sulphur dioxide
Calcium chloride
Total raw material cost
180.00
850.00
150.00
3,859.20
192.80
720.00
694,656.00
163,880.00
108,000.00
31,225,544.00
Page | 175

Utilities Cost Estimates
Table 9. 5 Utility Cost Estimates (Annual)
Utilities
% of FCI
Cost ($)
Electricity
Fuel
Waste disposal
1.00%
0.10%
1.50%
127,005.73
12,700.57
190,508.59
Steam
1.00%
127,005.73
Raw material storage

Finished product storage
Safety installation
Hot water
0.50%
1.50%
0.40%
1.00%
63,502.86
190,508.59
50,802.29
127,005.73
Process water
Hot air
Communication
Total
0.80%
1.00%
0.20%
101,604.58
127,005.73
25,401.15
1,143,051.55
Depreciation
Initial expenses in equipment, buildings etc. is written off as a manufacturing expense. A
decrease in value (depreciation) is assumed to occur throughout the usual life of the material
possessions.
Depreciation (D) is calculated based on declining balance method:
= (1 )
Where:

The table below gives the depreciation values for all the years, including the salvage value( )
at the end of the plant life(20 ).
Page | 176

Table 9. 6 Annual Depreciation
V
Va
12,530,475.86
11,167,798.37
1
2
11,167,798.37
9,953,310.77
1,362,677.49
1,214,487.60
9,953,310.77
8,870,897.56
1,082,413.21
8,870,897.56
7,906,195.77
964,701.79
7,906,195.77
7,046,404.40
859,791.37
7,046,404.40
6,280,114.53
6
7
6,280,114.53
5,597,157.97
766,289.87
682,956.56
5,597,157.97
4,988,472.29
608,685.68
4,988,472.29
4,445,980.61
9
10
4,445,980.61
3,962,484.39
542,491.68
483,496.22
3,962,484.39
3,531,567.93
3,147,513.23
2,805,224.12
2,500,158.63
11
12
13
14
15
3,531,567.93
3,147,513.23
2,805,224.12
2,500,158.63
2,228,268.72
430,916.46
384,054.70
342,289.11
305,065.49
271,889.91
2,228,268.72
1,985,946.59
1,769,976.76
1,577,493.45
1,405,942.52
16
17
18
19
20
1,985,946.59
1,769,976.76
1,577,493.45
1,405,942.52
1,253,047.59
242,322.13
215,969.83
192,483.31
171,550.93
152,894.93
Page | 177

Operating Labour Cost Estimates
Table 9.7 Annual Operating labour cost estimates
Department
Administration
Accounting
Sales and
marketing
Production
Quality control
Supporting staff
Total Operating
Costs($)
Job description
General manager
Number
1
Monthly pay($)
2700
Annual pay($)
32,400.00
Human resource manager

Marketing manager
1
1
2000
2000
24,000.00
24,000.00
Procurement Manager
Clerk
1
2
2000
400
24,000.00
9,600.00
Secretary
300
14,400.00
Receptionist
250
3,000.00
Tea girl
Finance manager
1
1
150
2000
1,800.00
24,000.00
Clerk
Accountant
Secretary
1
2
2
400
750
300
4,800.00
18,000.00
7,200.00
Sales representative
750
9,000.00
Clerk
Secretary
Production manager
Engineers
Supervisors
operators
Technicians
Casuals
Chemists
Chief security officer
1
1
1
5
8
22
10
50
4
1
400
300
2200
1800
800
500
500
150
400
1000
4,800.00
3,600.00
26,400.00
108,000.00
76,800.00
132,000.00
60,000.00
90,000.00
19,200.00
12,000.00
Guards
150
14,400.00
Cafeteria
Drivers
10
4
250
315
30,000.00
15,120.00
788,520.00
Page | 178

Total Product Cost
Table 9. 7 Total product cost estimates
Direct product costs
Raw material
Factor
-
Cost ($)
31,225,544.00
788,520.00
1,143,051.55
Maintenance (5% of FCI)

Laboratory charges (10% of OLC)
7%
10%
889040.0972
78852
Operating supplies (15% of maintenance)

Total direct product cost
15%
133356.0146
34,258,363.67
3.0%
2%
563,871.41
381,017.18
254,011.46
1,198,900.05
General expenses
Plant overhead costs (7% of TPC)
Administrative costs (10% of TPC)
7.00%
10.00%
3,259,795.70
4,656,851.00
Distribution and marketing (2% of TPC)

Research and development (2% of TPC)
2.00%
2.00%
931,370.20
931,370.20
Financing (9% of TCI)

Total general expenses
9.00%
1,331,859.18
11,111,246.28
operating labour costs

Utilities
Fixed charges
Depreciation (10% of FCI)
Property taxes (3% of FCI)
Insurance (2% of FCI)
Total fixed charges
Total Product cost

Profit margin, 20% (of TPC)
Total product sales
46,568,510.00
20%
9,313,702.00
55,882,212.00
Page | 179

9.4 ANNUAL CASH FLOW ANALYSIS
9.4.1 Annual Sales
The annual sales for our product (sugar) are shown in the table below:
Table 9. 8 Annual sales from the product

Price,
$/tonne
810.3381012
Annual amount, tonne/yr

68961.6
Annual value of product

55,882,212
Annual cash flow analysis is based on the formulas below:

= 35% = 9,020,029.3205
=
=
=
= 1
= +

= +
The following assumptions were also used for the calculation:
Income tax is charged at 30% of the gross profit
The production capacity in the first year is only 75%
All the products are on demand.
The annual cash flow is tabulated below:
Page | 180

Table 9.10 Annual cash flow
Year
Capacity
of plant
Annual sales, $
Annual TPC, $
Annual
depreciation, $
Gross income, $
Net income, $
Annual Cash flow,

