A GUIDE TO THE PREPARATION OF THESES

or

A Manual for Theses Preparation

or

THE MASTER'S THESIS

A Handbook and Writer's Guide for Graduate Students

0r
THE MASTER'S THESIS
A Handbook for Graduate Students
Or
Academic Writing in English

ABSTRACT
This guide outlines the formatting standards set forth by Yerevan State University. The guide is divided into five chapters which
explain in detail the formatting requirements and submission procedures all graduate students writing a thesis at YSU must
follow.

Table of Contents

1. General Comments .................................

2. Thesis
Writing
Policy
Specifications
.............................................
3. Theses Components ....................................................................................................
4. Theses Formatting and Style
5. Steps to Avoid Plagiarism (Possible Causes to Fail) INCOMPLETE
6. Tips and Examples for Writing Thesis Statements
7. A Guide to Academic Writing in English
7.1. General Remarks (setting a goal)
7.2. Compositional Formulas (Transitions, Text generating Lexicon, Further Intentions)
7.3. References to authors and bibliography (citations, comparisons, critisism, objections)
7.4. Data Analysis: Empirical observations, data, illustrations, experiment results and their
representations)
7.5. Discussion (Scientific context:inferences, suggestions, predictions)
7.6. Concluding Remarks (Prospects, applications, summary)
7.7. Appendices (Acknowledgements)
8. Appendix (Thesis Layout)

PREFACE
Now that English has become the leading language in international scientific
communication, more and more scholars not only realize

the necessity

to read their

professional literature in English, but also feel the need to present their ideas and research results
in this language - at international conferences, on the pages of international scientific journals,
when applying for grants or launching international projects. Many also realize that translation is
only one option, and that scholars should have the ability to write their own papers in English.
There is, however, only fragmentary information on how to do it properly, to say nothing of
recommendations specially addressed to non-English-speaking scientists. The present book is a
step in this direction. It is aimed at providing multifaceted linguistic support to graduate students
and scholars of all disciplines in writing their papers in English.
The book proceeds from the notion that expressing one's ideas in a foreign language and
translating them are two quite different activities. When writing a paper in a foreign language,
the author - a specialist in a discipline and its terminology - needs to know how to express his/
her intentions idiomatically, coherently and in a stylistically adequate manner. It is precisely this
knowledge that the book provides.
"English for Scientific Purposes" is thus a reference book of a new active - type. It
does not "teach" English, but helps one use it; it encourages the expressing of one's ideas in
English instead of translating them word for word from a native language; it offers a wide range
of expressions, word combinations, phrases, speech patterns and examples characteristic of the
English academic style rather than descriptions of its peculiarities; it aids in selecting an
appropriate pattern out of a comprehensive list and at the same time directs the choice by
anticipating further steps to make the job as easy as possible.
The Guide offers concise and highly structured information on how to organize a
scientific paper, accompany it with a proper title, summary and comments, and express one's
opinions, beliefs and arguments. It consists of three parts dealing with text organization,
rhetorical devices, and text comments, respectively.
Part I offers speech patterns and phrases actively used in English to structure a scientific
paper: to state a problem, introduce materials and methods of investigation, when reviewing,
citing or commenting on the pertinent literature, describing and explaining experimental data,
drawing conclusions and outlining perspectives, etc. It also supplies formulas for crossreferences, arranging narration and appending various supplements. In addition, it gives

examples of using some Latin expressions and abbreviations, as well as the wording of
acknowledgments.

1. General Comments
This guide provides basic information about thesis preparation at Yerevan State University
by addressing many issues of content and wording, as well by setting forth the basic
requirements for organizing and formatting it. The Guide establishes the technical parameters
within which all students must work. These parameters include margins, formatting and style,
sequence of pages, and spacing. The guide can be considered necessary for students to
understand the various elements of a manuscript and general publication formatting requirements
in academic publishing. Students are responsible for obtaining and following up-to-date
guidelines.
Students must also work directly with the thesis supervisor for formatting reviews and for the
final submission of the document. The University establishes a preliminary review (predefense)
deadline approximately one month before the defense.
A thesis is a written document that entails an independent research activity undertaken to
explore some problem or topic of interest to the field. It is the culmination of an individual
research experience that may use new data or information to replicate an earlier study, a
secondary analysis of data from another study, or the product of original research based on
primary data. Upon a completion of the thesis, the student must pass a public defense of the
thesis conducted by the University committee. This oral examination also evaluates the student's
knowledge of general principles and techniques. The thesis committee minimally consists of the
student's thesis chair, one or two other full-time university faculty members, as well as scholars
invited from other institutions and the committee head. It is required that all theses conform to
the specifications given below. Unless the thesis chair has given consent in advance, departures
from these norms will render a thesis unacceptable. A Thesis must be written in English, it must
demonstrate the candidates ability to carry out research and to organize results. A Thesis is the
culmination of an individual research experience and it must be expressed in good literate style
and must be a distinct contribution to knowledge.
Preparing a Master's thesis is a time-honored tradition in academe, yet many students who
are about to undertake such a project have only the vaguest notion of what a thesis entails.
Students also may perceive the thesis as a formidable process; yet it does not need to be the case.
All theses should be based on the compilation of knowledge and skills acquired throughout the
students graduate program. However, no single definition of a thesis exists. What constitutes an
appropriate thesis varies considerably between disciplines and even between faculty members
within a discipline. Given this lack of uniformity regarding what a thesis is (and the resulting
anxiety it invokes in students), how can a thesis be described? Here are four common
characteristics. First, a thesis is an exercise in research. You are asked to demonstrate your skills
in using the methodologies of your field to examine a topic of interest to your discipline. What
constitutes research methodology varies widely across fields. For example, in the physical
sciences, research often (but not always) involves the use of experimental procedures in a

laboratory setting; in the humanities, research may involve a descriptive or interpretative

analysis of some piece of literature; and in the social sciences, research may involve surveys or
field studies.
A second characteristic of a thesis is that, no matter what the topic or methodology used, the
intent of the research is to make a contribution to the field. A contribution is any new
information that you can give to your discipline. This can take many forms: a test of a new
theory, a reinterpretation of an old poem, or an evaluation of a teaching method. The list is
endless, but the common element is this: an addition to the knowledge base of your field requires
you to have an in-depth understanding of some particular area of your discipline. And, you must
know the current "state of the art" if you are to add to it. In this regard, a thesis represents the
capstone activity of your graduate degree program. To complete it successfully, you must
demonstrate mastery over both a specific content area and the methodology of your discipline.
Indeed, the Master's degree has traditionally identified one as both an intelligent consumer
of information and as a contributor to the field of study. Third, a thesis represents an opportunity
to work closely with one or more faculty members in your field. One characteristic of good
graduate education is the opportunity for faculty and students to work together in a close
relationship characterized as mentoring. While much of the content of any field can be taught in
traditional classes, there can be a creative approach to any discipline. These nuances are
best conveyed in the context of a close working relationship. Working on a thesis under the
supervision of faculty provides an opportunity for learning that is not always found in other
graduate school activities. The fourth and final characteristic of a thesis is more personal in
nature: a thesis is definitely an exercise in self-discipline. Completing a thesis requires
sustained initiative and focus for an extended period of time. Unlike classes, there are no fixed
times which you must meet or specific deadlines imposed by the instructor. You provide the
structure. The choice of topic and faculty advisors is largely yours. Indeed, faculty will generally
look to you to be the initiator of your thesis work. A Master's degree acknowledges you as a
professional in your field, and the mark of a professional is the ability to be self-motivated and
self-directed.
Once you've identified a general problem area in which you are interested, you will need to
refine it into a specific, workable project. A key part of this process will involve a critical
literature review of the field. This review will do several things: (1) make you aware of the
current "state of the art" and knowledge base of the area; (2) help you begin to identify the gaps,
i.e., what key issues or questions around this topic need to be explored; and (3) inform you about
the kinds of methodologies that have been used to explore aspects of this topic. Keeping good
notes on the material you read (including all information needed for a proper bibliographic
citation in the thesis style utilized in your department) will help you when you write your thesis
proposal.

It is not a secret that today almost all literature searches begin with, but are not limited
to electronic search techniques. As you read through the literature, you will gain a better
understanding of what is known about your topic and key unanswered questions. It is
important to determine the suitability of a potential topic. Suitability refers not only to the
quality of the idea, but to logistical considerations that will have an impact on your ability to
complete the thesis. Indeed, students often have good research ideas which, for a variety of
reasons, they may be unable to carry out.
Five key issues to consider: time management, access to needed resources, faculty
support and approval. The first consideration is time. A student who puts in regular, consistent
effort on the project and meets regularly with the supervosor should be able to bring the thesis
to a successful close. The second consideration is access to needed resources. If your work
depends on access to certain library materials or other documents, e.g., native talk records, a
key question is whether the materials are available. If certain materials are essential for the
research, you should check whether thesis materials are obtainable before extensive effort is
made in planning the study in more detail. The third issue that falls under the heading of
feasibility is the availability of faculty support. It is in your best interest to connect frequently
with your thesis supervisor who has expertise in the researched area. A final and very
important concern involves clearance of a research proposal through institutional review
procedures. Theses (and thesis proposals) go through several revisions, reflecting both
conceptual and stylistic changes.
Typically a thesis defence will begin with the student making a short (about 10 minutes)
presentation about his or her project followed by questions from committee members. Faculty
may ask the student to explain the meaning of the results and how they might be interpreted from
different theoretical perspectives undertaken in the thesis. It also is not uncommon for the
committee to ask for minor revisions to the text of the thesis. The best preparation for the oral
defense is to be intimately familiar with what you did and the rationale for your approach.

2. Thesis Writing Policy Specifications:

If you are in the process of writing your thesis, you should make clear and unambiguous
arrangements with your supervisor for reading, editing and approval of draft chapters for MA
thesis. The following points describe what would reasonably be expected from you and your
supervisor.
Normally, supervisors will comment and suggest modifications to an overall thesis
outline and plan produced by the student. This should be done at an early stage and normally
should occur before the final (at least 6 to 8 months before the final year). Both supervisor(s) and
student should be clear as to the agreed structure and content of the proposed thesis.
You should expect the supervisors to read and comment on draft chapters of the thesis on
an agreed timescale. You should plan the preparation of your thesis to allow time for your
supervisors to read your drafts carefully. You can expect the supervisors to supply detailed
comment and suggestions for modifications but you should not expect supervisors to provide
extensive re-written sections of your drafts.
Be aware that YOU are expected to take ownership of your thesis; it is your work
and you will be examined on the presentation and interpretation of it. Because the University
regulations stipulate that the thesis for a full time registered MA must be submitted no later than
about two years from the registration date, you must ensure that there is adequate time to interact
with your supervisors during the preparation of the thesis.
Your supervisors should ensure that you understand the procedures for the submission
and examination of the thesis and should assist you in preparing for the oral examination. The
decision to submit rests with you, and while you should take due account of your supervisor's
opinion, it must be stressed that at this stage it is advisory only. If You have any concerns about
the supervisory efforts made during the preparation of a thesis, contact the Head of the chair as
promptly as possible.
Steps in the Thesis Process
Choosing a Research Area
---------------------------------- -------------------------------------------Developing/Refining a Thesis Idea
-------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------Selecting a Thesis Advisor and Committee
---------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------Preparing and Submitting a Thesis Proposal

---------------------------------- ------------------------------Conducting the Research

------------------------------- ----------------------------Interpreting the Results
----------------------------- ----------------------Completing the Written Thesis
----------------------- ---------------------Submitting the Thesis
--------------------------- ----------------------------------------Oral Defense of Thesis

3.Thesis Components
The thesis must include:
1.The Title Page, with the title of the thesis; the name of the author, the institution and
the department, the year the thesis was submitted, the signature of thesis supervisor.
2. Abstract. Every copy of the thesis must have an abstract. An abstract must provide a concise
summary of the thesis. The abstract may not exceed 150 words for a Masters thesis. In style, the
abstract should be a miniature version of the thesis. It should be a summary of the results,
conclusions or main arguments presented in the thesis. (See Appendix A)
3. Table of Contents. The table of contents must be detailed. Each chapter and main section in the
thesis must be listed in the Table of Contents and each must be given a page number for the
location of a particular text. (See Appendix B)
4. An Introduction that clearly states the rationale and objectives of the research. It also includes:
a. Background b. Statement of Purpose (Objective) c. Methods and Procedures d. Research
Overview (See Appendix G for headings levels)
5. Chapter I. More than one chapter will be necessary to complete the research. A background,
comprehensive review of the literature (in addition to that covered in the introduction to the
paper) is required. This is known as the Review of Literature and should include relevant, recent
research that has been done on the subject matter.

