Generalized Theory of Electrical Machinery

BY GABRIEL KRON1
Non-member

Synopsis:1ln the following pages electrical machinery is analyzedfrom a new point ofview. Analytical quantities like magnetizing
current, armature reaction, leakage flux, transient reactance are not
introduced; only such quantities are used as 'actually exist in the
machine at one particular load. Thereby the theory of electrical
machinery is expressed in terms of the minimum possible number of
quantities. No hypothetical currents orfluxes are used and no actual
physical quantity is left out.
The concept of "free energy," used in thermo dynamics, is introduced and generalized.
T'he criterion of good design of all electrical machines is expressed
by a constant, the "thermodynamic efficiency" which gives a measure
of the effective utilization of iron and space for the transformation
of energy. This constant plays a most fundamental role in the
steady and transient behavior of the machine.
A method is given by which the direction of flow of energy between
different parts of any complicated machine can be easily read off the
diagrams.
The theory of constant-potential and constant-current electromagnets is used as a stepping stone to show that the theory of the
polyphase alternator is identical with the theory of the constantpotential polyphase transformer if flux linkages and magnetomotive
forces are interchanged. The circle diagrams of the transformer
and the alternator are developed as well as the elliptical locus diagram
of the alternator with salient poles. Problems in the sudden short
circuit and the sudden load variation of the polyphase alternator
are also solved.
Blondel's diagram for the circular locus of the synchronous motor
is derived in a more extended form together with its elliptical locus

with salient poles. The elliptical loci of the reaction machine and
the synchronous converter are also developed.
The circular locus for the polyphase induction motor, the singlephase induction motor, and the repulsion motor are derived.
The method of attack used in the paper is applicable not only to
circular and elliptical loci, but also to loci of higher curves. The
method is used to develop the complete theory and locus diagram of
the double squirrel-cage induction motor and the split-phase induction motor with or without condenser (or the so-called condenser
motor).
Besides those mentioned above the writer has also developed with
this method the loci of commutator machines, such as the polyphase
induction motor with commutator rotor, the series-polyphase and
the shunt-polyphase commutator motors, the compensated series
motor, including the effect of the short-circuited brush currents,
also the locus of induction motors in cascade and transmission lines.
Due to the length of the article, however, their discussion does not
appear here.
All locus diagrams show the speed and the torque at all loads.
They also show the magnitude and phase relation of all actual currents, fluxes, and e. m. f.
A relation of the form r/x is found for the ratio of the work done
to the free energy and this one simple formula is sufficient to find
the locus diagram and the complete performance of all electrical
machinery and transmission lines. It is the only formula used in
the paper.
In the appendix the relation of the design constants used to the
constants of other methods is shown.
* * * * *

Part I. The Flow of Energy

the "free energy" of that state; Gibbs calls it "thermodynamic potential." The "free energy" of a state is
1. THE CONCEPT OF FREE ENERGY
analogous to the "potential" of a point in a field, which
shows the ability of a unit electric charge residing at
co
n t
y\N etiatio
body may be conducted along two different lines. that point to do work.
The investigation may determine either (1) how
D between two opoints) the work done between the
the energy varies from point to point inside the body or charge
g
(2) how the total energy possessed by the body varies two
two states (or points) is equal to the decrease of the
from instant to instant. In the following pages the sec.
ond type of changes will be studied.
Careful distinction should be made between the total
When the energy content of a body changes, the body
energy stored in the body and its free energy, its ability
is said to undergo a change of state. If after a change to
do work. The free energy may reside in the body or
it is
cb kni r t
tisognl
ae
in the surroundings or even entirely in the surpartly
the
fstaidtet havepasse
bosedy chromes
said
throgh a ycle.roundin s.
The amount of work a body can do deg
During a change of state a certain amount of energy pends not
only on the amount of energy stored in it, but
comes from one part of the surroundings which will be
the amount which flows into the body from
also
upon
called "source" and a certain amount passes out into
while work is being done.
the
surroundings
another part of the surroundings which will be called
II. ENERGY IN CONDENSERS
"load." The departing energy will be called "work."
To show the application of the idea of free energy, a
It will be assumed that no heat energy enters or departs and that the temperature remains constant during charged condenser will be considered with a dielectric
a change of state.of small permittivity (specific inductive capacity).
In each state the body possesses a certain quantity The change of state will consist of letting the lines of
of energy, which shows the ability of that particular flux follow paths with different permittances. If the
state to do work. This quantity is called by Planck lines of flux start from a path with the minimutm possible permittance and passing through the path with
1~~.Th Licl ElcrcCmay lvln,Oi.