$
Cumulative cash
flow, $
0%
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
-14,798,435.29
75%
41,911,659.00
34,926,382.50
1,362,677.49
5,622,599.01
3,935,819.30
5,298,496.80
-9,499,938.49
100%
55,882,212.00
46,568,510.00
1,214,487.60
8,099,214.40
5,669,450.08
6,883,937.68
-2,616,000.81
100%
55,882,212.00
46,568,510.00
1,082,413.21
8,231,288.79
5,761,902.15
6,844,315.36
4,228,314.55
100%
55,882,212.00
46,568,510.00
964,701.79
8,349,000.21
5,844,300.15
6,809,001.94
11,037,316.48
100%
55,882,212.00
46,568,510.00
859,791.37
8,453,910.63
5,917,737.44
6,777,528.81
17,814,845.30
100%
55,882,212.00
46,568,510.00
766,289.87
8,547,412.13
5,983,188.49
6,749,478.36
24,564,323.66
100%
55,882,212.00
46,568,510.00
682,956.56
8,630,745.44
6,041,521.81
6,724,478.37
31,288,802.03
100%
55,882,212.00
46,568,510.00
608,685.68
8,705,016.32
6,093,511.43
6,702,197.10
37,990,999.13
100%
55,882,212.00
46,568,510.00
542,491.68
8,771,210.32
6,139,847.22
6,682,338.90
44,673,338.03
10
100%
55,882,212.00
46,568,510.00
483,496.22
8,830,205.78
6,181,144.05
6,664,640.27
51,337,978.30
11
100%
55,882,212.00
46,568,510.00
430,916.46
8,882,785.54
6,217,949.88
6,648,866.34
57,986,844.64
12
100%
55,882,212.00
46,568,510.00
384,054.70
8,929,647.30
6,250,753.11
6,634,807.81
64,621,652.45
13
100%
55,882,212.00
46,568,510.00
342,289.11
8,971,412.89
6,279,989.02
6,622,278.13
71,243,930.58
14
100%
55,882,212.00
46,568,510.00
305,065.49
9,008,636.51
6,306,045.56
6,611,111.05
77,855,041.63
15
100%
55,882,212.00
46,568,510.00
271,889.91
9,041,812.09
6,329,268.47
6,601,158.37
84,456,200.00
16
100%
55,882,212.00
46,568,510.00
242,322.13
9,071,379.87
6,349,965.91
6,592,288.04
91,048,488.04
17
100%
55,882,212.00
46,568,510.00
215,969.83
9,097,732.17
6,368,412.52
6,584,382.35
97,632,870.39
18
100%
55,882,212.00
46,568,510.00
192,483.31
9,121,218.69
6,384,853.08
6,577,336.39
104,210,206.78
19
100%
55,882,212.00
46,568,510.00
171,550.93
9,142,151.07
6,399,505.75
6,571,056.68
110,781,263.46
20
100%
55,882,212.00
46,568,510.00
152,894.93
9,160,807.07
6,412,564.95
6,565,459.88
117,346,723.34
1,103,673,687.00
919,728,072.50
11,277,428.27
172,668,186.23
120,867,730.36
132,145,158.63
1,073,204,764.18
Total
Average profit
8,633,409.31
Average depreciation
563,871.41
Page | 181

Graphical Cumulative Cash Flow Analysis
Millions
Cumulative cash flow

120
100
Cumulative cash flow
80
60
40
Pay-out period
-5
WC+FC+Land
20
Break-even point
0
0
-20
10
15
20
25
Year
Figure 9. 1 Cumulative Cash Flow Curve
9.5 PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS

Profitability analysis is a measure of the attractiveness of the project. Absolute profit is of little
significance; instead the rate of return on invested capital is to be looked into.
The methods used for profit analysis of this design include:
Rate of return
Pay out period
Discounted cash flow based on full life performance
Page | 182

9.5.1 Rate of Return
Rate of return (ROR), which is the ratio of annual profit to investment, is a simple index of the
performance of the money invested.
=
For our plant, the rate of return was calculated as:

=
5,313,702
100% = 35.91 %
14,798,435.29
9.5.2 Payout period

This is the period of time theoretically necessary to recover the original capital investment in
the form of cash flow to the project based on total income minus all costs except depreciation.
Generally for this method, original capital investment means only the original, depreciable,
fixed-capital investment, and interest effects are neglected. Thus,
() =
() =
For our plant, based on the above formula;

=
16,798,435.29 170,096.96
= 2.3
6,633,409.31 + 563,871.31
9.5.3 Discounted cash flow rate of return

This method of approach for a profitability takes into account the time value of money and is
based on the amount of the investment that is unreturned at the end of each year during the
estimated life of the project.
Page | 183

A trial-and-error procedure is used to establish a maximum after-tax interest rate at which
funds could be borrowed for the investment and just break even at the end of the service life.
The trial and error calculations are tabulated in the next page.
Page | 184

Table 9. 9 Cumulative cash flow
Trial for 15%
1+i
1.15
Trial for 25%

1+i
1.25
Trial for 34%

1+i
1.34
Trial for 35%

1+i
1.35
Year
Cash flow
1/(1+i)n
Present worth
1/(1+i)n
Present worth
1/(1+i)n
Present worth
1/(1+i)n
Present worth
1
2
3
4
5,298,496.80
6,883,937.68
6,844,315.36
6,809,001.94
0.869565217
0.756143667
0.657516232
0.571753246
4607388.52
5205245.882
4500248.451
3893068.956
0.8
0.64
0.512
0.4096
4238797.439
4405720.114
3504289.466
2788967.193
0.746269
0.556917
0.41561
0.310156
3954102.088
3833781.287
2844563.395
2111855.817
0.740741
0.548697
0.406442
0.301068
3924812.443
3777194.885
2781817.96
2049974.145
5
6
7
8
6,777,528.81
6,749,478.36
6,724,478.37
6,702,197.10
0.497176735
0.432327596
0.37593704
0.326901774
3369629.648
2917985.753
2527980.493
2190960.122
0.32768
0.262144
0.209715
0.167772
2220860.641
1769335.255
1410225.326
1124442.085
0.23146
0.172731
0.128904
0.096197
1568727.033
1165846.623
866812.1943
644731.3806
0.223014
0.165195
0.122367
0.090642
1511480.435
1114981.338
822852.9329
607501.0708
9
10
11
12
6,682,338.90
6,664,640.27
6,648,866.34
6,634,807.81
0.284262412
0.247184706
0.214943223
0.18690715
1899537.775
1647397.146
1429128.758
1240093.02
0.134218
0.107374
0.085899
0.068719
896888.3455
715610.2996
571133.2695
455940.5209
0.071789
0.053574
0.03998
0.029836
479717.2246
357049.7465
265824.3866
197956.9559
0.067142
0.049735
0.036841
0.027289
448667.4685
331466.0308
244949.2697
181060.254
13
14
15
16
6,622,278.13
6,611,111.05
6,601,158.37
6,592,288.04
0.162527957
0.141328658
0.122894485
0.10686477
1076305.334
934339.4521
811245.9598
704483.3435
0.054976
0.04398
0.035184
0.028147
364063.5905
290759.7388
232257.6124
185556.4123
0.022266
0.016616
0.0124
0.009254
147450.0887
109851.8247
81855.55864
61004.15293
0.020214
0.014974
0.011092
0.008216
133865.4267
98992.36345
73217.28571
54162.14793
17
6,584,382.35
0.092925887
611859.5683
0.022518
148267.1095
0.006906
45470.89158
0.006086
40071.99621
18
19
20
6,577,336.39
6,571,056.68
6,565,459.88
0.080805119
0.070265321
0.061100279
531482.4493
461717.4055
401151.43
0.018014
0.014412
0.011529
118486.7589
94698.90693
75694.59882
0.005154
0.003846
0.00287
33897.1889
25272.25787
18843.8303
0.004508
0.003339
0.002474
29651.19638
21942.87918
16240.14049
Total
36353860.95
21373197.24
14860511.84
14340089.23
Ratio
2.456601676
1.444287644
1.004194805
0.969027397
Page | 185

Based on the above tabulation, for an Initial investment of $ 14,798,435.29, the DCFROR was
established to be 34%. For a project to be viable, DCFROR should be at least 10% more than the
current bank lending rate. Estimating the Bank Lending Rate (BLR) to be approximately 18%,
the difference between the DCFROR and the bank lending rate is 16% an indication that the
venture is very profitable.
9.6 BREAK-EVEN POINT (BEP) ANALYSIS
This is the point at which the total sales and the total cost of production are equal. It marks the
production rate below which the plant is operating at a loss and must therefore be exceeded.
=