6. Chapter II. The Methodology is included in this chapter and should include all relevant
methods that were utilized as well as research methods and measurements.
9. Chapter III. The Results: This should include your data analysis and findings.
10. Conclusion. This should include your summary, conclusions and recommendations.
11. References. A thorough bibliography or reference list, according to disciplinary norms.
1. Block, N. Readings in Philosophy of Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1981.
2. Brown, G., Yule, G. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: C.U.Press, 1983.
3. Brown, G., Pollitt A., Williams J. Language and Understanding. Hong
Kong: Oxford University Press, 1995.
4. Davis, G., Warren T. Psychology of Education. Chicago: University of
Chicago, 1974.
5. Deese, J. The Structure of Associations in Language and Thought. New
York: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1965.
13. Notes with additional information after each chapter (or after the last one) are encouraged.
14. Appendices (optional). May include a list of definitions, abbreviations and acronyms. It may
contain an ethics certificate in the case of research involving human or animal subjects,
microorganisms, living cells, other biohazards and/or radioactive material (see Internal Review
Board for your discipline).
The final version of the thesis (after pre-defense) must be free from typographical, grammatical
and other errors when submitted to the Graduate Director. Normally, a Masters thesis does not
exceed 55 pages (including title page, abstracts, table of contents, notes,
bibliography/reference list, and appendices).
4.Thesis Formatting and Style
The following formats apply:
Line spacing 1.5
Times New Roman or Arial 12 pt font
All four margins 20mm
A 4 page size
The chief consideration in formatting the thesis is consistency. While the institution has
specific rules and parameters that all theses, writers must follow, students do have some
flexibility in formatting their documents, provided that the documents are formatted consistently.

For example, while students may choose which basic font to use, they must use that same font
throughout the document, including in footnotes, headings, page numbers, tables, reference
citations and captions. Students should use a uniform and consistent style, typeface, and font size
throughout their own document.
The thesis or dissertation must be divided into a logical scheme that is followed
consistently throughout the document. The main body of the document must begin with a major
division, such as a chapter or section. Chapters are the most common division, but sections and
parts are also permissible. Chapter, section, part numbers and titles are primary divisions of the
entire thesis or dissertation and are not part of the subdivision scheme. Each major division
(chapter, section, or part) must:

have a title
be numbered consecutively throughout the document (e.g., Chapters 1, 2, 3.)
begin on a new page A major division entitled Introduction may precede the first
numbered chapter, section, or part only if the student ends the document with another
unnumbered major division entitled Conclusion.
Subdivisions/Headings

Any logical system of subdivision within chapters or sections is permissible, but the scheme
used must be consistent throughout the document. The appearance of the heading must vary in
style for each level of heading unless a numbering sequence is used to indicate level. Once
students decide on the format for each level of heading, they must apply the format consistently,
including font, font size, and other font attributes (bold, italics, underline, et cetera), space above
and below the heading, numbering, indentation, and punctuation.
The headings within a chapter, section, or part do not begin on a new page unless the
preceding page is filled with text. If there is not room for the complete heading and at least two
lines of text at the bottom of a page, the new heading should begin on the next page.
Referencing usually consists of information in parentheses or square brackets within the text.
Two common methods of referencing are:
1. to use the author's name and date of publication, as in (Smith, 2001),
2. to assign numbers to the bibliographic entries and insert the corresponding numbers for the
authors as they are cited in the text, as in Smith (5).
The purpose of internal referencing is to guide the reader to the appropriate entry in the
list of references/bibliography, where complete information is available. In-text references to the
author's name normally refer to an alphabetical list of sources; numbered references normally
refer to a numeric list. Students may not collect references as endnotes at the end of each chapter
or section. Footnotes are permissible, but only if the student also includes a full list of references

or bibliography at the end of the document. The form, style, and content of references or
footnotes should be determined by what is generally accepted in the student's field of study,
using a professional journal or style manual. Students using both references and footnotes in the
text must use a different format or style to differentiate the two, keeping in mind that the same
font type must be used throughout the entire document. Other attributes may be used to
distinguish footnotes from body text; for example, the footnotes may be single spaced and a
smaller font size. In addition, the footnote number and the beginning of footnote must appear on
same page.
Students should consider carefully whether information is best presented in the text or in
a table. Tables are usually quantitative, though some may consist entirely of words rather than
numbers. In either case, care must be taken to organize the material in ways that are readily
understood and visually clean.
Tables must have a unique title and number. The title and number are placed above the
table. Tables must use the same type of font as the rest of the document. Rather than copying
tables from another source, students should create tables themselves. (For instance, tables should
not be inserted into the text as pictures.) Although the type of font within a table must be the
same as the rest of the document, it may differ slightly in size.
If appendix material is included as an attachment, a page should be included stating how
material is accessible and how it should be used.
Positioning of page numbers is optional. Pages with figures or illustrations may be
numbered in sequence or left unnumbered. The chosen procedure must be used consistently
throughout the thesis. Pagination must be carefully checked for correct sequence and
completeness.
Figures, tables, graphs, etc., should be positioned according to the publication
conventions of the discipline. Charts, graphs, maps, and tables that are larger than the
standard page should be avoided unless absolutely necessary. Overlays must be meticulously
positioned in the text. Where graphs, illustrations, photographs, etc. fill an entire page, these
pages can be numbered in sequence or left unnumbered. Legends or captions accompanying
such full-page graphics must be presented on a separate page. Additional materials, such as
slides, tapes, diskettes, etc. can be included only if the student authorizes the reproduction of
the thesis without them.
PAGE FORMAT AND LAYOUT
Font
A single font must be used throughout the thesis or report, the only exceptions being in tables, graphs, and appendices. Headings
may be bolded and no more than 2 points larger than the rest of the text.
Margins

All theses and reports must have consistent margins of at least 1.25 inches at the top, bottom, left, and right edges of the page.
Page numbers must be placed at least one inch from the bottom of the page. Margins which are larger than those required are
acceptable, but smaller margins are not.
Spacing The thesis or report must be double-spaced or 1.5-spaced. Single spacing may be used only in the Table of Contents,
footnotes and endnotes, charts, graphs, tables, quotations, captions, glossary, appendices, and bibliography. Prose quotations over
three lines long should be in block quote, double or single-spaced, and indented on the left. Do not use quotation marks in the
block quote except when indicating quotations within the block quote.
Numbering of Pages
Beginning with the first page of the Acknowledgements or Preface, if used, all preliminary pages preceding the actual text must
be numbered in lowercase Roman numerals; e.g., iii, iv, v, etc. These numerals must be centered under the text with at least one
inch of space between the number and the bottom of the page. If no optional pages are used, the page numbers must begin on the
Abstract. Do not number the copyright page, signature page, title page, or dedication, but do include each of them in the pretext
page count. The first page of the text begins at Arabic numeral 1. All pages within the text must contain an Arabic page number,
bottom-centered, at least one inch from the bottom edge of the page. The first page of every major section (chapters, appendices,
bibliography, Vita, etc.) must begin on a new page.
Tables and Illustrations
Pages carrying illustrative material must be given page numbers appropriate to their place in the document. Illustrative material
may not be inserted after the document has been numbered and given numbers such as 10a. All tables, figures, illustrations, and
other types of examples included and referenced in the text of the dissertation should be numbered for identification. There
should be no duplication of these numbers; i.e., no two tables should be assigned the same number. Figures may be numbered in
one of two ways: consecutively throughout the document or double-numbered so that illustrations numbers reflect their locations
in the document. Captions and legends must be placed on the same page with the figure, graph, table or illustration they describe.
In order to fit both figure and caption on the same page, captions may be single-spaced, margins may be decreased to one inch,
and figures may be reduced in size to fit. If the figures are reduced from their original size, then the page number must be added
after the reduction so as not to alter its size. If there is no other way to manage the amount of material to be shown, the caption
and figures should be side-by-side in continuous view. This method should only be used in the rare instance where all of the
pertinent material will not fit on the same page. Figures, captions, and page numbers must be easily readable when the electronic
document is viewed at 100 percent.
CONTENTS
The Table of Contents must be placed before the text and any lists of tables, figures, etc. It consists of section titles, chapter
titles, and as many or few subheadings as the author feels are necessary. The section and chapter titles listed on the Table of
Contents must exactly match the titles as they appear within the text. Chapters labeled in the Table of Contents with Arabic
numbers (Chapter 3) must not lapse into Roman numerals (Chapter III) when they appear again in the text. Page numbers for
chapters and subheadings are right justified on the Table of Contents and preceded by a dot leader. In the text of the thesis or
report, major sections must begin on a fresh page and be designated in the Table of Contents by left justified headings (not
indented). Sub-sections, which do not need to begin on fresh pages, must be indented in the Table of Contents. The page numbers
listed on the Table of Contents must correlate with the beginning of each section or chapter. Table of Contents entries are
generally double-spaced. However, chapter titles and subheadings, when more than one line long, should be indented at the
second line and single-spaced.

5. Steps to Avoid Plagiarism(Possible causes to fail)

YSU is committed to the principle of academic integrity. Therefore suspected cases of plagiarism are taken very seriously.
Allegations of plagiarism may occur if you fail to attribute another persons work appropriately.
To prevent plagiarism, any source from which information is derived must be clearly, concisely and accurately cited. You must
cite in the bibliography all sources from which information is derived and all works quoted or referred to in the text or notes to
the text.
If you include published works in your thesis you must ensure that they comply with the requirements for acknowledging
contributions of others to the content of your thesis, including jointly published works.
Possible causes to fail:
Does Not Meet Expectations (1) Meets Expectations (2) Exceeds Expectations (3)
1. Definition of Project/Introduction Or Statement of Hypothesis Introduction does not clearly explain the nature and structure of
the capstone, its rationale and relevance to discipline. Introduction clearly presents the capstone, its nature, relevance and
structure. Introduction makes strong case for the value the capstone provides to the discipline, as well as presenting its nature and
structure.
2. Thesis/Argument Argument is unclear, inconsistent, inappropriate, or not suitably original. Argument is appropriate, clearly
presented, consistently applied, and suitably original. Argument is clear, consistent, sophisticated, and strikingly original.
3. Familiarity with/and Grounded in Literature. Knowledgeable of the current state of discipline Does not indicate familiarity
with literature; has large gaps and shows little grounding of the capstone in the literature. No substantive engagement. Displays
familiarity with reasonably full range of literature; demonstrates an appropriate grounding and engagement with the literature.
Displays impressive familiarity with full range of and grounding in literature; engages with it substantively and productively.
4. Methodology or Plans for the Project Methodology is not clearly presented, not appropriate or not adequately applied to
capstone. Methodology is clearly presented, relevant and appropriately applied to capstone. Methodology and project are
mutually enriching.
5. Results/Findings/ Demonstration of Thesis Argument and Claims Outcomes minimally address research questions and fail to
demonstrate its claims persuasively. Presentation minimally addresses research questions; structure reflects a lack of
organization, detail, understanding and/or accuracy. Outcomes address research questions. Presentation of evidence uses
argumentation and is reasonably persuasive in making connections with research ideas. Outcomes thoroughly address research
questions. Presentation of evidence conveys a mastery of argumentation. Structure provides a coherent and clear focus of new
understandings.
6. Summary/ Conclusion or closing argument Capstone summary is minimally supported by results and/or findings; exhibits a
lack of original ideas, personal interpretation of findings, and/or an inability to draw an inventive synopsis. Summary sufficiently
supported by results and/or findings while adequately and accurately summarizing the capstone. Summary presents carefully
analyzed information to present inventive and originally developed decisions and/or conclusions supported by results and/or
findings.

7. Bibliography/ References Lack of proper format and limited details with many sources missing or incomplete.
Bibliography/References are mostly complete and correctly formatted. Capstone contains a variety of sources.
Bibliography/References are complete (all sources shown) and correctly formatted; inserted to validate evidence.
8. Writing is unclear, distracts from meaning, is not at appropriate level, or contains excessive errors. Writing is clear and
appropriately sophisticated, with virtually no errors, and supports meaning. Writing is at or near professional level, has no errors,
and enhances meaning.