backcle. ..tb

Presented at the Winter Convention of the A. I. E. E., New York,

N. Y., Jan. 27-31, 1930.

the maximum possible permittance return again to the

starting position, the state of the condenser passes

666
30-9

April 1930

KRON: GENERALIZED THEORY OF ELECTRICAL MACHINERY

through a cycle. This state of change is possible if the

dielectric can move freely in space.
Two cases will be assumed: first, the condenser is
not connected to a battery, and second, the condenser
is connected to a battery.
When the condenser is not connected to a battery,
the charge and hence the number of dielectric flux lines
has to remain constant during any possible change.
When the dielectric is in the condenser, the flux Q follows a path whose permittance c is a minimum, hence
This value is a maxithe stored energy is Q/22
mum. Let this value be plotted as A C in Fig. IA. A
force is exerted on the dielectric which moves out until
the flux follows the path whose permittance is a maxik. In this state
mum. Let the ratio C,ax/Cmin
the stored energy is QT/2 c,na,x, which is a minimum.
Let it be repDresented by a line A B, where A C/A B = k.
The total work done between the starting state and
this state is B C. Since no more work can be done by
the condenser, the free energy possessed by the condenser at the beginning of the cycle is also B C.__In any
state D the energy stored in the condenser is A D, the
work done is D C, the free energy is D B. A B cannot
be utilized to do work.
It can be seen that during the change of state the
work done is equal to the decrease of free energy. The
stored energy decreases while work is done and the
free energy resides entirely in the condenser.
The cycle is completed by carrying the dielectric
back into the condenser. To accomplish this, work has
to be done on the -dielectric, hence the free energy and
the stored energy again increase. When the dielectric
,,,,

667

part becomes stored energy, the other and equal part

becomes work. Hence, when the stored energy in Fig.
lB is A D, the increase of stored 'energy is B D, which
is also equal to the work done. The remaining part
D C represents the energy which will appear later as
stored energy, hence it is also equal to the work which
the system is able to do in the future, that is to the free

energy. A B cannot be utilized to do work.

It can be seen that the free energy, the ability of the
condenser to'do work, does not reside now in the condenser, but it resides entirely outside the condenser in
the surroundings, that is, in the battery.
Point D starts at point B and during- a cycle moves
__
along a straight line to C and back.
At any point D the stored energy A D = Q2 /2 c.
Since the number of lines of flux, Q, is proportional to
the permittance, c, therefore A D is also proportional to
the total number of lines of flux linking the battery at
that particular state.
In both cases, with or without battery the maximum
possible stored energy is A C, but the maximum possible work done is KUC. Hence the efficiency, -, of the
condenser to do work in both cases n = B_-CIA C=
(A C -A B)/ AC = (cmax -Cmnin)./Cm ax.
Summarized, when no wvork is done, the free energy

STORp ENEGY

Ba FREEan cageNEorGYuI

40

-SBTORKD
DONERGC

bCotadef.(rmmf)ERG

ECONDENStERm (ORmaT.)
is in its original position, the work done on it was ex-FG.1ERGINTECDNER(RNTHELTOANT
actly
th
work
eqalto doe

by

(b)

EECRMANT

-NEGYI

it.in both cases is B5 7C.

As work is done the free energy

Hence, during the cycle point D describes a straight decreases and in both cases the work done is equal to
line, starting from C to B and back again.
tedces ffe
When the condenser is connected to a battery with tedces ffe nry
III. ENERGY IN ELECTROMAGNETS
constant electromotive force, during the change. of
state the number of flux lines does not remain conThe conception of free energy can be applied to the
stant, but increases in proportion to the increase of the constant-potential a-c. electromagnet and to the conpermittance, since electromotive force = dielectric flux stant-current a-c. and d-c. electromagnets if the dielec/permnittance= constant. When the dielectric is in tric flux, Q, is replaced by magnetic flux, 4~, the dielecthe condenser, the lines of flux follow again the path tric by a magnetic material, permittance, c, by perwhose permittance is a minimum, their number is meance PY, and electromotive force E, bymagnetomotive
the minimum possible and the stored energy is force, I. (In the case of a-c. illustrations effective
(Qminia)2 2crn,,in. Let this energy be plotted in Fig. lB values should be understood.)
nry

When the dielectric moves out until the lines

of flux follow the path whose permittance is maximum,
the number of flux lines increases in the same ratio as
the permittance. The stored energy is now(Qn)/
2 ma and this is, k t-"ime as lavrge as, then e6ne-vrgyT at the-)
as A B.