= $ 810.3381/

= $ 675.2818/

( )
34,258,363.67
55,882,212/675.2818
= $ 413.98/
The break-even point is calculated as:
+ +
=
11,111,246.26 + 1,198,900.05 + 413.98 = 810.338/
= 31,058.15 /
The break-even point (QB) is at 45.03% of the maximum production capacity as shown below.
=
31,058.15
= 45.03%
68,961.6
Page | 186

The table below shows a detailed breakdown of how Total Production Cost and Sales Revenue
vary with the variable output quantities between production rates of 0 tonnes/year and
100,000 tonnes/year.
Table 9. 11 Break-even point analysis table

Output units (tonnes/yr)
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
45000
50000
55000
60000
65000
70000
75000
80000
85000
90000
95000
100000
Total Product cost,

$
12,310,146.33
14,380,046.33
16,449,946.33
18,519,846.33
20,589,746.33
22,659,646.33
24,729,546.33
26,799,446.33
28,869,346.33
30,939,246.33
33,009,146.33
35,079,046.33
37,148,946.33
39,218,846.33
41,288,746.33
43,358,646.33
45,428,546.33
47,498,446.33
49,568,346.33
51,638,246.33
53,708,146.33
Total sales, $
0.00
4,051,690.50
8,103,381.00
12,155,071.50
16,206,762.00
20,258,452.50
24,310,143.00
28,361,833.50
32,413,524.00
36,465,214.50
40,516,905.00
44,568,595.50
48,620,286.00
52,671,976.50
56,723,667.00
60,775,357.50
64,827,048.00
68,878,738.50
72,930,429.00
76,982,119.50
81,033,810.00
Page | 187
Millions
Break-even point analysis

90.00
80.00
Production cose and sales revenue

($)
70.00
Profit Zone
60.00
50.00
Sales revenue
Loss zone
40.00
Production Costs
30.00
20.00
Break Even
point
10.00
0.00
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Thousands
Rate of production
(Tonnes/year)
Figure 9. 2 Break-even Point Chart
Page | 188
CHAPTER TEN
10.0 SAFETY, HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The chemical industry has contributed tremendously to economic growth globally.
Unfortunately, chemical wastes and discharges have caused extensive environmental pollution
and damage to human health. Toxic chemicals pose environmental problems which require a
multidisciplinary effort to be resolved.
Currently the disciplines involved in management of toxic chemical chemistry, toxicology,
engineering, economics, sociology and political science and from the viewpoint of industry, we
have: government, academic and non-government organizations.
The concept of ecological sustainable industrial development motivates producers and
consumers to use products and operate industry using the best technologies to minimize
adverse environmental impact
The significance of safety and health in chemical industries is a vital issue in achieving
productivity. Industries are faced with the task of producing and using their products in a
manner that is safe for:
Persons involved with production.
Persons using the products.
Persons living near the process plants.
The environment i.e. land, air, water, plants and animals.
Industrial operations and products must undergo proper hazard assessment and industries
must put in place appropriate standards and procedures to ensure that chemical risks are kept
to a minimum.
Any manufacturing industry has a legal and moral obligation to safeguard the health and
welfare of its employees and the surrounding populace. All manufacturing processes are to
Page | 189

some extent hazardous and the designer should ensure, through the application of sound
engineering practices, that the risks are reduced to acceptable levels.
10.2 SAFETY
Safety generally means being safe or freedom from danger or risk. It is an area
of safety engineering and public health that deals with the protection of workers' health,
through control of the work environment to reduce or eliminate hazards.
Chemical process safety refers to the application of technology and management practices;
To prevent accidents in plants
To reduce the potential for accidents.
Work place hazards can generally be grouped into:
Mechanical hazards
Chemical hazards
Physical hazards
Biological hazards
Psycho-Social hazards
Unsafe working conditions and production may lead to industrial accidents and can result in:
Temporary or permanent injuries.
Fatalities.
Loss of future productivity by training new personnel
Loss of valuable work hours
Cost implications due to compensation, medical fees, insurance etc.
The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA, 2007) stipulates the guidelines for ensuring
favorable and bearable working conditions in Kenya. The Act establishes occupational, safety
and health standards to be adhered to in places of work.
Major provisions of this Act include:
Inspection of work places

Page | 190
Maintenance of accurate records of employees
Maintenance of accurate records of any toxic or harmful material whose levels

exceed those prescribed by an applicable standard.
Provides for the rights of employees to be informed of any violations by

employers cited by inspectors of work places.
The provisions of this Act are enforced by inspection officers who carry out inspections for work
places.
10.2.1 Safety Management in the beet sugar processing plant
Potential hazards in the beet sugar processing plant include the following:
Waste water from beet washer
Electrical components malfunction, electrocution and risk of electrical fires
Failure of instruments and process equipment
Risk of fires
Toxicity of the chemicals used e.g. SO2, CaCl2
Odour
Sludge and mud from the filtration operation
Leakages from equipment causing spills
High pressure steam especially in the evaporators and the crystallizer
Slips, trips and falls
Corrosion
Dust explosions
Fire Detection and Evacuation systems

Smoke and fire detectors and sensors will be installed across the plant area. A sensor, on
detecting heat or smoke, should let off an alarm to allow evacuation. The workers must always
be inducted once hired so as to know the procedures of evacuation of fire scares and periodical
training should be done as well as fire and evacuation grills.
Page | 191

Proper Housekeeping
Sugar being a human consumable product has to be produced under the highest levels of
cleanliness and hygiene. Proper housekeeping in the beet-sugar plant includes:
Storage of material as CaCO3, SO2 and others only in authorized places or neatly and
without obstruction. No material should be stored outside the demarked area.
Marking escape and transport routes e.g. The working area, pathways, corridors,
passages, rest rooms, control rooms, sub stations and wash rooms should be free from
rubbish and unwanted material.
Tidiness and clear marking of areas during plant construction.
All construction equipment to follow safety requirements.
No ignition sources
Marking equipment for identification
Good access to the site should be maintained.
All machinery and equipment should be maintained clean.
Materials should be stored and stacked in such a way as not to cause any obstruction at
the workplace or which could cause.
No materials should in such a way that it obstructs the accessibility to fire extinguishers,
first aid boxes, electrical switches, walk paths aisles and roads.
Spillages and wastes
Spillages are to be taken note off, contained and collected.
When opening valves, the risk of spillages should be considered.
Any spillage is to be reported to the Health Safety & Environment Department

immediately while possible control and containment of the spill is carried out.
All departments are provided with spill control kits. Emergency safety cupboards are
located at various locations containing personal protective equipment and spill control
kit.
Page | 192

First Aid
All emergency handling team members are trained in first aid.
First Aid boxes are available in all departments
Safety Signs and Instructions

To create the Health, Safety and Environment awareness at all levels of management and to
communicate the specific risk / hazards, at relevant locations Health, Safety and Environment
Signs, Warning Labels, Instruction to be displayed.
Labeling
All equipment and chemicals should be classified according to their risk and labeled accordingly.
Lighting
Illumination sufficient for maintaining safe working conditions are provided where ever
personnel is required to work or pass , including in passageways, stairways and landings.
No work area has illumination of less than 50 lux or otherwise specified.
Chemical Safety
All employees know the hazards of the chemicals they may deal or work with.
All employees make sure that they have a copy of the MSDS (Material Safety and Data
Sheets), read and understand it.
All employees use appropriate personal protective equipment while handling the
chemicals.
All chemical containers and bottles are labeled correctly.
Store the chemical as per the incompatibility.
Obey warning and danger signs.
Try to stop the spillage, if any, and report the same to the shift in-charge and safety
department simultaneously through your colleagues earliest possible.
Page | 193