6. Tips and Examples for Writing Thesis Statements

1.Determine what kind of paper you are writing:
An analytical paper breaks down an issue or an idea into its component parts, evaluates the issue or idea, and presents this
breakdown and evaluation to the audience.
An expository (explanatory) paper explains something to the audience.
An argumentative paper makes a claim about a topic and justifies this claim with specific evidence. The claim could be an
opinion, a policy proposal, an evaluation, a cause-and-effect statement, or an interpretation. The goal of the argumentative paper
is to convince the audience that the claim is true based on the evidence provided. If you are writing a text which does not fall
under these three categories (ex. a narrative), a thesis statement somewhere in the first paragraph could still be helpful to your
reader.
2. Your thesis statement should be specificit should cover only what you will discuss in your paper and should be supported
with specific evidence.
3. The thesis statement usually appears at the end of the first paragraph of a paper.
4. Your topic may change as you write, so you may need to revise your thesis statement to reflect exactly what you have
discussed in the paper. II. Thesis Statement Examples 1. Example of an analytical thesis statement: An analysis of the college
admission process reveals two principal problems facing counselors: accepting students with high test scores or students with
strong extracurricular backgrounds. The paper that follows should:
explain the analysis of the college admission process
explain the two problems facing admissions counselors
Example of an expository (explanatory) thesis statement: The life of the typical college student is characterized by time spent
studying, attending class, and socializing with peers. The paper that follows should:
explain how students spend their time studying, attending class, and socializing with peers
Example of an argumentative thesis statement: High school graduates should be required to take a year off to pursue community
service projects before entering college in order to increase their maturity and global awareness. The paper that follows should:
present an argument and give evidence to support the claim that students should pursue community projects before entering
college

7. A Guide to Academic Writing in English

7.1. General Remarks (setting a goal)
General remarks: setting a goal: see an aim, goal, objective, purpose, subject, task, an article,
book, paper, section, volume; to aim, attempt, concentrate on, devote, intend; to examine,
inquire, present, show, study, treat, etc.
The ...chief/general
...aim...
...central/ key/ ultimate ...goal... ...main/ particular
...purpose...
...major/ primary
...task ...of this paper/ study is to investigate/ establish P.
One of the main/ principal objectives The
...burden
The
...subject (matter) ...of our paper/ study/ analysis/ research/ discussion is P.
The present paper/ investigation ...goes (inquires) into/ focuses on/ deals with P.
...is devoted to the questions (problems/ issues) of P. ...undertakes to survey/ identify the
structure of P.
...considers what factors/ processes influence P.
"In this article/ section ...I aim to determine/ I attempt to explain the mechanisms of P. ...I am
intended to give/ show/ develop/ provide/ record P. ...I examine the nature/ characteristics/
features/ functions of P. ...I (will) concentrate on/ argue that/ review P.
...I want/ wish to turn to examples/ instances of P.
... 1 have two goals in mind in writing this paper.
Summary: crucial information first: see to argue, compare, demonstrate, explain,
describe, discuss, oppose, outline, picture, portray, posit, propose, specify, tackle, turn to,
suggest, etc.

The structure of the article is as follows. The first section reviews/ describes/ clarifies/
outlines/ sketches P. Section 2 portrays/ dwells on/ enlarges upon/ shows that Q, Section 3 argues
that P, The final section proposes/ summarizes/ spells out in (more) detail R,
In this article I review/ debate the problems (and advantages) of P, and argue -that Q. 1 claim/
demonstrate/ suggest that (insufficient attention has been paid to) Q. In particular, it will be
shown that R.
In this paper, I attempt to clarify the relation of P and Q. To do so, I first present R. I then
attempt to show that P, In conclusion, S is considered.
This paper presents a new (complex/ algorithmic/ structural) approach to the study of P.
The empirical results are described in section I. In section 2, I will address/ discuss/ characterize/
comment on/ specify/ tackle Q. Section 3 turns to P/ presents theoretical results. Section 4
concludes with a discussion of implications/ consequences of R.
This paper proposes a new methodological framework within which P can be studied.
After analyzing the data, it is concluded that Q. The results of the study are evaluated and
assessed in the light of the problems of Q. Additionally, R is examined.
Materials and methods: see to adopt, apply, develop, offer, provide, rely on, try, work out,
use; an approach, framework, method, methodology, model, paradigm, perspective; to aid, allow,
help, an analysis, Inquiry, investigation, research, study; etc.
In our study ...we have adopted/ applied an innovative approach to testing/ modeling
P. ...we develop/ offer/ provide/ rely on/ try/ work out/ use a method of P. ...P is dealt with/
analyzed

within

functional

framework/

paradigm/

perspective.

Our

analysis/

investigation ...is based on evidence/ calculations/ estimates of P.

...capitalizes on/ proceeds on the idea/ findings of P. ...rests on/ focuses on/ involves observations
of P.
This method/ approach
...enables predictions of/ allows decisions on P.
This framework
...helps to investigate/ display/ elucidate/ illuminate P.
...offers a clear/ practical way to implement P. ...serves for/ aids in organizing the knowledge
about P. ...combines functional with formal explanation.

7.2. Compositional Formulas (Transitions, Text generating Lexicon, Further Intentions)

Transitions: Cross-reference, Interlinks between seetions/ points; organizing the exposition: see
to start, begin, oome to, continue, move on, @nd, finish; first, furthsr, finally, after, before,
a/ready, here, now, above, below, just, In the course of; in the remainder; appropriate,
convenient, desirable, essential, helpful, Informative, Instructive, natural, psrtlnsnt, proper,
reasonable, suitably to claim, expound, meditate, reflect on, scrutinize, take up, etc.
...0ur purpose
...here
...is to improve our knowledge of P.
...is to help scientists to
manuscripts.
We aim ...here
...to
P
Q.
I shall concentrate...here
...on exploring P.
My
...here
...is with P.
I/ We (shall) ...start/ begin/ continue/ end/ finish/
with/ by P.
To begin with/ First,
...we turn to instances of P/ we may consider P. Second/ Finally,
...we are going to see/ examine whether P.
In closing, ...I want to discuss P/ to make a proposal that P.
"After ...these general/ preliminary remarks,
...this short comment/ outlining Q, ...here is P/ P is in order,
...I shall introduce/ address/ return to P. ...I shall consider the problem of P. ...I want to test the
significance of P. ...I'd like to scrutinize the issue/ method of P.
SI have ...already/just ...given/mentioned/pointed out that P.
We have ...already/ just ...seen that P.
From the above/ Now ...it should be clear/ evident/ obvious that P.
Here/ Now ...we can pass on/ we shall move on to consider P.
In the course of this investigation ...P will discussed/ it will be shown that P. In the rest of this
paper/ section

...I (shall) reflect on/ speculate about P. In the remainder of this paragraph ...I

am intended to confront/ face the issue that P. Before we go into this problem,

...I want to

raise the issue of P. In order to examine P,

.,
...it is essential that we make clear Q.
Now/ Here it is ...appropriate/ convenient/ desirable/ essential/ fruitful ...to start with P.
... helpful/ important/ informative/ instructive/ proper ...to check P. ... fair/ interesting/ natural/
pertinent/ productive
...to turn to P.
...rational/ reasonable/ sensible/ suitable/ useful/ wise

...to mention P, It is ...important to

emphasize/ reasonable to assume/ safe (natural) to predict that P. ...helpful to examine P/

interesting to see if P/ informative to turn to P. ...desirable to have a clear view of P/ logical to
ask whether P/ worth noting that P. It ...might be wise to begin with/ show/ take P/ seems/ would
be fair to presume that P.
P will be addressed/ given/ treated
...again/ in the next section/ once more/ below.
We summarize this discussion/ problem ...(in the subsection) below.
We will return to the matter/ question ...after (first explaining/ discussing) Q.
I shall take up/ examine this topic/ issue ...in due course/ in Section II below/ later. To conclude,
...this paper has explored/ investigated/ shown/ established P.

...in this section I have speculated on/ argued that/ faced P.

We conclude this article ...with a few observations/ remarks/ comments/ notes on P. "I want to
complete the paper ...by demonstrating/ postulating/ positing that P,
I want to end
...by repeating/ stressing/ emphasizing/ noting that P.
Text generating lexicon: see bound, could, hops, like, may, might, must, necessary; to assume,
follow, proceed from, premise, rest, suggest; basic, fundamental, germane, relevant, prevailing,
strategic, Innovative; an assumption, belief, concept, conception, hypothesis, idea, notion, view,
supposition, theory, viewpoint, final, following; former, latter, etc.
The present ..study/ account ...examines P/ assumes (follows) the view that P.
...description
...rests on the assumption/ claim/ observation that P. ...discussion

...is

premised on the notion/ idea/ hypothesis of P.

In the ... study ...we set out to analyze P/ we advance the hypothesis that P,
...I assume view of P/1 consider P from the point of view of Q. P is the only subject of the
discussion,
Our
is
on
Our
on
In our investigation,
My own point of

...the
belief/
theory that P,
...the conception/ claim/ idea/ hypothesis/ supposition that P.
...we
the notion/ (point of) view/ viewpoint of P.
...has
the view/ coneept/ idea/ hypothesis that P.

The general notion/ central concept/ (important) point ...in our model ...is that P. Our hypothesis/
The idea
...here
...is that P.
This ...concept
...will serve as a starting point for studying P.
...notion
...needs careful explanation/ needs to be reconsidered,
...idea
...is a useful starting-point for investigating P.
...theory
...is basic/ fundamental/ strategic/ germane/ relevant to our approach.
...hypothesis
...proved useful in solving problems concerning P. ...view
prevailing/ innovative in contemporary research.
...interpretation ...can be generalized to apply to P. ...model

...can be extended to take

account of P.
The ...basic notions ...of this theory are given below/in [NN]. First,
sketch my proposal that P/ to use/ study P as Q.
...I want to point to/ review/ introduce new principles. Now

...is

...I am going to

...I can/ shall/ should provide P/ I

must emphasize that P.

...I must say a few words about P.
...I should/ would like to illustrate/ suggest/ posit/ stress that P. Here

...we can make (put forth)

a supposition that P.
...we propose a theory to account for P. At this point ...a certain clarification is necessary.
...one important detail must be noted, P.

Let us now

...turn to/ return to example 1 (the discussion of P)/ (re)consider P, We must

now...define/ determine/ establish/ estimate/ inquire into/ provide P. Finally,

...I find it

necessary to consider P/ to turn our attention to P.

The concluding/ final sections/ comments/ remarks concern/ focus on/ provide P.
Before we start out discussing P ...we need some background/ we need to define P. Later
...we will need to introduce P.
To assess whether P,
...we should turn to Q/ one could try to separate Q.
To illustrate the point (further),...we may take P/ we may note that P. For our present purposes
...I shall use P for Q.
...it may (might) be added/ noted that P. Turning to the data under consideration in this article,
...I must mention that P/ we shall need to see/ consider to what extent P. P will be discussed/
exemplified/ explained
...in what follows.
These implications underlie
...what follows.
The question reads/ The structure of the article is...as follows: P. Suggested rules for a good
introduction are ...as follows: P. Examples of each position are
...the following, P.
We define Q
...in the following way: P.
This set can be generated
...by the following rule: P.
It may be illuminating to note ...
The following table/ diagram/ figure/ theorem ...shows that P/ tells us that P. The following
examples
...may serve as illustrations.
The following comparisons
...may help us to visualize P.
The following qualifications should be made, P. In the following subsection we discuss P. The
following
...considers only P/ is a description (consideration/picture) of P.
...the following facts about P, Q. ...the following remark made by Hume, P.
The
foregoing example... The foregoing description... The foregoing reflections... One
important detail...
...is meant to illustrate P.
..might be called traditional.
..are based on P,
..must be noted, P.
..is apparent between the two approaches:
One further remark
...is required concerning P.
Two further points
...are worth making, P and Q,
Further questions
...arise when we compare P and Q.
A further aim of the paper ...is to make/ show P.
The only step
...needed (here)
...is P.
The issue that
...ought to be raised here
...concerns P.
The second point
...I want to raise here
...has to do with P.
P is valid only
...for the former/ latter
...class.
This latter point
...requires justification.
The latter is viewed
...(here)
...in its most general aspect.
Closely connected
...with this first problem
...is another one: P.