The case where the condenser is not connected to a

battery and has constant fluxes is analogous to the

constant potential a-c. electromagnet where also the
number of lines of flux linking the terminals remains

c%o+nstan (ngetn

essac)

efrigt-i.l-1A

668

KRON: GENERALIZED THEORY OF ELECTRICAL MACHINERY

upon it is analogous to the constant-current a-c. or

d-c. electromagnet where the m. m. f. is constant.
Hence during a change of state (during a stroke) the
number of lines of flux is proportional to the permeance
and also proportional to the stored energy (A D in
Fig. 1B).
Since the reactance of the winding is proportional to
the permeance of the flux-path, the reactance of the
betee variestwo extreme
extem values, X,,,,,,and
a
magnet varies between
of
The
the
efficiency
Xmin.
electromagnet in both cases
=m (Xmax - Xmin)/Xax
77 = ((Pmax - nmin)/Wmax
It can be seen that in the constant-potential electromagnet the current decreases as work is done, while in
constant-current electromagnets the flux increases as
work is done. In both cases the work done is *equal1 to

magnet~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

the decrease

Transactions A. I. E. E.

this machine it will be assumed also that a change of

state will occur if the flux lines linking the primary follow paths with different permeances. But this change
of state will be regulated not by a moving piece of
magnetic material but by varying the current in the
secondary, that is by varying the load.
VI. ENERGY IN THE TRANSFORMER
First let itobe assumed
that the machine is working as
ga
a transformer. Let constant flux link with one of the
of the primary. This constant flux, sinusoidally
phases

Xmatandahle1

space, may assume any

position between

distredi
sace, mayOneassume
ositio when
weenthe
two
extreme values.
extreme occurs
i
iSim
open. possIble
In that case
the flux
flux follows(Fig.
the
~secondary
pathdofof maximum
perme
possible permeance, 6)max. (Fig.
2A) and the stored energy is T2/ Pmax. The other extreme occurs when the impedance of the load is zero,
that is when the secondary is short-circuited. Since
no lines of flux can now link the secondary, no lines of

free-energy.path

The Flow of Generalized Energy

IV. THE TWO TYPES OF ENERGY
In order to treat the oscillating character of energy
during one a-c. cycle as a continuous flow of energy two
hypothetical powers are introduced. It is assumed2
that at each instant during a cycle two types of power
enter the load, the "active" power, E I cos 0 and the
"reactive" power, E I sin 0. The active and the reactive powers can be represented at right angles to
each other and their geometrical sum represents the
total "apparent" power entering the load.
In order to treat the continuous flow of energy as a
steady state, it will be assumed that with a given I and
b two types of energy are stored in the load. One is the
"active" energy, 1D I sin 0 and is stored in a resistance,
the other is the "reactive" energy, D I cos 0 and is.
stored in a reactance. These two energies can be represented at right angles to each other and their
geometrical sum gives the total "apparent" energy,
4b I stored in the load. It will be assumed that a given
value of I and 4 define a definite state and a change of
state will consist either in a change of I or in a change
of ,X.
V. THE GENERAL TRANSFORMER
An ideal slip-ring induction motor will be assumed
which can be used either as a stationary polyphase
transformer or a uniformly rotating polyphase alternator when one winding is excited from a d-c. source.
The stator winding will serve as a place where energy
enters from the source and will be called primary, the
rotor winding will serve as a place where energy enters
the load and will be called secondary. The space surrounding the two windings will represent the medium in
which energy is stored and which will be subjected to a
cycle. The resistances of the windings will be neglected.
In case of the condenser and the electromagnets a
change of state was represented by compelling the lines
of flux to follow paths with different permeances. The
change was effected by moving a piece of magnetic or
dielectric material in the path of the flux lines. In

(a)