Spacing
There should be adequate spacing between equipment and pipelines.
Emergency Contact Numbers
List of key personnel is available at emergency control center, main gate.
Safety Relief Vents, Interlocks and trip systems
For pressure vessels, relief vents are installed. Interlocks and trip systems should also be
installed in case of failure of the instruments.
Control valves
There are remote control valves to isolate equipment and areas of the plant in case of
emergency.
Inspection of equipment
Regular inspection of equipment such as evaporators, storage vessels, heat exchangers,
crystallizer (boiling pans and mixers) and pipelines helps to avoid explosions and mechanical
failure through thermal vibrations, corrosion and stresses. Frequent testing to confirm
compliance to design parameters should be conducted on the relevant equipment.
Training of workers
Specialized training of workers on chemical safety, personal protection equipment, fire
prevention and protection techniques, accidents prevention and safety management can
contribute significantly to risk management in the plant.
Accident Documentation
All accidents should be reported to the relevant section managers and eventually to the safety
manager for effective investigation.
Page | 194

Laboratory Safety
All chemicals and regent bottles are clearly labeled. They are stored in their appropriate
places.
Volatile, combustible, flammable chemicals must are stored away from direct flame and
other sources of heat.
Poisonous material must be kept locked.
Fuming cupboard must be used where toxic, irritating and flammable vapours are
involved. Exhaust fans and blowers must be kept continuously on to drive out any fumes
or vapours if present.
While handling toxic and corrosive chemicals, proper personal protective equipment.
Do not throw used solvents into the sink but, collect them in containers for recovery or
disposal.
There are energy lines and taps in laboratory. Get them inspected periodically and see
that leaks are detected and rectified quickly.
While pouring solvents which develop static charges from bigger container to smaller
container, both of them must be earthed and bonded in order to prevent fire and
explosion due to static charge buildup. Pour in manner such that the free fall of the
solvent is minimal.
Equipment Safety
All new equipment are procured as per user's safety requirement and designed
accordingly.
The equipment should be qualified for installation, operation and performance.
The Persons working on the equipment should undergo the operation training.
Page | 195

Employee Requirements
It shall be a requirement for each worker to have the following PPEs (personal protective
Equipment) within the factory premises.
Masks: for protection against solvent vapour or fumes more so those at or around the
sulphiting operation.
Protective clothing: these include overalls and dust coats to be replaced weekly for cleaning
purposes.
Protective shoes: special shoes to prevent any damage due to falling objects and also to prevent
falling or sliding.
Ear plugs: Prevent damage caused by vibration or noise produced by equipment.
Safety helmet: mandatory inside the factory to protect the head from metal objects.
Management and Safety
We as the engineers are better placed to help achieve a safe environment for the society since
we have the skills and knowledge.
Management should be at the forefront in enforcing safe engineering practices.
Organizing safety trainings and safety promotional campaigns.
Enacting rules and policies to be adhered to concerning safety, for which there are
repercussions for violations committed.
Management should ensure that they get a safety report periodically.
There should be an independent inspector doing regular safety audits.
Ensuring there is proper and regular inspection and maintenance of equipment.

10.3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)
An environmental impact assessment is a study of the possible positive and negative impact
that a proposed project may have on the environment. It is also the process of identifying,
predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of
development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments being made.
Page | 196

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) aims to ascertain:
The degree of impact of a proposed activity on the environment.
Whether impacts could be avoided or mitigated by any means or not.
All chemical process industries have chemical wastes and discharges which could cause
extensive environmental pollution and damage to human health if not controlled.
In Kenya, the government set up the National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA)
under the Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA) No.8 of the 1999, as the
principal instrument of government in the implementation of policies relating to the
environment.
NEMA has to collaborate with experts in production industries to come up with standards for
Environmental Impact Assessments and also what is called Environmental Audits.
Other organization which deals with awareness, training and waste reduction audits is Kenya
National Clearer production Center at KIRDI.
10.3.1 Environmental concerns
In the beet sugar processing plant, the bulk of the chemicals used are not toxic. The
environment areas which are prone to pollution are the soil, water and air. Generally the main
sources of pollutants are:
Waste and sludge from filters in the filtration and sulfitation operation.
Sugar dust from the rotary dryer.
Effluents from washing operation.
Vent gases released from the multiple evaporators.
Excessive water consumption and water pollution - cultivating and processing sugar crops is a
relatively water intensive process involving a number of stages that use water. Processing beets
consumes a large amount of water as they need to wash off the soil from the beets at harvest.
Waterways and aquatic habitats can be polluted by agrochemicals and other sediments used in
the cultivation process.
Page | 197

10.3.2 Waste treatment practices
These refer to the control and management of toxic substances by the application of various
treatment technologies, which include pre-treatment, waste minimization and waste disposal.
10.3.2.1 Minimization of wastes
Recycling of Used Water
Recycling of water is required so as to reduce the amount of waste water effluent generation
from the plant. All waste water pipeline systems should be checked regularly and any fault
corrected immediately.
Molasses
This is the by-product of the centrifugation operation. Molasses can be used as an animal feed
or in production of ethanol for lab and industrial use.
10.3.3.2 Disposal of wastes
Solid wastes
The main solid wastes are:
Pellets from the wet pulp pressing section
Loose soil and grit from dry screening
Little stones from the stone and trash separator
Colloids, invert sugar, proteins, phosphates and sulfates in the diffusion juice which are
precipitated and filtered out
These wastes should be properly disposed of by burying or incineration.

Liquid wastes
Liquid wastes include:
Washing solvents used to clean the vessels
Washing water used for cleaning floors and beet washing
Juice spillages from intermediate holding tanks
Sludge or mud from filtration

Page | 198

These should be treated prior to disposal into sewerage streams. This is done by treating with
the appropriate chemicals to reduce toxicity levels of the waste stream before discharge into
sewerage systems. Biological treatment methods may also be used.
Gaseous wastes
The main sources of gaseous wastes are:
Vapor Fumes from the evaporators
Dust from the dryer and loading in the warehouse
These wastes should be removed from the gaseous streams before discharge into the
atmosphere. Dust separating mechanisms can be used such as bag filters and electrostatic
precipitators. Operators should also be provided with masks to prevent exposure to fumes.
Page | 199
CHAPTER ELEVEN
11.0 HAZARD AND OPERABILITY ANALYSIS (HAZOP)
11.1 INTRODUCTION
A hazard and operability study is a procedure for the systematic, critical, examination of the
operability of a process. When applied to a process design or an operating plant, it indicates
potential hazards that may arise from deviations from the intended design conditions.
The HAZOP process is based on the principle that a team approach to hazard analysis will
identify more problems than when individuals working separately combine results.
Hazard - any operation that could possibly cause a catastrophic release of toxic, flammable or
explosive chemicals or any action that could result in injury to personnel.
Operability - any operation inside the design envelope that would cause a shutdown that could
possibly lead to a violation of environmental, health or safety regulations or negatively impact
profitability.
11.2 PURPOSE OF HAZOP
HAZOP is carried out for the following reasons:
HAZOP identifies potential hazards, failures and operability problems.
It encourages creativity in design concept evaluation.
Its use results in fewer commissioning and operational problems and better informed
personnel, thus confirming overall cost effectiveness improvement.
Necessary changes to a system for eliminating or reducing the probability of operating

deviations are suggested by the analytical procedure.
HAZOP provides a necessary management tool and bonus in so far that it demonstrates
to insurers and inspectors evidence of comprehensive thoroughness.
HAZOP reports are an integral part of plant and safety records and are also applicable to
design changes and plant modifications, thereby containing accountability for
equipment and its associated human interface throughout the operating lifetime.
Page | 200