There are two

...main ways in which we can proceed: either we regard P, or we can regard Q.
Further intentions: see to accept, adhere, admit, base, conceive, construe, constrain, posit,
presume, presuppose, stipulate, suppose, view; to solve/ resolve/ regard (a problem), supply
(evidence), bridge a gap, pay/ shift attention to; place (an issue in a perspective/ an emphasis on);
employ (a strategy/ technique), serve as/ form (a basis/ background), require (further comment/
explanation/justification); admit/put forward/draw/ lend support to (a hypothesis); to appeal to (a
concept),

(introduce/apply)

an

algorithm/formalism/criterion/constraint/

restriction/extension/frame/law/principle/rule/thesis; to formulate/frame (a principle) exactly/ in

an orderly manner/ carefully/ thoroughly/ reasonably; to state explicitly/ precisely/ clearly/
accurately/with accuracy/in consonance with; touch upon (a question), paint (in more detail); to
add, mention, note, indicate, figure/point out, reiterate, repeat, say.
To solve the problem,
...we employ the approach/ method/
strategy/ technique of P.
To supply evidence,
...we should figure out P/ will focus on P.
To lend support to our hypothesis,
...we require knowledge about Q.
To bridge the gap in our knowledge about R, ...we should pay/ shift attention to P.
To base our position,
...we place the issue in another perspective.
...we impose constraints on P. e This issue
...can serve as a basis for (the theory of) P,
This matter
...can form a background for a judgment about P.
This point
...requires justification/ should be examined in detail/ with accuracy.
This question ...requires (further) remark/ comment/ explanation^
This problem ...presupposes deep study/ minute analysis/ understanding of P,
This method
.,,should be precisely/ clearly/ accurately/ explicitly/ rigidly defined.
This approach ...can be extensively/ properly/ reasonably applied to P.
This thesis
...should be formulated/ stated in consonance with P,
This topic
...should be studied/ investigated closely/ carefully/ thoroughly,
Our approach/ analysis/ study ,..seeks to resolve the problem of P,
The problem
...which our approach seeks to resolve is this: P.
A process like P
...can help resolve the problem of establishing Q,
These problems
...can be resolved by (applying/ using) P.
Here, we ...accept/ admit the approach/ hypothesis/ adhere to the assumption/ idea that P.
.posit/ stipulate/ attempt to construe a model of P/ perceive P as Q, ...presume P to be Q/ find it
necessary to constrain the notion of P to Q. ...view P in a historical perspective/ in a general
aspect/ through/ as/ against Q. P

...is conceived/ regarded here as an absolute notion/ as a

system/ tendency.
...is viewed here as (being an example of) Q/ as having an instrumental function.
The approach/ claim adopted here
Our calculation/ classification/ explanation
Our hypothesis, ur interpretation, Our argument/ proposal/ strategy

Now, Further
...I/ we shall
To show that P, ...I/ we shall
...is based on observations of P. .is based on considerations that P. .is based on an assumption that
P. .is based on an examination of P. as based on the concept/ technique/ theory of P. ...I/ we shall.,
appeal to the concept/ notion/ theory of P.
..touch upon the problem/ question/ issue concerning P. ..talk on/ paint in more detail P/
formulate the criterion of P. ..postulate/ state/ apply/ derive the principles of Q. ...admit the
theory/ postulate/ suggestion/ view of Q. ...frame an extension of the paradigm/ notion of Q.
...put forward a hypothesis/ model of Q. ...present/ propose an algorithm for Q. ...develop/
design/ apply a formalism of Q. ...impose restrictions on/ place (put) constraints on Q. ...employ/
extend the law/ rule/ thesis that Q.
...II we can ...add/ mention/ note/ indicate/ reiterate/ repeal/ say that P. ...point out/ allude to the
publications on the subject.
7.3. References to authors and bibliography:citations, comparisons, critisism,
objections
References, citations, comparisons; Positive comments; Criticism and objections (F - the referred
author, [NN] - reference t a bibliographic
References, citations, comparisons: see to follow smb in, to conform to/ reject; in accord
(accordance/ agreement/ concordance/ conflict/ congruence/ contrast/ line/ opposition) with/ to
smb's view; take (up) different stands on/ a (similar) position/ (point of) view, join a debate, stern
(originate) from/ contrast with (other) studies, enter into the orbit of research, command
support/gain ground/generate controversy (interest/preoccupation) among scientists, receive
attention (criticism/ support)/ tend to be dismissed (effaced/ overlooked/ confounded/
encountered)/ undergo a change (revision)/ be under scrutiny (consideration); an ambiguity
(confusion/ deficiency/ disagreement/ discrepancy/ misunderstanding/ trend/ness/ gap) found in
the literature, turn up in one's treatise, benefit by examining, a theory/approach/method evolved
by F; to quote, excerpt, cite a passage, supply references/a citation; consult literature on the
subject; refer the reader for an introduction (further reading) to bibliography (publications/ an
author/F's contributions/writings), etc. According to F, P. Following F, I will refer to P as Q. We
can follow F in assuming that P.
The problem that turns up in F's treatise is that P. This issue originates from F's [NN].
This result was obtained by F. Such problems are fully discussed by F in [NN]. How the
micromirror works
These factors

...is described by F.
...are viewed by F to be of secondary importance.

Such cases
...would support/ conflict with F's analysis.
Such detail
...rarely characterized F's publications.
This is where F's central proposal ...becomes relevant.
Standard treatments of P,
...such as [NN], point out that Q.
F's ...article/ analysis
...sets out to provide a definition for P/ raises many questions.
...hypothesis/ proposal ...is a provocative one/ rests on two basic ideas, P and Q. ...argument/
idea/ point...is that P. ...name
...is virtually unknown/ is well-known today.
...is known for her/ his work on women's health.
...helped turn the study of P into an experimental science. ...made a significant contribution to the
treatment of P. ...conceives the terms system and relation basically in static terms. In her
study, ...F
...identified/ discovered/ established P.
...there was a discussion about whether P. It is
...claimed/ shown/ stated in [NN] that P.
I maintain, ...in contrast/ in opposition/ by analogy, that P. I adopt
...F's suggestion/ point of
view that P.
We regard P as Q; ...this is ...in accord/ accordance/ agreement/ concordance/
...in congruence/ line/ conflict with F's [NN].
F can be cited/ consulted here/ Here is an excerpt from F's [NN],
...P.
Here we can excerpt a passage from F's study of motives:
...P.
The following passage from [NN] illustrates this principle,
...P.
This aspect
...has (not) received attention (criticism/ scientific support) ...in the literature.
This topic ...tends to be dismissed (effaced/ overlooked)
...in the literature.
...still generates controversy/ may be encountered
...in the literature.
This method ...is little discussed/ was rejected
...in the literature.
The literature ...on the subject ...is concerned with/ bears directly on P.
...provokes reflection/ is in confusion. ...concerning P ...is now quite voluminous/ remains
ignored.
...raises many questions/ suggests many answers. ...is not relevant to the theory of parsing.
P is claimed/ explored/ faced/ found/ defined/ developed
...in [NN].
P is the central issue explored
...in [NN].
The use of this tomography to study the brain is discussed
...in [NN].
The most complete account of this problem is found
...in [NN].
A striking example of the influence of P on Q can be found
...in [NN].
Proposals relating to P are developed further
...in [NN].
Consider the argument that F advances
...in [NN].
Our results agree/ contrast with previous publications;
...cf. [NN].
This hypothesis provokes (further) reflection,
...cf. [NN].
This idea fits into contemporary speculation;
...cf. [NN].
This view commands wide support among scientists,
...e.g. [NN].
This viewpoint receives strong scientific support,
...cf. [NN].
This theory finds support in recent studies/ gives rise to a critical literature;
...e.g. [NN]. This
approach has gained few followers so fat/ is represented by work on P;
skepticism stems from popular accounts of P,
This notion stems from studies of P,

...e.g. [NN]. 'This

...such as [NN].
...such as [NN].

This method continues to be present in current medicine; ...as an example, take [NN].
These approaches are usually confounded in the literature;
...(for detail,) see [NN].
This view provokes misunderstanding on the subject.
...For detail, see [NN].
These studies have reached widely differing conclusions. ...For more detail, see [NN]. There is
currently great interest in P.
...See [NN] for subsequent discussions.
F and S take different stands on that point.
...See [NN] for subsequent discussions.
Discussions of parsing strategies turn out to be about P. ...For an introduction, see [NN].
It is not entirely clear in the literature what is meant by P. ...References should be made to [NN].
Disagreement arises as to whether P. [NN] deserves to be mentioned in this connection.
Relevant/ further bibliography of the publications on the subject is
Positive comments: see careful/ complete/ comprehensive/ convincing/ in-depth/ lucid/ minute/
profound/ thorough (analysis/ account/ description/ explanation/ treatment), creative/
sophisticated/ sound/ transparent (approach), correct/ precise (characterization/ determi* nation),
accurate/ coherent/ elaborate/ flexible (picture/ conceptual system), elegant/ original/ welldesigned (formulation/proposal), clearcut (distinction), exact/uniform (definition), neat
(division), adequate/efficient/indispensable/optimal/ reliable (tools), solid (argument/grounding/
basis), helpful/ plausible/ subtle (interpretation/ comment/ suggestion), successful (attempt),
valid (representation/ argumentation/ conclusion), viable (model), (approach) consistent/
consonant with (evidence)/effective/sufficient/valuable/vital for, to manage, permit, persist,
promise, provoke, stimulate, yield, etc.
F's investigation
...is an accurate/ comprehensive/ convincing/ lucid analysis of P.
...is an instructive/ minute/ profound/ thorough description of P.
...is a good snapshot of functional analysis/ supports the theory of P. F's study/ analysis ...offers a
window into the complex of P/ sheds new light on P,
...allows a principled decision on P/ resolves the problem by P. F's theory/ proposal ...can yield
useful predictions about P/ sounds attractive/ is elegant.
proved to be successful/ the most transparent.
F's approach ...is quite/ highly creative/ effective/ fruitful/ innovative/ sophisticated/ sound.
F's method ...promises to furnish P/ has proven illuminating in the study of P. F's design
..appears beautiful/ is more flexible than P/ is the best, F's scheme ...is consistent with P/ is
consonant with the evidence. ...is perfect/ vital/ indispensable/ valuable for P.
...is superior (to anything one has tried to apply before) in numerous details, F's distinctions/
arguments/ basic points
...are clearcut/ consistent/ sound,
F's definitions of variables
...permit their assessment,
provides a firm basis/ solid grounding for (reassessing P,
...furnishes conclusive/ convincing/ definite/ incontestable/ indisputable/ positive/ irrefutable/
undeniable/ unquestionable/ documentary proof of the fact that P. ...offers in-depth discussions

on topics involving P. ...opens prospects for further study of P/ casts (a new) light on the
question.
...gives convincing (direct/ exact/ good/ plausible/ serious/ sound/ strong/ sufficient/ valid)
reason to think that P/ the clue to the role of P/ a systematic account of P, ...gives rise to
theoretical discussion (impetus to the field)/ provokes reflection. ...suggests ingenious/
innovative/ inventive/ neat solutions to P. ...bears directly on P/ covers the structure of P (the
subject area) fairly well. ...brings about order and unity in (a unification of) terminology. ...adds
support to this view/ an extra dimension to the issue. ...has aroused wide interest.
...has been the stimulus for analytic discussion/ for cross-cultural experimentation. ...will
stimulate others to come closer to the understanding of P.
In [NN], the issue
...is developed/ discussed in sufficient detail.
Theoretically important here
...is the clear demarcation between P and Q.
My interest in P was stimulated
...by these developments.
'In [NN], F
...provides ...exact (uniform) definitions/ a coherent (realistic) picture of P.
...a careful/ complete/ lucid/ minute/ profound account for P. ...offers ...adequate/ efficient/
flexible/ powerful/ reliable/ sufficient
...a solid grounding for studying P. ...indispensable prerequisites for assessing/ describing P.
...a correct/ precise characterization of P. ...a neat division/ determination of P.
...deals
...with the complex subject in an orderly manner.
...shows,
...very convincingly, that P.
...presents
...a wealth of data about P/ is right in distinguishing P from Q. ...has refined...the
notions of P to correspond closely to Q. ...managed ...to answer the question with simplicity.
..that F's major contribution to the field as a whole lies.
One major advantage of [NN]...is that (it makes room for the notion) P.
Criticism and objections: see abstract/ arbitrary/ controversial/ outdated (approach),
ambiguous/vague (statement), artificial/odd/unacceptable/unfortunate (distinction), awkward/
crude/ erroneous/ false (assumption), disastrous (mistake), incorrect/ wrong (inference), dubious/
meaningless/ unrealistic (claim), speculative (scheme), misleading (comparison), shaky
(foundations), trivial (point), unreliable (conclusion), contradictory to (facts), contrary to (rules),
notorious for; skeptical/ critical/ suspicious of; a bias, defect, disadvantage, drawback, error,
failure,

fault,

illusion,

mistake,

omission,

oversimplification,

prejudice,

weakness;

dissatisfaction, doubt, skepticism, suspicion, uncertainty; to doubt, object, refute; to conflict

with/ overestimate (an analysis), confuse terms, contradict/ disregard/ falsify/ obscure facts,
distract (attention), distort (a picture), elude (description), escape (notice), fail (to answer a
question), miss/ overlook/ underestimate (information), undermine (a distinction); etc.
The product of F's labor
...invites close critical scrutiny/ is still under discussion.
The study done by F
...does not allow us to answer the question whether P.