FIG. 2-ACTJAL FLUXES IN THE TRANSFORMER

(a) Open circuit
(b) Short circuit

flux can follow the iron path around the secondary,

hvt
flux
follow the path
of
consequently the flux-lines have to follow the path of
minimum possible permeance (Fig. 2B). The stored
energy is the maximum possible and is equal to VP2/ (Pmi-nf
Let again the minimum stored energy be plotted as.
A B (Fig. 3A) and the maximum stored energy as A C.
Again A4BLis proportional to (Pmin and A C to (Pmax.
Since reactance is proportional to the permeance of
the path of the flux-lines, at short circuit the machine
has a minimum possible reactance, XSH, at open circuit
it has a maximum possible reactance, XO. With a
variation of load the reactance of the machine varies,
but only between these two values (in case of positive
loads).
The constant flux will be subjected not only to a.
change of state, but also to a complete cycle. The cycle
will consist of letting the lines of flux pass from the path
of minimum permeance (short-circuited secondary) to
the path of maximum permeance (open secondary) and
back to the path of minimum permeance. This change

KRON: GENERALIZED THEORY OF ELECTRICAL MACHINERY

April 1930

is effected by letting the impedance of the load pass

through a cycle of change from zero to positive infinity
and from negative infinity through negative values
back to zero.
In this load cycle while the impedance of the load
varies from zero to positive infinity, the amount of
energy which disappears from the machine into the
load is B C (Fig. 3A) and while the impedance of the
load varies from negative infinity through negative
values to zero, energy returns to the machine and the
same amount B C comes back which has departed.
Between short circuit and open circuit the energy disappeared B C, or the work done is equal to the decrease

STORED ENERGY
(a) EE ENERGY
Ied

ORK DON`

STORED ENERGY

STORED ENERGY
7 40kX

(b)

Resistarceload

WORK DONE

STORED ENERGY
IS

(c)

an

Resio,tarweandractaneeWoMd
D

(d}
F IG.

, /
Resistance and capacity

load

3-ENERGY DIAGRAM OF THE TRANSFORMER

of free energy, consequently B C is the free energy of

the system at short circuit.
During the load cycle the work done can be stored
either in a reactance or in a resistance, or in a combination of the two. First it will be assumed that the load
consists of a reactance.
As the reactance of the load increases, the current
in the secondary decreases, the lines of flux pass into
paths with higher permeances and the stored energy
decreases. The energy disappeared is assumed to be
stored in the reactance. This energy has disappeared
from the machine at the expense of the free energy.
Since the free energy before its disappearance is stored
in the magnetic field as a reactive energy, after its
disappearance from the machine is still stored as a reactive energy, therefore the energy disappeared, the

669

work done, and the free energy are always in phase with
each other, angle B D C in Fig. 3A is 180 deg. and the
locus of point D is the horizontal line.
While the reactance of the load varies from zero to
positive infinity, point D moves from C to B along the
horizontal line and while the load varies from negative
infinity through negative values to zero, point D moves
from B through A along the horizontal line to negative
infinity, then from positive infinity still along the same
horizontal line back to C completing a cycle.
When the load is a resistance, the work done is stored
as an active energy. This energy has disappeared from
the machine again at the expense of the free energy.
Since the free energy before disappearance is stored in
the magnetic field as a reactive energy, after its disappearance from the machine is stored in a resistance as
an active energy, the energy disappeared, the work
done, and the free energy have to be represented at
right angles to each other (Fig. 3B).
As the resistance of the load increases, the work done,
C D increases, the free energy, B D, decreases, but the
angle between them has to remain always 90 deg.
Hence the locus of point D is a circle with its center on
line B C. When the resistance is positive infinity or
negative infinity (these two values being equivalent)
point D is at B. With negative resistance it arrives
back at its starting point C, completing a cycle.
When the load is divided between a resistance and a
reactance whose ratio remains constant, the lines representing the work done and the free energy have to be
at a constant angle a less than 90 deg. from each
other, hence angle B D C is 90 deg. + a (Fig. 3c) and
the locus of point D is again a circle passing through
points B and C with center below the horizontal line.
With a load partly resistance and partly capacity
(negative reactance) angle B D C is less than 90 deg.
(Fig. 3D) and the center of the circle lies above the horizontal line. With a pure capacity load point D starts
at C toward positive infinity and from negative infinity
through point B comes back to C. Point D travels in
opposite direction as in the case of a pure reactance

load. The straight line is of course a circle with in-

finitely large radius.