11.3 HAZOP PROCESS
The HAZOP process is undertaken in the following procedure:
1. Divide the system into sections (i.e., reactor, storage)
2. Choose a study node (i.e., line, vessel, pump, operating instruction)
3. Describe the design intent
4. Select a process parameter
5. Apply a guide-word
6. Determine cause(s)
7. Evaluate consequences/problems
8. Recommend action: What? When? Who?
9. Record information
10. Repeat procedure (from step 2)
11.4 HAZOP CONCEPTS
a) Node
A node is a specific location in the process in which (the deviations of) the design/process intent
are evaluated.
Examples might be: separators, heat exchangers, scrubbers, pumps, compressors, and
interconnecting pipes with equipment.
b) Design Intent
The design intent is a description of how the process is expected to behave at the node; this is
qualitatively described as an activity (e.g., feed, reaction, sedimentation) and/or quantitatively
in the process parameters, like temperature, flow rate, pressure, composition, etc.
c) Deviation
A deviation is a way in which the process conditions may depart from their design/process
intent.
Page | 201
d) Parameter
The relevant parameter for the condition(s) of the process to be used (e.g. pressure,
temperature, composition).
e) Guideword
A short word used to create the imagination of a deviation of the design/process intent. The
most commonly used set of guide-words is: no, more, less, as well as, part of, other than, and
reverse.
The guidewords are applied, in turn, to all the parameters, in order to identify unexpected and
yet credible deviations from the design/process intent.
Guide-word + Parameter
Deviation
f) Cause
The reason(s) as to why the deviation could occur. Several causes may be identified for one
deviation. It is often recommended to start with the causes that may result in the worst
possible consequence.
g) Consequence
The results of the deviation, in case it occurs. Consequences may both comprise process
hazards and operability problems, like plant shut-down or reduced quality of the product.
h) Safeguard
These are facilities that help to reduce the occurrence frequency of the deviation or to mitigate
its consequences.
11.5 SAMPLE HAZOP ANALYSIS
As an illustration a HAZOP analysis was carried out on three equipments; rotary drum dryer,
heat exchanger 2 and filter press. The results of the analysis are tabulated as follows.
Page | 202

Table 11. 1 HAZOP Analysis around a Rotary Drum Dryer
Study node: Rotary Drum Dryer Exit
Deviation
Causes
- Decreased flow of hot
air
- Low temperature of
hot air
Less temperature
- Increased moisture in
feed sugar
- Increased flow rate of
material
More
temperature
-Temperature control
failure
-Increased flow of hot
air.
-High initial material
temperature
- Increased
temperature of hot air
-Less flow rate of
material
Consequences
- High moisture
content in final sugar
- Low quality sugar
- Less moisture than

required in final sugar.
- High energy
consumption.
Safeguard
- Conducting temperature profiles
for the dryer to monitor desired
temperature.
-Monitoring of material and hot air
flow rate.
- Install sensors to monitor material
and hot air flow rates
-Install low temperature alarms
Action required
- Repair/replace
malfunctioning
sensors and
valves.
- Clean fouled air
heater tubes
- Replace worn
out air induced
draft fan
- Conducting temperature profiles

for the dryer to monitor desired
temperature.
-Monitoring of material and hot air
flow rate.
- Install sensors to monitor material
and hot air flow rates
-Install high temperature alarms
- Repair/replace
malfunctioning
sensors and
valves.
- Maintenance of
alarm systems
Assigned to
Process
engineer
Process
engineer
Page | 203

Table 11. 2 HAZOP Analysis around Heat Exchanger 1
Study node: Heat Exchanger 1 Exit
Deviation
Less pressure
Causes
-Failure of pressure
control valves
-Scaling of inlet pipe
-Malfunctioning of the
inlet pump
Consequences
-Under heating of the
juice
-More pumping energy
required in the
subsequent stages
Safeguard
-Regular inspection
and maintenance of
heat exchanger
plates
-Regular
maintenance and
inspection of valves
and sensors
Action required
-Replace worn out
plates
-Repair/ replace
malfunctioning
sensors and valves
-Clean fouled plates
-Install sensors to
monitor material and
steam flow rates
-Pressure control failure
-Low temperature of
outlet juice
-Monitoring of
material and steam
flowrate
-Repair/ replace
malfunctioning
sensors and valves
-Regular
maintenance and
inspection of valves
and sensors
-Maintenance of
alarm systems
-Increased flow of steam

More pressure
-High juice entry pressure
-High energy
consumption
Assigned to
Process Engineer
Process Engineer
Page | 204

Table 11. 3 HAZOP Analysis around the Filter Press
Study node: Filter press exit
Deviation Causes
No flow
Less flow
More flow
Consequences
Safeguard
Action
- Absence of juice in 2nd

carbonation tank
- Failure of pump 4
- Clogging of filter medium
- Wrong path flow
- Blockage of pipe
- Burst pipe
- Isolation in error
- Failure of control valve
after pump 4
- No filtration occurring
- Over heating and
damage of
downstream heat
exchangers
- Human operator detection

- Alarm and level detectors for
the 2nd carbonation tank
- Regular maintenance of
pumps and valves
- Maintenance and repair of
pipes
- Regular inspection of cake
removal system
- Leakages from the inlet

pipe
- Leakages from the filter
press pipe lines
- Clogged filter medium
- Faulty plates and frames
due to high pressure build
up
- Valve stuck in partial
closed position
- Blockage of inlet pipe and
filter press pipelines
- Increased pumping
capacity
- Reduced delivery head
- Greater fluid density
- Cross connection of
systems
- Flow Control faults
- Decreased efficiency
of downstream
operations
- Less removal of
precipitates
- Overheating of
downstream heat
exchangers
- Reduced filter press
output
- Human operator detection