The solution offered by F

...has been criticized at length.
F's hypothesis
...leaves many questions open.
F's investigation ...generated controversy/ waged debates/ is a hot topic in debates. F's opinion/
viewpoint ...draws sharp criticism/ neglects the relationship between P and Q. F's distinction/
definition ...raises many questions/ is unfortunate (erroneous/ vague). F's analysis/ approach/
position...is awkward in two ways/ rests on two dubious claims. F's study ...failed to verify this
mechanism (to find a correlation between P and Q).
F's comparison/ formulation/ method...fails to meet the condition/ is far from a solution. F's
worries/ proposals/ ideas about P
...are unfounded/ should be rejected.
The flaw in F's analysis...is that he never specifies the criteria by which he identifies P. We will
not undertake a criticism
...of all of these points here.
F's approach/ strategy neglects (ignores) P/ has a number of disadvantages (limitations). F's
strategy/ point
...is not accurately formulated.
This requirement...underestimates/ underscores/ underrates (the power of) P/ is redundant. This
characterization
...is speculative/ is a vague documentation of the topic.
The pattern/ model
...is by no means consistent/ cannot be verified.
This model
...has a diminished relevance for understanding P.
This hypothesis
...capitalizes on the idea which is objectionable.
This scheme
...gives researchers the illusion that P.
This claim
...is felt to be (somewhat) dubious (archaic/ outdated)/ proved to be false. This
statement
...does not appear to be compatible with facts.
This problem/ question
...keeps cropping up throughout [NN].
The evidence/ analysis ...in these cases is often conflicting/ contradicts the view that P. Such an
analysis/ theory
...does not much capture P.
Such an approach
...must be rejected in favor of P.
Such separation/ connection/ identification...is artificial/ inelegant/ arbitrary/ defective.
Such comments, considerations, attempts, conceptions/ definitions
The thesis in question
...run counter to the principles of P. ...are of a rather doubtful kind. ...are doomed to failure/ must
be judged a failure. ...are unable to meet the criteria/ lead to a paradox. ...does not pertain to the
perception of P. ...for the representation that F envisages.
The methodology adopted is prejudiced in favor of the theory of P instead of addressing Q.
There are counter-examples, there is a controversial uncertainty in the data
As a consequence of this bias,
The negative side of the approach/ method
Details/ Many issues (problems/ questions)
An uncertainty that remains, there is considerable confusion, much of the confusion
The confusion arises, the source of confusion, another instance of this confusion
A reason for rejecting the idea that P
...discussions of P mainly focus on Q.

...remain unresolved ...lies in a mistaken claim that P.

The lack of consistent criteria The misconception that P
...abound (on every page). ...when F reported that P. ...permits unequivocal cause-effect
statements. ...has eluded the investigator/ escaped notice. ...leads to the misconception that P.
...lies in the confusion between R and Q. ...lies in the lack of consistent criteria for Q. F ...fails to
answer the question whether P/ to find unambiguous statistical evidence for P. ...improperly cites
these studies/ uses the formula in an incorrect way. ...adopts a rather controversial notion of P/
does not report data in an organized fashion. By P,

...F surely undermines the unity of the

analysis. P/ This ...is due to faulty manipulations/ is grossly overestimated.

...is a frustratingly speculative idea/ is a misleading comparison. ...is exactly what such research
cannot take for granted. ...still tends to be dismissed by F/ leads to misunderstanding. ...shows
the limits (disadvantages) of the approach. ...shows that this approach is only suited for Q.
...reveals the restricted use of the method. ...seems to me a major drawback to the approach.
These comments are not meant to be interpreted as an argument against F;
they merely suggest that P. ...to have P in such matters restricted by Q. ...this theory will capture
all the aspects of P. ...to regard P as Q/ to presume that P. ...that P/ if this claim is true. ..whether
P (is possible).
7.4. Data analysis: empirical observations, data, illustrations, experiment results
and their represantations
Experiments, tests, estimates, measurements, verifications; Results and their representation
Empirical observations, data, illustrations, examples: see to discover, find, notice, observe,
reveal, witness, assess, determine, establish, obtain, estimate, evaluate, validate; an assessment,
evaluation, verification; material, object, phenomenon, sample, situation, substance, thing;
behavior, change, evolution, existence; to exemplify, demonstrate, illustrate, list; data, details,
evidence, fact, instance, information, manifestation, observation, sign, a document, database,
program, report, example, illustration, etc.
Our description
...rests on evidence obtained experimentally.
Our analysis
...rest on evidence available from biology.
This research/ study/ claim
...rests on findings/ materials of P.
This investigation
...draws on observations of P.
We limit the analysis to
...two phenomena (sample cases/ substances), P and Q.
Turning to the data under consideration, ...we should consider P (we shall see if P). Using
examples drawn from recorded conversations,
...we shall explore P.
It is important
...to examine P and determine/ establish Q.
It is necessary
to find out to what extent Q.
In order to examine/ establish/ obtain P
...it is essential to estimate/ evaluate Q.

In order to reveal P
...it is essential to validate.
We have not yet examined
...the causal relationships in this case.
We have to examine
...the relationship between P and Q.
Before we proceed to evaluate P, ...it is informative to check/ assess/ determine Q. To find the
correlation/ Proof of fusion ...requires two pieces of evidence: P and Q. For P we need certain
data,
...such as observations/ calculations/ estimates of Q.
From this perspective,
...let us re-examine/ determine/ assess/ explore P.
I shall try to illustrate the idea/ tendency/ the role of P in Q ...in the rest of this paper. As an
illustration of this approach,

...we consider here the investigation made by F. A brief discussion

of one example of P
...would be appropriate here.
In this section I want...to turn to examples/ to give instances of P/ to analyze the data. Some
specimen analyses/ data observations
...are given below.
Some concrete illustrations/ examples
...are given below.
Evidence for P
...was obtained in studies on the myocardium.
Such evidence
...may be derived from evolution/ confirm P.
These estimates of the process
...were derived from satellite data.
These measurements in the rate of P
...are based on P.
The data used for this study ...stem (are available) from measurements/ consist of P. New
experimental data
...hint at the existence of P.
These data
...contribute material for the testing of our claim.
A search for a correspondence between P and Q ...should provide a test of our hypothesis. A
confirmation of our hypothesis
...can be sought by analysis of corpus data.
Observing P...will constitute a test of our theory/ can confirm the validity of our ideas.
These findings These probes The information obtained The identification of P Our arguments
The discovery of P Particle physics Computer models Computer simulations There is great
interest
...lend support to the expectation that P. ...provide vital information about Q. ...is crucial for
identifying Q. ...is the key to identifying Q.
...are based on data (materials) obtained in experiments.
...has supplied evidence for Q. ...lends support to this idea. ...estimate/ reveal that P should cause
Q. ...reveal that P is irrelevant here.
...in correlating such data (our results/ materials) with P. Of particular interest/ importance/
significance ...is the fact that P/ the discovery of Q. We (can) appeal
facts/ findings/ discoveries/ studies/ [NN]
to show that P.
These observations/ facts may be encountered
These numbers/ figures/ measurements/ estimates
demonstrated (revealed/ established)
P was obtained (discovered)

...to certain evidence/

...in the literature on the subject.

...have appeared in the literature. P is
...in studies of Q.
...in [NN].

These results
...were obtained by F (at F's laboratory).
These experimental data
...were reported in [NN].
For a full documentation of these features/ For more details,
...see [NN].
This phenomenon
...was discovered to characterize P/ has been reported in [NN]. The
researchers
...furnish strong evidence that P.
These studies ...shows/ has shown that P. ...revealed the shape of P.
...shows how systematic such phenomena can be. ...have reported a link between P and Q, ...hint
that P/ prompted us to explore P, ...shed light on 'P.
A striking example (interesting case/ fact) of P
...can be found in F's [NN].
F ...proved that such an operation is feasible/ witnessed the growth of Q in the study of P.
...provided tools for perceiving P/ performed an experimental check on P. (Thus) There is
...evidence that P/ ample evidence to suggest that P,
There is
...no evidence whatever that P.
Evidence
...indicates/ shows/ suggests/ demonstrates that P.
Further evidence
...includes the facts that P.
Several lines of evidence
...have shown that P/ contradict the view that P.
A considerable amount of evidence
...suggests that P.
The evidence, taken together,
...suggests that P.
We have evidence:
...extraterrestrial intelligences ^are not here.
This claim/ hypothesis
...does not stand up to real-world evidence,
These cases/ facts/ observations/ findings/ discoveries
...support our analysis.
We have now
...obtained the evidence that P/ uncovered evidence that P/
tested the hypothesis.
Observations/ calculations/ measurements/ estimates have been made to determine P. Our
observations ...assume that these events led to (are responsible for) P. ...provide evidence for P.
...indicate that these situations are alike/ differ (in a certain respect). ...suggest that these
specimens are among the oldest. ...lead to the conclusion that different species respond to P in
different ways/ that other nearby galaxies exhibit similar features, .tend to occur under the
following conditions: P .is common for long chains/ is relatable to P/ rarely occurs, .is apparent
in records of P. .is different with different types of P. .are similar to each other/ are clearly present
in P. ... indicate that/ permitted P.
These instances/ phenomena
...tend to form chains/ have in common the fact that P. In some
instances/ cases
...P is Q/ there may be P/ formal analogies can occur.
The clearest instance of the phenomenon
...is to be found in the relation of P and Q. These
observations
...are compatible with/ support the evidence that P.
...provide (further) impetus for the development of P.
My aim has been to develop and illustrate
...principles of / criteria for P.
I (shall) portray this state of affairs
...using the illustration of P.
P
...is chosen to illustrate Q (for discussion)/ illustrates the principle.
This example
...can serve as an illustration.
The dilemma
...is illustrated with memory-type devices.

This procedure
...may be illustrated by P.
Two sample cases (simple examples, showing that P)
...will help demonstrate Q,
Here I shall
...give examples which show that P/ try to illustrate that P.
We have illustrated mainly P,...because it allows us to display the relation more clearly.
To illustrate the point (further),
...we may take/ consider another example, P.
The following examples
...may serve as illustrations/ illustrate these difficulties.
The foregoing example
...is meant (chosen) to illustrate/ demonstrate P.
This point
...can be easily exemplified.
The point will be clearer
...if we consider another type of example.
Examples (of each position)
...are P and Q/ are the following, P.
These examples
...are not untypical/ involve P.
For further exemplification of the problem,
...consider the remarks made by F.
I refer here to P which is discussed at (some) length in,
...for example, [NN].
The reason for rejecting the idea that P ...comes from the fact (observation) that Q.
Given the fact that P,
...it is not surprising that Q/ the conclusion is evident.
As an instance/ For example/ e.g., compare P and Q. ...As an example, take p. 12 of NN.
To return to example (1),
...notice that P.
We conclude this section
...with a few observations on P.
Finally, we turn ...to instances (where) P/ we shall find that in some instances P is Q. As these
examples (instances/ illustrations/ observations/ facts) show,
Our investigation provides evidence to P/ a tool for assessing (estimating) the size of P.
Our observation/ test/ measurement
...permits a reliable assessment of variables.
Our study
...found no association between P and Q.
Detailed investigation
...reveals features of P
An examination of materials
...reveals/ suggests/ points to the conclusion that P.
On (close) examination of the facts
...it was discovered/ established that P.
When we examine P,
...we find that Q is insufficient for our purposes/
should be further studied.
A second problem is found...when we examine/ try to define/ seek to determine P.
Experiments, tests, estimates, measurements, verifications: see an experiment, procedure,
simulation, technique, test, tool; to control, govern, mimic, perform, simulate, use; an aid;
peculiarity, effect, importance, significance; to document, record, remark, report, represent,
tabulate; a discovery, examination, finding, observation; to correspond, depend, incorporate,
vary, deviate, differ, diverge, consist; to constitute/involve evidence; to indicate, separate, justify,
verify, derive evidence/information from data; to correlate data with features, satisfy
requirements, relate to/ index experience, to model reality/ a phenomenon; to reconstruct an
evolution; to represent in a diagram/in real time; to define/set up a correspondence, to find a
correlation, to give an indication, to facilitate an identification, (to discover/ establish/ prove/
evidence for) a connection/difference/similarity/ regularity/parallel/variation, etc.; cf. 4.1; 4.3.
The design of our experiment has been ...to test (conduct simulations of) P/ modeling P.
help demonstrate Q.