VII. ENERGY iN THE ALTERNATOR

The only difference between a constant-potential

transformer and an alternator is that the transformer
has constant flux linking the primary, while the alternator has constant magnetomotive force in the primary.
The case of the constant-current electromagnets is
parallel to the case of an alternator.
In the alternator, when the secondary is open (Fig.
4A) the flux linking the primary follows the path of
maximum permeance and when the secondary is short-circuited (Fig. 4B) the flux follows the path of minimum
permeance. The number of lines of flux is proportional
to the permeance, since the m. m. f. remains constant,
hence at open circuit the number of lines of flux is a
maximum possible, the stored energy is (cImaz)2/(pmax.

670

KRON: GENERALIZED THEORY OF ELECTRICAL MACHINERY

At short circuit the permeance of the flux path is minimum, the number of lines of flux is the minimum possible, and the stored energy is ('Imin)2/ cPmin. The ratio
(maximum stored energy)/(minimum stored energy)
= (Pmax/(Pmin = (Dmax/4'min = k.
Let it be assumed again that the impedance of the
load passes through a cycle. When the impedance is
zero, the secondary is short circuited and the minimum

0
Oll

(a)______________________

Transactions A. I. E. E.

constant, it sends flux through the path having a permeance n (Fig. 6A). The number of lines thus produced is proportional to I2. Since these lines combine
with the lines already existing there, the resultant
lines of flux appear as if the flux lines have been shifted
from a path with maximum permeance to a path with
minimum permeance (Fig. 6B). The number of flux
lines thus shifted is proportional to I2.
It has been seen above that when a flux line passed
around the secondary it has lost its free energy. Hence
when a flux line is shifted due to the increase Of 12, it
~~acquires the same amount of free energy it has lost.
Since the total free energy is proportional to the number of lines shifted, the free energy is also proportional

Hence in Fig. 7A the work done, C D is proportional

to (2, and the free energy B D is proportional to 12.
Since (Di is constant, it can be represented by A C while
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~STORED

ENERGY
A (a) L BI- WORK DONE

D
FREE ENERGY

(b)

FIG. 4--ACTUAL FLUXES IN

(a)
(b)

THE

ALTERNATOR

Open circuit
Short circuit

stored energy is A B (Fig. 5A). As the impedance increases, work is done and the stored energy increases.
Here also the increase of the stored energy is equal to
the work done, while the work done is equal to the
decrease of free energy (Fig. 1B).
If the load is for instance a resistance, the work done
has to be at right angles to the free energy just as in
case of a transformer, and the locus of point D is again
a circle (Fig. 5B).
The differences between Fig. 3, which refers to a
transformer and Fig. 5, which refers to an alternator,
are the following.
1. The lines for free energy and work done are

FACTORS OF ENERGY

When the transformer is short circuited no lines of

flux link the secondary. As work is done, some of the
flux lines pass around the secondary and give up their
free energy. Since each line of flux (or tube of flux)
possesses the same amount of energy before linking the
secondary and it also possesses the same amount afterward, the work done by each line of flux is the same,
hence the work done is proportional to the number of
lines of flux linking the secondary, @2.
As the secondary current of the transformer increases,
it tends to produce flux. It can not send any flux
through the primary winding, since the primary flux is

(b)

EE

interchanged.
2. In Fig. 3 point D starts at C, in Fig. 5 it starts
at B, both at the short-circuit point.
The Generalized Vector Diagrams
VIII. CONNECTIONS BETWEEN THE ENERGY AND THE

ENERGY

SO

(d)

FIG. 5-ENERGY DIAGRAM OF THE ALTERNATOR

(a) Reactance load

(b)

Resistance load

(c)

Resistance and reactance load

(d) Resistance and capacity load

the stored energy AD, which is equal to I1 (, is proportional to I,.

Similarly in the alternator diagram (Fig. 7B) the work
done KID is proportional to 2, the free energy D C to
12. Since I1 is constant,_it can be represented by AKC
while the stored energy, A D which is equal to I1 b1 is
proportional to I1.
It can be seen that the energy diagrams of both transformer and alternator represent also the actual flux
linkages and magnetomotive forces existing at any
load. The scales will be determined below.