- Regular maintenance of
control valves
- Maintenance and repair of
pipes
- Regular inspection of cake
removal system
- Inspection and repair of

burst pipes
- Repair faulty valves and
pumps
- Inspection and repair or
replacement of faulty
level detectors.
- Unclogging of filter
medium
- Rectifying any wrong
isolation
- Repair faulty valves and
pumps
- Regular checks of
pipelines
- Installation of flow
alarms and detectors
- Unclogging of filter
medium
- Overloading of filter
press and failure
- Poor efficiency of
filter
-Regular inspection of flow

control systems.
-Maintenance of pump
- Regular maintenance of flow
controllers
- Repair of pump in case

of increased capacity
- Repair and replacement
of faulty valve
Assigned to
Process
engineer
Process
Engineer
Process
Engineer
Page | 205
CHAPTER TWELVE
12.0 PLANT LOCATION AND LAYOUT
12.1 PLANT LOCATION
Plant location refers to the choice of region and the selection of a particular site for setting up a
business or factory. The geographical location of the plant plays an important role in the
profitability and success of the plant. The proposed site for beet sugar production plant is in
Nyandarua County in Kenyas Central Province. The choice is determined by the following
reasons:
1. Raw Material
The availability and price of suitable raw material will often determine the site location. Sugar
beets are available in Nyandarua County due to the favorable climatic conditions. The location
of the plant in this region will ensure a considerable reduction in transport and storage costs of
the raw materials.
2. Climate
Beet grows in temperate climates. Nyandarua county being on the wind ward side of Abadare
Ranges is has a temperate climate. Adverse climatic conditions at a site will increase costs.
Abnormally low temperatures will require the provision of additional insulation and special
heating for equipment. Stronger structures will be needed at locations subject to high winds
(cyclone/hurricane areas) or earthquakes. Nyandarua County is ideal in that it does not
experience any adverse climatic conditions to discourage growth of beets.
3. Market
Central Kenya which harbors Nyandarua Count is the most populated region in the country. Its
environs provide a huge market for sugar. Also being 187km away from Nairobi- the capital city
provides a larger region of marketing sugar.
Page | 206

4. Labour availability
Owing to the regions high population and high rates of unemployment in the country, unskilled
labour which takes most of our human resource is available. Labour is cheap and readily
available with unemployment rates of 45%. Prevailing pay rates stand at Kshs. 400 per 8-hourworking day on unskilled labour, which is cheap.
5. Availability of utilities
Beet sugar production calls for enough electric power to run machinery and water. Fuel is
required to supply these utilities. The plant should therefore be located in an area already
covered by electrical energy supply to avoid the high cost site power generation or need for
power installation. Nyandarua is well covered by the national electrical power grid.
Beet sugar processing requires a lot of water for cooling and steam generation purposes.
Nyandarua County has adequate supply of water since it in the slopes of Abandare range. In
addition, a number of wells are present in Nyahururu district, which is a neighboring town. This
ensures adequate flow of water.
6. Site Characteristics
Sufficient and suitable land should be available for plant location and possible future expansion.
The preferred location should be well drained, ideally flat and have good load bearing
characteristics. It should also be easier for movement of modern machinery during construction
and operation and thus low initial cost of investment.
7. Environmental impact and effluent disposal
All industrial processes produce waste products. Nairobi has a well-developed sewerage
system. Effluent from the plant is not toxic and can be discharged directly into the sewerage
system.
8. Local Community
The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. This plant can be
located close to the community as it does not pose a significant risk to the community owing to
Page | 207

the nature of its products and environmental impact. The plant will be located close to Ol-Kalou
town which will provide social amenities like hospitals, churches, schools and recreational
facilities which will enable the plant to attract and accommodate employees from different
parts of Kenya and thus making them more efficient.
12.2 PLANT LAYOUT
Plant layout is used to describe the arrangement of various parts of a plant.
The process units and ancillary buildings should be laid out to give the most economical flow of
materials and personnel around the site. Hazardous processes must be located at a safe
distance from other buildings. Consideration must also be given to the future expansion of the
site.
A good plant layout should meet the following general principles:
Principle of smooth flow
Principle of overall integration of resources
Principle of minimum distance moved; for both material and personnel
Principle of satisfaction and safety.
Thus the plant layout should be such that the following are minimized:
Damage to persons or property in case of fire, explosion or toxic release.
Maintenance costs
The number of people required to operate the plant
Construction costs
The cost of planned future expansion
Other operating costs
The direction of prevailing wing should be considered such that the administrative buildings, car
park and utilities are on the upwind side while the processing plant, tank farms and burning
flames on the downwind side.
When roughing out the preliminary site layout, the process units will normally be sited first and
arranged to give a smooth flow of materials through the various processing steps, from raw
Page | 208

material to final product storage. Process units are normally spaced at least 30 m apart; greater
spacing may be needed for hazardous processes.
The location of the principal ancillary buildings should then be decided. They should be
arranged so as to minimize the time spent by personnel in travelling between buildings.
Administration offices and laboratories, in which a relatively large number of people will be
working, should be located well away from potentially hazardous processes. Control rooms will
normally be located adjacent to the processing units, but with potentially hazardous processes
may have to be sited at a safer distance. The siting of the main process units will determine the
layout of the plant roads, pipe alleys and drains. Access roads will be needed to each building
for construction, and for operation and maintenance.
Utility buildings should be sited to give the most economical run of pipes to and from the
process units. Cooling towers should be sited so that under the prevailing wind the plume of
condensate spray drifts away from the plant area and adjacent properties.
The main storage areas should be placed between the loading and unloading facilities and the
process units they serve.
Important plant layout keywords include;
Raw material Storage
Product Storage
Process Site
Laboratories
Workshop
Canteen & Change house
Fire Brigade
Central Control Room
Security office
Administrative Building
Page | 209
Site for Expansion Project.
Effluent treatment plant
Power house
Emergency water storage
Plant utilities
The beet processing plant has the following layout.
Page | 210

SECURITY
HOUSE B
DUMP
YARD
CLEANING
WEIGH BRIDGE
PROCESSING AREA
PREVAILING
WIND
DIRECTION
EXPANSION
MAIN CONTROL ROOM
TREATMENT
PLANT
OFFICES
WASTE WATER
BEET STORAGE
QUALITY
CONTROL
STORE ROOM
SUGAR SILOS
FIRE
STATION
GARAGE
PLANT UTILITIES
WORKSHOP
SUGAR
PACKAGING
AND SHIPMENT
WASH ROOMS
CANTEEN
PARKING
ADMNISTATION BLOCK
SECURITY
HOUSE C
SECURITY
HOUSE A
Page | 211
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
13.0 REFERENCES
Mosen Asadi. (2007), Handbook of Beet Sugar Technology, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons
McGniss, R.A. (1951), Beet Sugar Technology, 2nd edition, Reinhold Publishing Corporation
Hugot, E. (1986), Handbook of Cane Sugar Engineering, 3rd edition, Elsevier Publishing
Corporation
Sinnot, R.K. (2005), Coulson and Richardsons Chemical Engineering Design, 4th edition,
volume 6, Elsevier Publishing Corporation
Walker, Lewis, McAdams and Gilliland. (1926), Principles of Chemical Engineering, 3rd
edition, Reinhold Publishing Corporation
Perry, R.H., Green, D.W. and Maloney, J.O. (1997), Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook,
7th edition, Mc-Graw Hill
Willia, D.B. (1974), Preliminary Chemical Engineering Plant Design, 1st edition, Elsevier
Publishing Corporation
Bubni, K. Z. & Kadlec, P. (1996), Program for calculation of sucrose properties, other sugars
and their solutions, Berlin, (pp.2229)
Sugar Technologists manual (1978), Chemical and physical data for sugar manufacturers and
users Berlin, Germany: Bartens Publishing Company
Koolen, J.L.A. (2002), Design of simple and Robust Process Plants, 1st edition, Wiley-VCH
Verlag GmbH & Co.
Walas, S.M and et al, (2012), Chemical Process Equipment: Selection and Design, 3rd edition,
Elsevier Publishing Corporation
Page | 212