Experimental observations
...have been made to determine/ verify/ probe P.
The results we report here
...were obtained on a joint expedition.
In our experiment,
...P is studied/ investigated/ examined/ discovered/ established. In a series
of studies
...we asked students to rate P.
A series of studies has been conducted
...to find a con-elation between P and Q.
...to investigate connections (differences/ similarities/ relationships) between P and Q. To
investigate/ determine P,...it was planned to simulate Q/ it was decided to measure Q.
To test the hypothesis, To assess/ obtain P, To better understand P, In order to measure P In order
to establish P There was an effort It is possible
...we conducted laboratory experiments using P.
To gain more specific information on P,
...a second experiment was conducted.
Continuing our search for P,
...we see that a good indicator of the presence of P
would be Q.
Under these/ certain/ normal/ experimental circumstances,
...P
...tends to occur/ remained unchanged/ will change as Q happens. ...possesses certain
peculiarities/ affected the rate of Q. ...deviates (diverges) from the norm/ differs from Q in that it
is R. ...is a stimulus (substitute) for in vivo experimentation. ...must be repeated whenever Q
changes/ is necessary for the effect to appear. ...is an aid in determining R/ was hastened by the
effect of Q.
At each stage/ In such cases...we check that P/ P occurred/ something suiprising happens. This
change/ reaction
...takes place/ occurs when P.
This effect
...constitutes a rather interesting case.
There are
...(crucial) differences/ (strong) parallels/ similarities between P and Q.
These characteristics/ factors are
...singled out by means of P.
These properties
...determined the choice of P.
The effects of P on Q
...encompass a considerable range/ are not limited to R.
These effects
...are used to explain R.
The behavior of these effects ...may be considered from various perspectives/ as P. Here we
present/ give/ provide/ report
...a complete treatment of these effects.
We have developed/ elaborated a technique/ method/ approach/ procedure that relies on P.
We have used
...accelerated protons to study disruptive effects.
The reason why we used such methods/ computer simulations...is to correlate P with Q. Using a
supercomputer to solve such equations, ...we have now uncovered evidence that P. To elucidate
the details of how P functions
...our research team used computer simulations.
The trials/ experiments
...were used to determine P/ included four treatments.
This result led us
...to experiment with/ upon (rats)/ to test (probe/ simulate) P.
Further experiments
...revealed relations between P and Q.
This technique/ strategy
...capitalizes on P/ employs transformations.

...can be used to simplify/ demonstrate Q. ...has not become a widely used tool in biology
research.
These background trends have been a s s e s s e d...using a large dataset of absolute times. The
impact of this mechanism was assessed
...by using measurements of P.
The value of this function is required
...to evaluate production rates of P.
These measurements
...went into establishing the numerical value of P/
To verify (probe) P, ......our team took a close look at the measurements of/ measured Q.
The dependent variables used in this study
...were composite scores.
These estimates (measurements)
...show agreement with experiments.
Results and their representation: to acquire, affect, approximate, become, break, carry, compose,
drive, embody, emerge, function, happen, have, hide, influence, inherit, interfere, intervene,
meet, obey, occur, pass, pertain, react, resist, taint, withstand, work; a cause, condition,
consequence, gradation, interplay, alternative, analogous, bound, comparable, compatible,
complementary, constant, continual, determined, diverse, equivalent, formal, homogeneous,
identical, implicit, independent, individual, internal, involved, mechanical, objective, opposite,
parallel, partial, related, relative, separate, unreactive, unrelated, unrestricted, unchanged;
common, characteristic, direct, different, dominant, normal, random, rare, similar, variable,
universal; expected, observable, observational, obvious, perceived, testable, unpredictable;
available, inherent, motivated, occasional,

optional,

oriented, responsible,

separable,

uncontrolled, unintentional, unsupervised; appendix, diagram, figure, graph, list, pattern, scheme,
table, character, expression, formula, mark, note, sign, symbol, etc.
Our investigations/ computer simulations/ Analyses of these data ...reveal/ show that P.
The findings of this study/ Several lines of evidence
...reveal (that) P.
Our study of P
...indicates that Q/ points to the existence of Q.
This study
...presents evidence to/ lends support to the hypothesis of P.
Surveys of quasars/ Studies of distant objects
...challenge current thinking about P.
Our material/ examination
...reveals many ways in which this algorithm operates.
The following table/ A demand schedule...shows/has shown that P.
In general,
...the results of our research indicate P/ establish a clear pattern: P.
Seen as a whole,
...our results suggest that P/ further elucidate P.
The results obtained
...highlight the potential of adapting P to Q.
Taken together,
...our results reveal agreement between P and Q/
provide support for the model/ ...are encouraging/ in accordance with P/ rule out the possibility
of P.
These results
...appeared to be confirmed/ are less successful.
...led us to experiment with IV impose constraints on P. ...served to show that P/ look something
like P. As our results indicate, ...relation of P to Q is variable/ there is an association/
discrepancy/ parallelism between P and Q.
It has been (conclusively) shown that/ As our experiments reveal (indicate), P...

...occurs regularly in Q/ acquires significance when Q/ acts simultaneously with/ as Q. ...tends to

break up into cells/ becomes a steady stream when Q/ develops before birth. ...experienced a
remarkable growth since its birth/ demonstrates the utility of Q. ...affects the rate of Q/ is
determined by means of Q.
...reinforces the analogy/ intervenes between Q and R/ is relevant only at equilibrium. ...holds
only in certain situations/ renders R unreactive to Q. ...makes the consequences of Q harmless/
resists extension/ mimics real-life forms. ...exhibits properties (signs/ varying degrees) of Q/ is
not an incidental consequence of Q. ...can get very complex when Q is involved/ can have
semantic significance. ...possesses an additional property, Q/ is experimentally measurable.
...may on occasion be very great/ is an earthquake precursor. ...is a short-lived particle (a highly
reactive molecule/ an unreactive gas). ...is a parameter susceptible to alteration/ a response to Q/
a lawlike regularity. ...is made up of a limited number of entities/ is inconsistent with
observational results. ...is caused by (the fact that) Q/ is pinned down as a cause of Q. ...is highly
amenable to alteration/ is equivalent to Q.
...is adequate (proved useful) for studying phenomena as diverse as R and Q.
An examination of experimental data points to the conclusion that)...
There is ...no/ little connection between the two phenomena/ no occasion for P here.
...an overlap/ parallelism between P and Q.
...a correlation between cancer risk and P.
...an interplay of factors here, including age.
...variability around the expected outcomes.
There are
...occasional traces of P in volcanic gases.
There may (well) be
...some significant relationship between P and Q.
It is just in the threshold region
...where these effects are most important. This is where P
becomes relevant. Here the chemical mimics a hormone. (It is relatively simple to verify that)...
This event is responsible for the change.
This factor determines Q/ has a biological underpinning.
This distinction only arises if there is P. The existence of P is an indicator of/ may explain Q, The
behavior of P approximates that of Q. Such behavior is not observable in Q. Such processes are
governed by P. The nature/ choice of P depends on Q/ conforms to Q. These
effects
...are possible when P/ are related to P/ are common for PP.
Occasionally there happens P. Characteristically PP tend to form chains/ a hierarchy.
It is important to emphasize what P and Q have in common;
P and Q ...embody the same relation/ arc inseparably connected (inseparable aspects of R).
...have in common R/ have a similar structure.
...are identical (different but complementary), P
...is common in (to) Q/ close to Q/ closely
(tightly) bound inside (to/ with) Q,

is a defining characteristic of all QQ/ was discovered to be equivalent to Q.

...is in some respects analogous (comparable) to Q,
What all P have in common
...is that Q.
The connection between P and Q
...is not accidental,
The distinction between P and Q
,..is absolute.
The similarity of P to Q
,,,is prefigured in the tendency R,
...emerges between P and Q. ...grammar is primarily conventional.
A listing of the components The results/ relevant data
The interplay of these factors works against P. These conditions determine/ complicate P.
This scheme
...is consistent with what is known about protein structure.
These laws
...pertain to P.
This principle ...operates in the world of physical phenomena (in different cultures).
This asymmetry ...may not be great under the present conditions.
The conditions ...under which these forms tend to occur are those that P.
...documents the impact of acid rain on plant life.
Fig. 1 ...displays (lays out) the relationships I have been discussing. ...illustrates this case/ shows
a monopoly suffering a loss. ...represents a functional model of the process. ...is a transducer
which embodies P.
In Fig. 5, ...some of these results are tabulated/ we tabulate values of these functions. Graph 1
...presents the data/ illustrates P/ gives a visual picture of P.
This diagram/ schedule ...is designed to capture P/ shows the various quantities of P.
This pattern
...reflects the different functions of P.
This scheme
...is relatable to the different types of P.
These (mathematical) equations ...describe the behavior of P/ represent conditions that P. This
(new) formula
...has great advantages/ provides a measure of P.
...represents a gradual move/ embodies the features of P. ...allows these effects to be
implemented. ...demonstrates that the modification of Q is small.
the formulation to include/ cover P.
Here
...a certain clarification is necessary.
categorize, class, classify, conceptualize, decipher, deduce, divide, formalize, generalize, group,
infer, structure, systematize, unify, unite; affect, influence, act on, be due to, arise from, give rise
to, result from/ in, cause, lead to, produce, generate, depend on, change with, be governed by, as
a function of, because of; to account for, confirm, contend, cover, define, explicate, explain,
interpret, elucidate, offer/provide/suggest/give an explanation/interpretation; an arrangement,
calculation, classification, generalization, implication, inference, integration, reconstruction,
synthesis, topology, typology, level, stage, status, category, system; clarification, clarity,
complexity, consistency, satisfactory, unequivocal, etc.
What do these findings/ observations/ results/ numbers/ figures mean?
These results/ observations
...need careful explanation/ require a careful study.
The factors/ effects underlying these results
...remain unclear.

These mechanisms
...are to be explicated.
The question is,
...what are the factors/ mechanisms/ processes affecting P?
We are faced with the problem of
...defining (accounting for) P.
This analysis
...serves to provide an explanation/ interpretation for P.
Our analysis
...points to another explanation.
By making explicit these distinctions, ...I hope to provide (shall give) an explanation for P. The
most logical explanation for P/ My explanation ...is (based on the concept of) Q. This point
...requires (some) justification.
A few words of comment are necessary here/ A comment about P is in order. With regard to
P, ...a certain clarification is necessary. The following
...is meant as an explanation.
Our observations ...support the supposition that P/ permit a reconstruction of P. Our results
...indicate/ suggest that/ rule out P/ provide strong support for the model of P. ...reveal close
agreement between the experimental and computed values of P.
As our results/ observations indicate
...there is ample evidence to suggest that P (is related to Q). ...there is a connection (relationship)
between P and Q. ...the rate of P depends on/ changes with the amount of Q. ...this factor affects
the rate (range) of P/ produces an effect on P. ...this effect leads to/ is connected with (related to/
produced by) P. ...these modifications arise from the instability of the bosons. ...due to it's
properties, P gives rise to structures called Q.
...can be associated with P.
...operates within the domain of P.
...can serve as a framework for explaining P.
...can be used to define P/ is a matter of degree. This characteristic ...allows a reference to P/
distinguishes P from Q.
...obtains in P ("is customary")/ is shared between P and Q.
The difference/ similarity between P and Q...
...lies in R/ is one of degree rather than kind.
...becomes apparent if we contrast/ compare the conditions they satisfy. ...is prefigured in the
tendency to use R. The conditions under which these forms tend to occur ...are P and Q/
determine/ complicate P.
We can explain the effect/ process if we assume
...that P,
We have sufficient ground to assume
...that P.
The key to explaining the effect/ process/ mechanism/ property
...may lie in P.
Given (the notion/ limitation/ fact) that P,...we can explain Q/ the conclusion is evident. Given
that/ this,
...we have to stand the consequences of P. ...we can extend the interpretation P to Q, ...is based on
the discovery of P. ,,.can be deduced from its structure. ...can be deduced from measurements,
...to test the plausibility of our proposals/ suggestions/hypotheses/

...seems an irrelevant feature (to be acting as/ to be rich in Q)/ could be handled as Q, ...can be
extended to take account of Q/ could be a reason for the change in Q. ..probably represents the
earlier stages of Q/ presumably results from differences in Q. is apparently even more
unrelated to (correlated with) R than Q,
The thesis/ model/ scheme/ interpretation/ explanation...proposed here to account for P is that Q.
Our scheme/ hypothesis relates P to Q/ agrees with observations/ needs explanation/ is
preferable.
Our description
...makes explicit the influence of R on Q.
Our interpretation
...is dependent on P.
The implications (of my model) are twofold:
...P and Q.
The use of the technique/ model/ scheme
...enables predictions of P.
...is bringing about improvements in/ constitutes a promising approach to P. " Our model
...describes how PP behave/ involves/ presupposes/ helps clarify P.
...provides an opportunity for testing P/ unequivocal evidence for P.
...can help find a solution by restructuring Q/ proves productive.
...permits to develop a typology of the phenomena.
...permits to infer (reconstruct/ a reconstruction of) historical connections.
...is capable of providing an answer to P/ has social aspects.
...has the property (virtue) of being testable.
...can be judged on the basis of potency.
...lends itself to simplifications/ yields more definitive results.
The need for a more acceptable classification increases/ has arisen.
Here
...different classifications are possible.
...is an explanation of how PP are classified. Our classification of PP

...is based on their

function/ on the types of Q.

...corresponds to/ identifies Q.
A variety of PP
...can be grouped into (certain) systems.
PP ...may be classified into a number of categories.
...can be divided into two groups, Q and R/ can be categorized by Q.
...are simply different subcategories of experiential phenomena.
...can be systematized by classifying into R and Q. P ...is classed as a member of Q/ is the
unifying concept for Q and R.
...can be interpreted in structural terms/ may be said to belong to Q.
...and Q in some /ay can be unified/ is a condition which determines the class of Q,
...is a motive for a re-examination of Q/ should be reinterpreted as a system,
Our data permit two generalizations.
This idea can be generalized to apply to P.
This generalization
...explains why different species respond to P in different ways. These
properties
...can be elevated to the status of higher principles.
Such phenomena
...can be understood as representations.
This/ Our conclusion
...is consistent with what is known about P.
Our results/ interpretations
...agree/ contrast with previously published work.

These calculations
observations
These judgments
Such representation

...show agreement with experiments/ provide an insight into P. These

...are compatible with P
...correlate with the attitude towards P.
...does not differ from earlier schemas for world representation. Now it

should be clear (the fact is clear/ It is none the less clear) that P. It is (would be) accurate to say/
It cannot (can hardly) be denied that P. Certain elements of P are extremely stable.
This system is constituted by certain relations. PP are all alternatives. These rules operate
according to certain conventions.
These laws hold only in certain situations. In certain cases the converse may be true. There must
be certain features which are characteristic of P. P is almost certain to persist. Under certain
circumstances, P happens/ takes place. These relations do not depend on P. It is P which is
characteristic of Q. Although it is true that P, this tendency is slight. It is in principle possible to
reduce P to Q. There is no difference in principle between P and Q.
There is nothing against assigning P to Q. There is a more plausible alternative for P. There is no
implication here that P. There are no more alternatives to P. There is no/ little connection/
distinction between the two phenomena.
We have put forward the view that P is distinct from Q.
Our hypothesis
Our conclusion
...is based on a careful estimate of P.
...confirm our hypothesis/ support our contention.
...seem to solve the problem of P.
...will actually generate P/ are (therefore) at least plausible.
...is guaranteed to lead to P.
...provide/ may become the guidelines for explaining P.
...will be applicable to/ clearly demonstrates/ provides P.
...holds for the overwhelming majority of languages.
...holds for any set.
There is a discrepancy/ mismatch/ conflict/ contradiction
...between P and Q.
There is a Striking similarity
...between P and Q.
It is misleading to suggest/ It is (was) strange (uncommon/ accidental) .
...that P.
It is hard/ may be difficult to calculate (judge/ imagine) P.
It is not clear whether P. It seems
impossible to tackle the problem successfully.
Whether P includes Q is an open question.
It is the rate of P
...that will be most troublesome.
P ...assumed unusual shapes/ exhibited an unusual behavior. ...proved greater than suspected/
may sound attractive, but Q. ...revealed itself with startling clarity/ is not an incidental
consequence of Q. ...is insufficient to determine Q/ may seem undesirable here. ...is not at all

clear/ may come in various guises/ cannot secure our understanding of Q. ...poses an as yet
unsolved problem/ should not divert our attention from Q. ...vanishes under further scrutiny/
deepens the mystery of how the galaxies formed. This ...is a frustrating lesson/ an unpleasant
consequence of P. ...is a vexed (and troubling) question.
...raises an unanswerable question of whether P/ presents one with a dilemma. ...may conceal a
great deal of information (about variation).
A word of caution
...is needed about this concept/ approach/ idea.
There is
...a danger in relying too much on P as an explanation.
There is no
...conclusive evidence on the trend of P.
There are no
...clear ways (procedures) of testing P.
There may be instances
...which are uncertain/ about which we are uncertain.
There is
...(considerable) confusion over this difference.
The confusion arises because of P.
Another instance of this confusion is that P.
The main source of confusion
...seems to reside in differentiating between P and Q.
Much of the confusion In the field
...lies in a mistaken claim that P.
This question
...leads to a paradox/ is not yet accurately formulated.
These conditions
...could complicate the assessment of P,
Lack of P has been a serious obstacle to Q.These stereotypes affect attitudes towards P.
P should not be confused with Q. A positive answer cannot be based on crediting that P.
We must take care not to misinterpret the difficulty that, P. Serious obstacles lie in P.
The extrapolation of P must be made with caution, 9 The difficulty may be put briefly/ One
added complexity presents itself, P.
Progress in analyzing P has been hindered by the lack of information concerning Q,
Nobody yet knows what is P. We know less than we thought we knew about P.
(Comparatively) little is known...about the distinctions to be drawn between P and Q.
Whether P influences Q
...is not known at present/ remains unknown.
P reflects our lack of knowledge about Q. For P it is necessary to have knowledge of Q.
Our knowledge of P/ in this sphere ...is scant and fragmentary.
...is insufficient to determine Q.
There are many gaps
...in our (theoretical) understanding of these processes.
This controversy
...has left several theoretical tasks unaccomplished.
The debate over the data continues,
...involving astronomers.
Researchers today/ Some biologists
...suspect that P/ are worried that P.
Scientists
...have yet to identify phenomena that exhibit P.
Details/ Many issues
...remain unresolved.
The function of these signals
...has not yet been established.
The precise basic defect
...has eluded investigators.
The mechanisms involved in P
...are complex and still poorly understood.
Many present conceptions of P
...appear unable to meet these criteria.
The more specialized studies of these phenomena
...are very nearly lacking.
The economic analysis in these cases
...is often conflicting.
The analysis
...leaves many questions open/ fails to convey P's true dimensions.
A previous analysis of P
...failed to find a correlation between P and Q.

The contradiction arose

...when connecting these findings to heart disease.
The animal models available for use in AIDS research
...have certain limitations.
This method has its limits.
Even complex models may not simulate P accurately,
No mechanism
...has been put forward to account for the phenomenon.
This validation
...constitutes only a necessary, but not a sufficient, test of P.
These challenges
...are significant (enough)/ deserve closer examination.
A barrier to resolving the problem
...may lie in P/ can be the differences in P.
This factor
...impedes/ obstructs the classification.
Imperfect information
...complicates (compounds) the problem.
A potential application/ role/ value of P
...is still uncertain.
The cause of this metamorphic event But we should end on an optimistic note,
...is uncertain.
7.5. Discussion (Scientific context: inferences, suggestions, predictions)
P ...should be identified in a developmental context/ is part of a broader problem. ...is an
environmental issue/ an issue to be reckoned with in such contexts. ...is of substantial
significance for Q/ exercises a decisive influence on these theories. ...has become a worldwide
problem/ a hot topic in scholarly debates. ...can provide an exhaustive explanation of the
phenomenon/ provokes reflection. ...provides relatively firm ground for examining R/ may be
very fruitful in the long run. ...possesses this quality to a high degree/ advances our
understanding of Q, ...can help 'to develop rigorous procedures (techniques) for such
measurements. ...must be better understood/ is a quite routine technique by now. ...is beset with
technical difficulties/ is an aspect of metacognitive development. ...is a going (leading) term
now/ a broadly influential tradition. ...is a mature (more developed) field (of physics)/ a
professional (topical) discipline. There is an undeniable interest in studying P. It proves to be
very fruitful to study P. A demand for such information

...stimulates theoretical

research into Q.
At present, the topic of theoretical concentration
...is the study of P.
The depiction of P
...is currently an active area of (computer science) research.
This topic/ issue
...has come to occupy the central place in biology.
This idea ...is highly charged/ has an obvious (widespread) appeal among biologists. These
principles
...may become (provide) guidelines as to how to proceed/ for P.
Scientists
...have to supply experimental confirmations of the idea.
The treatment of P
...has shown improvement in recent years.
The advance of P
...is due to Q/ brings another point to the foreground, Q.
The computer
...opens up a whole range of new opportunities.
TEXT ORGANIZATION
While we can expect P, ...we cannot expect Q in the foreseeable future.
The prospect
...opened by this new work is Q/ is a little closer.

There is (clearly)
...a great deal to be done in elaborating this plan.
The question ...about P in this (in a more general) context leads to Q.
In reality, ...it is difficult to control P/ both techniques are of equal importance.
...the broader issue is that P/ there is a deeper reason for P. This technology (technique/ method/
approach/ procedure)...
...will (can/ may/ could) cause Q/ may soon offer P/ is advancing quickly. ...can be used in P/ can
be tapped to develop software applications. ...will surely become a preferred method for Q/ has
its practical benefits. ...is the domain where these predictions can be tested/ seems hard to
beat. ...may become widely used by the middle of the 21st century. ...has reached the point where
it can P/ will I think prove productive. ...would not be nearly enough to stop the population
growth.
7.6. Conclusion/Concluding remarks
Prospects and applications; Proposals for further research; Concluding remarks/
summary
Prospects and applications: see to apply directly/gradually/partially/in addition to/in
combination with; (to make) easier/ facile/ potent, ideal for; practical/ rich (applications), an
achievement, advance, advantage, benefit, contribution, gain, improvement, innovation,
prominence, revolution, reward, success, merit, profit; to avail, clear away, advance, progress, (to
improve) productivity/usefulness, fulfill (the needs), succeed in, (to control/prevent) chaos, to
ease a burden/ reduce the harm (of the underproduction/ undertreatment problem); to use a
(supercomputer/method to compress/record voice/sound/to encode an utterance/signal; (to
promote) scholarship/ (develop) businesses/ (correct) vision/ coordinate (efforts)/ cut (air
pollution)/invent (a generator)/blend (technologies)/block (angiogenesis)/put theory into
practice/ regulate (production)/stop (an explosion)/treat (cancer)/update information/upgrade
computer systems/offer (more) affordable opportunities for/assist in/avoid (problems in)/(to gain)
access to/ (promote/ achieve/ develop/ explore) accumulation/ acquisition/ adaptation/
application/ determination/ implementation of; to yield clues to consciousness; not to dismiss/
ignore/ neglect (a possibility), etc.
The conclusions of the study ...reveal that P/ will help illuminate/ explain P.
We have succeeded in our results, our technique, our method
The merits of the method The method utilized These comparisons This problem/ possibility The
present theory
...could lead to (better measurements of) P.
...can be directly applied to the process of P.
...can be applied directly/ gradually/ partially/

in addition to/ in combination with P.

...can be developed much further/ is easier to apply.
...is superior to anything one has tried to apply before. ...may help us to visualize P/ may serve as
a basis for P. ...cannot be dismissed/ ignored/ neglected any more. ...disregards this
information. ...does not make the problem go away.
Further investigation ...will stimulate others to come closer to an understanding of P. Further
experiments
...may yield intriguing/ revolutionary data/ results.
Further study...may shed light on P/ will continue to elucidate the meaning of dreams. Studies of
P/ This theory...can yield useful predictions about P/ more definitive results. Such crossfertilization
The application of the model

...yields many new insights and results.

...will improve our understanding of brain function. This

can ...enrich scientific knowledge in P/ become most significant innovation in P. ...bring about
improvements in (the treatment of) P/ fulfill the needs of P. ...bring success in controlling
(environmental) chaos/ bring economic profits. ...increase/ enhance productivity/ simplify Q by
clearing away irrelevant details. ...find fruitful applications/ impede progress in automatic
parsing. ...make the consequences of the (underproduction/ undertreatment) problem harmless.
These findings
...may be of considerable practical value.
Practical benefits now foreseen of P ...cannot be an exclusive list.
...includes a practical benefit. ...from applying/ making avail of P is that Q. ...brings changes in
Q.
...for comparing P/ for pooling information about Q. ...are easy to automate. ...is an ideal
teaching machine. ...are of great practical importance. ...are helpful for practical purposes. ...may
come from exploiting Q. ...hinges on the fact that Q/ raises the issue of R. ...we can begin a larger
trial. ...is that P.
The usefulness of these techniques
A gain to be had
The introduction of P
Such databases are powerful tools
Such actions
The computer of the future
The data asked for here
These data
Success in P
Building on this success,
The most significant innovation 8 P ...will not be easy in practice/ will, in practice, be applicable
only to Q.
...can bring an advance in our understanding of P.
...can easily be adapted so as to imitate Q/ can ease/ reduce the burden of P.