Steve, T and Wakeman R. (2007), Solid-Liquid Separation: Equipment Selection and Process
Design, 1st edition, Elsevier Publishing Corporation
Rousseuau, R. W. (1987), Handbook of Separation Process Technology, 1st edition, John
Wiley & sons
Sugar Properties. http://www.sugartech.co.za/
Wang, L. (2004), Theoretical Study of Cyclone Design, Texas A & M University. 1: 55-79
Timmerhaus, K.D. & Peters, M.S. (1991), Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers,
4th Edition, McGraw Hill Inc
Beet sugar. http://en.www.wikipedia.org/wiki/beetsugar/
Cost index. http://www.matches.com/
McCabe, W.L. Smith, J.C. & Harriott, P. (1993), Unit Operations of Chemical Engineers, 5th
Edition, McGraw-Hill, Inc
Oliver D. C. (2004), Environmental Impacts of Sugar Production: The Cultivation and
Processing of Sugarcane and Sugar Beet, Sugar Technology. 1: 44-55
Nadia M A. and Mahmood A K. (2006), Study on Effluent from Selected Sugar Mill in Pakistan:
Potential Environmental, health and Economic Consequences of an Excessive Pollution Load,
Sugar Technology. 2: 22-30
Albright L. F. (2008), Albrights Chemical Engineering Handbook, 1st edition, CRC Press
(1999), Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA) standards, 8th edition
Engineering tools. http://www.engineeringtools.com/

Seborg D. E, Edgar T. F and Duncan M. A. (2004), Process Dynamics & Control, 2nd edition,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Page | 213
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: DATA
Table A- 1 Specific heat capacities of various components
Components
Cp (kJ/kg.C)
Thin juice
4.1832
Water
4.1870
Thick juice
4.1719
Massecuite
4.1627
Molasses
4.1620
Wet sugar
2.1500
Air
1.006
Table A- 2 Overall heat transfer coefficients
Page | 214

APPENDIX B: FORMULAE
(i) Calculation of specific heat capacity of wet sugar
Specific heat capacity of wet sugar is calculated based on the formula below (Bubnik et al.
1995):
= 4.187 0.0297 4.6 105 + 7.5 105
Where:
DS = Dry substance content (for pure sucrose solutions, DS = S)

T = temperature ()
P = purity (for solutions P=100%)
(ii) Heat of crystallization of sucrose

Extrapolation for heat of crystallization at various temperatures is based on the formula below:
= 1 +
1
( 1 )
1
Available data (Kilmartin and Van Hook, 1950)

Heat of crystallization at 30C is 30.61 kJ/kg
Heat of crystallization at 57C is 95.50 kJ/kg
Upon carrying out linear interpolation,
Heat of crystallization at 74C= 136.36 kJ/kg
Page | 215

APPENDIX C: DETAILED SAMPLE MASS BALANCE CALCULATIONS
(1) Diffuser
In diffusion station, the sliced beets are kept in contact with hot water (70C) for about an hour
to diffuse the juice from the beet cells. The hot water is introduced counter currently. As water
moves ahead, it collects sugar (sucrose) and non-sugar (non-sucrose) from the cossettes and
become a concentrated impure sucrose solution known as diffusion juice. Also in this station
the following are added:
Sulphur iv oxide
Calcium chloride
Antifoaming agent
Diffusion juice contains 85% water and 15 % dry substance (DS)
The dry substance consists of 86.5% sucrose, 1.0% Insolubles and 12.5% non-sucrose.
100g/ton. Of antifoaming agent is added.
0.23 kg/ton (cossettes stream+ diffusion water) Of SO2 is added.
0.125% OB of CaCl2 is added
96% of sucrose is removed based on 15% sucrose content in cossettes.
Diffusion water content is based on the following formula:

. = . +
Where:
MPP=Mass of pressed pulp (111% OB)
The equation of conservation of mass with no accumulation is expressed as:

=
Page | 216

Overall mass balance
Stream 20(kg/hr) + Stream 21(kg/hr) + Stream 22(kg/hr) + Stream 25(kg/hr) + Stream 28(kg/hr)
= Stream 26(kg/hr) + Stream 27(kg/hr)
Component mass balance
i.
Cossettes
(20 ) = 80495 /
ii.
Water
(20 ) = 606 /
26 = 0.85 = 0.85 89349 = 75947 /
iii.
Sulphur dioxide
21 = 0.23 81,101 + 23799 = 24 /

iv.
Antifoaming agent
22 = 0.0001 80495 = 8 /
v.
Calcium chloride
24 = 0.00125 80495 = 100 /

vi.
Diffusion water
(23 )
. = . +
Where:
MPP=Mass of pressed pulp (111% OB
. = 0.184 80495 + 1.11 80495 80495 = 23665 /
Page | 217

vii.
Wet pulp water
(28 ) = 63,583 /
27 = 72,388 /
viii.
Dry substance
(28 ) = 1,298 /
27 = 8043/
ix.
Sucrose
26 = 0.865 0.15 89349 = 11593 /
x.
Non sucrose
26 = 0.125 0.15 89349 = 1675 /

xi.
Insolubles
26 = 0.125 0.15 89349 = 1675 /
Table C- 1 Summary of mass balance around diffuser

Components
Streams
Cossettes
Water
SO2
Antifoaming agent
CaCl2
Diffusion water
Wet pulp water
Dry substance
Sucrose
Non sucrose
Insolubles
Total
S20
80,495
606
81,101
S21 S22
24 8
24 8
Input(kg/hr)
Output(kg/hr)
S23
S24
S28
S26
S27
75,947
100
100
23,665
23,665
63,583
72,388
1,298
8,043
11,593
1,673
134
23,665 100 23,765 64,881 89,349 80,431
Page | 218

(2) Liming and carbonation
(i)
Liming
Milk of lime (MOL) is added to heated diffusion juice to precipitate and destabilize the nonsugars.
Assumptions:
35% on non-sugars are removed
4% of milk of lime is used
Invert sugars forms the major fraction of the non-sugars removed
2 2 4 + ()2 2 4 + 22
35
Non- sugars removed = 100 1675 = 5.86 kg/hr

Moles of 2 2 4 =
5.86
= 6.511
90
()2 = 481.82
Unreacted milk of lime=536- 481.82= 54.18 kg/hr
2 4 = 6.511 128 = 833.40 kg/hr
2 = 2 6.511 18 = 234.4 kg/hr
Page | 219

Water= 75,947 kg/hr
Non-sucrose= 1,675 kg/hr
Total= 89,349 kg/hr
S26
Water= 76,181 kg/hr
MOL= 536 kg/hr
S30
S31
Liming
Non-sucrose= 1,089 kg/hr

MOL= 55 kg/hr
Total= 89,885 kg/hr
Table C- 2 Summary of mass balance around Liming Unit

Components
Stream
Water
Sucrose
Non-sucrose
Insolubles
Milk of lime
Total
Input (kg/hr)
S26
75,947
11,593
1,675
134
89,349
S30
536
536
Output (kg/hr)
S31
76,181
11,593
1,089
967
55
89,885
Page | 220