...can increase efficiency/ prompt critical (immune) response.

...is able to transform this service from burden to "opportunity/ prevent a crisis in Q.
...provides practical applications/ a facile use of the techniques.
...provides varied database offerings/ helps to validate the usefulness in Q's application.
...helps to avoid the extreme sensitivity of Q /to develop sustainable programs.
...offers (the greatest) flexibility as an aid to Q/ through mastery of environments. In future it
will be possible to use a supercomputer/ this method/ approach/ technique...
...to put theory into practice/ to promote scholarship in biological/ musical studies.
...to compress/ record voice (sound)/ to detect fluctuating (verbal) signals.
...to encode an utterance/ to correct vision/ to develop businesses (of all sizes).
...to coordinate efforts/ to cut air pollution/ to invent a generator.
...to blend technologies/ to treat cancer/ achieve/ develop P.
...to block angiogenesis/ to regulate production/ to stop the explosion of P.
...to update information/ to upgrade computer systems/ to offer opportunities for P.
...to assist in/ to avoid problems in/ to gain access to P/ to promote/ succeed in P.
...to explore accumulation/ acquisition/ adaptation/ application/ determination/
implementation/ transformation of P/ to achieve prosperity.
... for further
see to await/merit/deserve/ warrant investigation; (to
provide) impetus, assist in/ encourage/ inspire/ prompt a search, stress/ emphasize the
importance, (to acquire/gain) competence/confidence (to proceed)/ knowledge/experience
(required to produce P), (to apply/rely on/ use) logic/intuition (in studying P), (reach)
understanding/
TEXT ORGANIZATION
comprehension; theoretically (important), relatively (unexplored), generally applied/recognized,
(applicable) in general; (to identify) formally, remarkable/unprecedented (achievement/growth),
significant (increase/ innovation/ progress), tremendous (advances), acute (need), drastic
(consequences), formidable (task), grave (questions), severe (problems), real (danger), etc.;
"Here
...serious problems/ grave (unresolved) questions (still) remain.
This (aspect)...awaits formalization/ demands closer examination. ...deserves further
investigation.
...needs/ merits/ requires (theoretical) explication/ warrants (empirical) research.
...presupposes deep study (understanding of P/ minute (overall) analysis).
The understanding of the exact mechanism of P
...awaits further investigation.
Further research
...would be fruitful/ is (urgently) required before P.
Further investigations
...will continue to elucidate Q.
Further studies
...will probe fundamental aspects of memory processing.
In this area of study
...much research remains to be done.
P is a major task
...in the future study of Q.
The matter/ problem/ question
...is not decided yet.
Accurately observing P
...is a demanding task.

Here we are faced with a formidable task of P. This preoccupation will not go away.
There is an acute need for P.
There is great interest in correlating such data with P.
There is clearly a great deal to be done in solving these problems.
It would be of great interest to develop P.
The topic of theoretical concentration
...should shift to P.
The central concern of cybernetics
...will shift to P.
(For the measurement of P) It is necessary to have an accurate theoretical
knowledge of Q/ to investigate actively Q. 8 Now it is known with certainty that P...
...proves difficult to check out/ is still beyond our competence/ is theoretically important.
...is applicable to such processes in general/ is a relatively neglected aspect of the system.
...is a generally recognized problem/ is an unexplored area (between language and culture).
...is crucial/ essential to understanding formalizations in many fields.
...cannot be discovered unless Q/ described mechanically (in isolation from Q/ implicitly).
...remains to be considered/ needs to be reconsidered/ should provoke further reflection.
...should be conceptually defined/ further specified.
...should be treated separately (identified formally/ formulated differently). Our awareness that
we need some (more) background for P increases.
There is a general awareness that such disassociation might be expecting
a revision of the theory. , The realization is gaining ground that/ It is hoped that
P will happen.
It must be recognized that

...eventually

...(the knowledge of P permits good predictions about) Q. We

need...to acquire/ gain competence/ confidence in this field to proceed.

...knowledge/ experience required to produce P/ comprehension in these matters. ...to apply/ rely
on/ use logic/ intuition in studying P. ...to keep this goal in mind to reach understanding. It is
important to realize/ remember/ understand that...
...special importance/ significance should be assigned/ attached to the problem of P.
...researchers still have to find a substitute for experimentation in unraveling viral factors.
...failure to differentiate P and Q can be disastrous/ a clear picture of P should emerge.
...this premise needs continued theoretical/ practical emphasis.
...this problem cannot be decided without considering/ understanding that P
...these observations provide impetus for the development of P. ...despite theoretical effort there
is no clear agreement on P. Understanding the formation of P...
...is the key to control Q/ may provide information about Q/ could illuminate questions of" Q.
...can lead to new thinking about Q/entails finding a mechanism that explains Q. Understanding
these characteristics ...can make them easier to identify. i Whatever the outcome of further
research, my hope is that P.
7.6. Concluding remarks: prospects, applications, summary
see to conclude, dose, round off; summary/ize; to agree, believe, convince, maintain, recognize,
think, trust; (to rest) heavily (on), (fit) neatly (into a category), deeply (embedded in), justly

considered; secondary (effect/process/importance), borderline/marginal (case), peripheral

(phenomenon); (results) obtained, (methods) used, etc.
* In conclusion, it may be said that P. To conclude, this paper has explored P,
Finally, we turn to P/ I want to note that P. For completeness, we show/ I should add that P. As
exemplified by our study of P, Q. Our conclusions focus on aspects such as the fact that P. To this
end, we summarize our main principles. To summarize/ In summary/ To sum up, P.
The major points covered by this paper may be summarized as follows, P. Our exploration of P
has brought the following points to the foreground, Q. Now we can conclude that P. In this
paper,...
... I have made the following claims. First, that there is P. Secondly, that Q. Finally, R. ... I have
investigated/ examined P. I started off by arguing in favor of a radical distinction between P and
Q. I found that it is inappropriate to understand cases of Q as R, I looked at R and suggested that
P.
... we have explored P. We have compared P to Q and have put forward the view that R. In this
way, P is claimed to be Q. The analysis proposed explains the similarities which exist between P
and Q. The view utilized here is one which considers that P. While our analysis leaves many
questions open, it serves to provide a unified explanation for a variety of phenomena with
striking similarities which are usually left unexplained.
"In general/ On the whole/ Thus, ...our results indicate/ our theorizing shows that P. The main
findings of the study ...reveal/ show how systematic such phenomena can be. The main
conclusion is that P and Q
...are connected with each other/
provide indispensable prerequisites for further investigation/ can bring a robustness in a system
design.
We (have every reason to) believe/ There is a good reason to think/1 trust it is clear that P... ...is
a borderline/ marginal case/ a peripheral phenomenon.
...fits neatly into the category of Q/ cannot be considered to be of secondary importance. ...cannot
be done without machine assistance /rests heavily on/ is deeply embedded in Q. ...ought to be
included in any description/ analysis of Q.
* There is no real difference between P and Q. The reasoning that P proved to be true.
Evidence for P may be obtained in studies on the myocardium.
*(On my analysis/ In my judgment)
...it is precisely R that distinguishes P and Q.
Experimental data obtained at the laboratory/ used in this study
...show that P.
Apart from its cosmological significance,
...P is Q.
The problem of P
...is to occupy a significant place in current research.
* Can we draw any conclusions from our analysis?

Any P requires Q/ is either Q or R. We are not able to do P with any real success. Any such
theory must be able to deal with all PP. In regard to any subject matter, P. In any case, there is an
overlap/ difference in PP. In any area of science,
will be P.
I wish
...to close with
predictions
P/ to conclude by
that P.
My expectation/ hope/ prediction
...is that P will provide Q.
Printing
7.7. Appendices:acknowlegements
Latin abbreviations and expressions: e.g. References; Abbreviations/ List of abbreviations;
Annex; Index of names/ subjects, see via, vice versa; a figure, scheme, graph, table, etc.
Latin abbreviations:
cf.
confer
compare
i.e./ ic
id est
that is
e.g./ eg
exempli gratia
for example
N.B./ NB
no/a bene note well
etc.
etcetera
and the rest
v.s./vs./vs
versus
against
ib./ibid.
ibidem
in the same place
viz.
Videlicet
namely
Latin (derived) expressions:
ad hoc ail hominem ail inftnitum alter ego alter idem ceteris paribus inter alia in tola
for this special object
to the man
to infinity
another self
another exactly the same
other things being equal
among other things
entirely
ipso facto mutatis mutandis par excellence per set Se prima-facie reduclio ad absurdum sine qua
non
by the fact itself
with the necessary changes
preeminently
itself
at a first view
a reducing to the limit
an indispensable condition
Examples: The consequence of the author's rather optimistic treatment of the formal side of his
model is the ease with which he postulates all sorts of extension for it, mostly unblushingly ad
hoc, wherever he needs to. Cancer cells appear to have an "immortalizing enzyme" that allows
tumor cells to divide ad infmitum. The law of demand states that the quantity demanded of a
good or service in a given time period is negatively related to its price, ceteris paribus. F voiced
similar opinions mutatis mutandis when he reacted against the historical approach. Cosmogonic
myths are thus mythological information pat-excellence. This distinction operates within the
domain of linguistic convention per xe. In the next chapter I shall examine these principles and

argue their prima-facie plausibility. I shall make at least a prima facie case for this claim after
first explaining the few additional notational devices in the diagram.
(Emphasis/ Italics original).
Acknowledgments: see to (gratefully) acknowledge smb's support/ assistance/ contribution (to
the revision of one's article)/one's debt (to smb/forsmt), (be) grateful/indebted (to smb/colleagues
for comments on/discussing one's article/objections), to
(deeply/
greatly/sincerely) smb's help; to thank (sincerely/smb/a reviewer) for help/comments/criticisms/
discussions/ discussing); etc.
Thanks to/ I thank sincerely F
I wish/ should like to thank F

...for help/ for helpful comments and discussions.

...for criticisms/ discussions/ comments/ objections.

43
I. TEXT ORGANIZATION
I. thank the following
...for their criticisms on various versions of this paper, FF.
Numerous contributions of F to the preparation of this article ...are greatly appreciated.
I would especially like to thank F
...for her useful observations on P.
I owe sincere thanks to F,
...whose help I deeply/ greatly/ sincerely appreciate.
I am grateful/ indebted to F (to the editor of this journal/ to my colleagues)...
...for comments on an earlier version of this article/ for discussing the article with me.
Gratitude also goes to F
...for pointing out/ discussing with me the data/ idea.
The author
...is indebted to F for various helpful comments.
...(gratefully) acknowledges the contribution of F to the revision of this paper.
...acknowledges his debt to F for proofreading the manuscript after (final) typing.
The assistance/ support/ help/ contribution of F...
...is gratefully acknowledged/ greatly appreciated. Finally, I thank the anonymous reviewers
...for comments on the penultimate draft of this paper. I want to acknowledge the contribution of
an anonymous referee
...to the revision of this article.
Two anonymous reviewers raised many incisive objections, ...for which I am grateful.
...to which I have done my best to respond.
If I have failed to do so adequately,
...the responsibility is mine.
If any imperfections remain,
...I am entirely to blame/ the fault is mine.
7.3. Printing and publication:
to print, publish, issue, communicate, revise, a publication,
grant, conference, edition, etc.; cf. 3.1-3.3; 17; 18.1-18,3; 20; 21.
9 This work/ study/ publication ...was supported by research grants from the Institute P. ...was
made possible by a grant from "P" Research Council. ...benefited from the following research
grants: P.
8 (Preliminary) Results of this investigation ...have been communicated to the conference [NN],
9 This paper/ book ...is a corrected/ expanded/ revised edition of [NN]/ was first published in
1975.
The revision of the paper was undertaken by F.

NB. A scientific paper is a written and published report describing original research results. The
well-written scientific paper should report its original data in an organized fashion and in an
appropriate language. A scientific paper is primarily an exercise in organization; it should be
highly stylized, with distinctive and clearly evident component parts. Each scientific paper
should have, in proper order, its Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, and Discussion.
An effective way to proceed in writing a scientific paper is to answer these four questions, in
order: 1) What was the problem? Your answer is the Introduction. How did you study the
problem? Your answer is the Materials and Methods. What did you find? Your answer is the
Results. What do these findings mean? Your answer is the Discussion. [R.A.Day. How to write
and publish a scientific paper. Philadelphia, 1979].

8. Appendix (Thesis Layout)

BIBLOGRAPHY