(ii)
Carbonation
CO2 gas is added to precipitate excess lime and adjust pH and alkalinity of the juice.
Assumptions
0.7% OB of CO2 is used (S26)
The precipitation reaction and calculations based on the reaction are as follows:
()2 + 2 3 + 2
()2 = 55/
()2 =
55
= 0.75/
73
2 = = 0.75 44 = 33 /
2 = 94 33 = 61 /
2 = = 0.75 18 = 13.5 /
3 = 0.75 99 = 74.25 /
Table C- 3 Summary of mass balance around carbonation unit

Components
Stream
Water
Sucrose
Non-sucrose
Insolubles
Milk of lime
CO2
Total
Input (kg/hr)
S31
76,181
11,593
1,089
967
55
89,885
Output (kg/hr)
S32
94
94
S33
76,194
11,593
1,089
1,041
89,917
S34
62
62
Page | 221

APPENDIX D: DETAILED SAMPLE ENTHALPY BALANCE CALCULATIONS
(i)
Heat Exchanger 1( before liming)
This unit is used to the raise the temperature of the crude castor oil from 70C to 90C by using
saturated steam at 4 bars from the low pressure boiler.
Sensible heat loss to the environment is assumed to 0.06%.
A schematic of the unit is shown in the diagram below:
Steam in (140)
3,011.91kg/hr
Thin juice (70)

89,349 kg/hr
Heat Exchanger 1
QL
Thin juice (86)

89,349kg/hr
Steam condensate (80)

3,011 kg/hr
The amount of energy required to effect temperature rise is given by the expression below.
=
Where,
= /
= /
= /.
=
= 89349.00 4.1832 . 90 70 = 7,177,941.26 /

Accounting for sensible heat loss (QL), the total energy to be supplied by the latent heat of
vaporization of steam at 4 bar is given by;
Page | 222

=
7,177,941.26
= 7,182,250.61 /
(1 0.0006)
Mass flow rate of steam required is calculated as,

=
Where = 4 = 2144.8 /
=
(ii)
7,182 ,250 .61 /

2144 .80 /
= . /
Evaporator
This is unit is the heating center and is concerned with concentrating the thin juice. In this
operation, thin juice with about 15% dry substance (DS) is concentrated to produce a thickened
juice with about 60% DS.
In this unit, the temperature of the diffusion is raised from 90C to 130C by using saturated
steam at 4 bars from the low pressure boiler.
Sensible heat loss to the environment is assumed to 0.04%.
A schematic of the evaporation unit is shown in the diagram below:
Saturated steam in (140C)
77,472 kg/hr
Evaporated water
67,635 kg/hr
Thin juice
89,032kg/hr
Evaporator
Thick juice (130C)

21,397 kg/hr
Steam condensate out (140C)

77,472 kg/hr
The mass flow rate of steam used to effect the concentration is calculated as follows:
(Heat)F + (Heat)S= (Heat)V +(Heat)P+ (Heat)C
Page | 223

Where:
F- Feed
S- Steam
V- Vapour
P- Product
C- Condensate
+ = + +
= 4.187 1 0.006 /
kJ
For feed, = 4.187 1 0.006 0.15 = 4.1832 kg .

kJ
For product, = 4.187 1 0.006 0.6 = 4.1719 kg .

The heat contents of steam (HS) and the heat content of condensate (HC) at 140C are:
HS = 2733.9 kJ/kg
HC= 589.1 kJ/kg
The enthalpy of vapor (HV) at 100C is 2676.1 kJ/kg
Calculating for heat supplied by steam to the product:
89032 4.1832 90 25 + 2733.9
= 67635 2676.1 + 21397 4.1719 130 25 + 589.1
2144.8 = 166,162,455.6 /
Accounting for sensible heat loss and getting the total heat supplied by steam;
2144.8 =
166,162,455.6 /
= 166,228,947.19 /
(1 0.0004)
Therefore mass flow rate of steam required,

=
166228947.1788
= 77503.24 /
2144.8
Page | 224

APPENDIX E: EQUIPMENT SIZING CALCULATIONS
Lime Tank
This equipment is used for the addition of milk of lime (Calcium hydroxide) to the heated
diffusion juice to precipitate and destabilize the non-sugars for easy removal. The design
chosen for this vessel is a cylindrical tank with a dome shaped top.
= 89,349 /
= 940.371 /3
=

89,349
=
= 95.01 3 /
940.371
Assumptions
The tank should be 90% full
The height to diameter ratio chosen is 2: 1 (. . = 2)
A basis of 30 minutes is taken
Two tanks are used
For 30 minutes hold up;

=
95.01
= 47.513
2
When the tank is 100% full;

=
47.51
= 52.793
0.9
52.79
= 26.3943
2
2
4
Assume H=2D
Page | 225

3
=
2
Thus,
26.394 =
3
2
Solving,
= 2.56
= 5.12
The mixing in the lime tank should be severe to ensure contact between the diffusion juice and
milk of lime. To effectively carry this out, an agitator with 4 baffles is selected.
The power requirement for baffled agitated tank is selected as 1.5 kW/m3 for slurry suspension.
(Chemical Engineering Design, Coulson vol. 6, page 490).
A summary of the sizing calculations is given below:
Table E- 1 Summary of lime tank specifications
Lime Tank
Equipment code
Service
Type
Holding time
Capacity
Diameter
Height
Agitator power
Material
Number
LT
Addition of milk of lime to heated
diffusion juice to precipitate and
destabilize the non sugars.
30 minutes
26.39m3
2.56m
5.51m
1.5 kW/m3
Stainless steel
2
Page | 226

Production of Sugar From Suugar Beet

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Production of Sugar From Suugar Beet

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SUGAR BEETS

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Kimathi Harrison Muthiorah

Saleh Taher Mohamed

Mose Lameck Ondieki

Mrs. Florence Ajiambo

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Improves the flavor of food products

Improves the sparkle in candy products

Improves the shelf life of food products

Improves the bulking property of food products

Improves the color and texture of baked products

Improves the preserving property of food products

Improves the texture (mouth-feel) of food products

Improves the foam in egg white in meringue products

Improves the release of pectin of fruits in jam products

Improves the heating rate of food products in the microwave

Improves the avor and color of food products by caramelization

Improves the taste of the food products

2.4 SUCROSE PROPERTIES

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Figure 2. 1 Molecular structure of sucrose molecule

Melting point: 185C. It undergoes caramelization at temperatures close to the melting

Colorless and odorless

The freezing-point depression (FPD) of sucrose at 50% solution is -7.6 C

It has monoclinic crystals

It is hygroscopic and can absorb up to 1% moisture

It is fermentable but will resist bacterial decomposition at high concentrations

The solubility varies as follows;

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Figure 2. 2 Solubility of sugar at different temperatures (Mosen Asadi, 2007)

2.5 SUGAR BEET

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

20.0% beet juice

5.0% beet marc

1.1% Nitrogenous (0.2% amino acids, 0.1% betaine, etc.)

0.3% Minerals (K+, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, SO42, PO43)

Figure 2. 4 Sugar Beet Compositions

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

2.6 TYPES OF SUGARS

Caster: larger crystals than icing.

2.7 OVERVIEW OF BEET SUGAR PRODUCTION

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Figure 2. 5 Purity profile during Sugar production

Sugar Production from Sugar Beet 2012/2013

Beet receiving and storage

Juice decolourization and sulfitation