April 1930

KRON: GENERALIZED THEORY OF ELECTRICAL MACHINERY

Comparing Figs. 7A and 7B, it is noticed that the

lines representing I, and c1i, also the lines representing
12 and 4D2 are interchanged. Hence it can be concluded
that the theory of the polyphase alternator is identical
with the theory of the polyphase transformer, except flux
linkages and m. m. fs. are interchanged.
It is interesting to note that for both the alternator
and the transformer the four lines represent the phase

_=4- Hl I

==

(a)

_0 sf L } }

671

of both the alternator and transformer is the same as

the efficiency of an electromagnet.
= (@mpr-cmin)/'Pax = (X- XSH)/XO
This constant 1 is the most important characteristic
of all electromagnetic machines. It shows how much
of the maximum possible stored energy is free energy.
IX. THE SCALES OF THE VECTORS
To find the scale for '12 let the case be considered
when the machine is open and point D is at B. At open
circuit the flux linking the secondary is less than the
flux linking the primary. Let at open circuit (P2 = 1 V',
where v' is less than unity. At open-circuit C D =
442/v'. If 71/V' = v" then C D = Cb2V".
Let B D = 12 v and let one a-c. cycle be considered,
that is the time while the applied voltage varies from
zero through positive and negative maximum back to
zero. During one a-c. cycle the amount of energy which
did not return to the source = (b I,) sin C A D = twice
the area A C D = (s2 I2) sin B D C = (C D/v') (B D/v)
sin B D C 1/v"v times twice the area B D C. Since

FIG. 6-FLUXES IN THE TRANSFORMER

(a)

(b)

Component fluxes

Actual fluxes

relations of the four actual measurable physical quantities not only in time, but also in space. For instance, if
in Fig. 7B line A C represents the axis of the field pole,
the angle between I, and 4I represents the space angle

/
Hb

FIG. 8-ACTUJAL CURRENTS AND FLUXES IN THE TRANSFORMER

ENERGYtV

,___________MAXIMUMSTORED ENERGY

X, 0area A C D = 1 times area B D C, therefore 1/v"v =7,

__C

TAOM(a)

%A1 ~~~

A --f-B_ MAt!UM_gORED ENERGY_

MAXIMUM STORED ENERGY

~
I~I

'

~ ~

bC

B TERNATR
FIG. 7-THE GENERALIZED VECTOR DIAGRAMS
(a)

Transformer

(b) Alternator

by which the total resultant field flux is shifted with

respect to the axis of the field pole. In case of a pure
reactive load point D moves from C toward B as I2
increases, 1 does not shift in space, only decreases
("demagnetizing effect"). With a pure capacity load
point D moves from C away from B and 41 increases
("magnetizing effect"). If the load contains resistance
e1 shifts its position with respect to the axis of I1 and
the angle of shift in space is exactly equal to the angle
of shift in time.
It can be seen also that the thermodynamic efficiency

from this v = 7/v" = v'.

Hence to determine the complete performance of the
transformer or alternator one has to know the opencircuit reactance XO (or Pmax) the short-circuit reactance XSH (or
and the ratio of the secondary and
primary voltages at open circuit v'. From these
~ ~~=(X,, - XSH)/IXO and v" =ql
olwigte
o
ln the following
pages the scale on the diagrams will
not be shown unless it is necessary.
X. THE DESIGN CONSTANTS
Instead of introducing the ratio of the primary and
secondary voltages at open circuit, it will be assumed
that the voltage is impressed not on the primary side
but on the secondary side. This determines different
open-circuit and short-circuit reactances. When the
e. m. f. is impressed on the primary the two reactances
will be denoted by a prime XO', XSH' and when the
e. m. f. is impressed on the secondary side they will be
denoted by a double prime X0"', XSHT".
The relation between the four reactances can be
found if the actual values of the currents and the fluxes
are plotted. In Fig. 8 lines A B C D represent the four

672

KRON: GENERALIZED THEORY OF ELECTRICAL MACHINERY

Transactions A. I. E. E.

quantities of the transformer. If A 'C = D C/lv" it is the secondary towards the primary, no additional curequal to 'I2. If A' H is drawn parallel to D A and_A 'D' rent can flow in the primary, but additional flux can
to D B, then it can be assumed that instead of A D line appear at the terminals of the primary; that is, the
H A' represents II and then A'D' = I2 v'. If A LI' is primary behaves with respect to the secondary as if it
drawn parallel to L)'A' then A C = D'C/v' hence were permanently open circuited. Hence the reactance
of the alternator from the secondary side is always (XO'').
A H' = I2.
b. From the Primary Side. In case of positive loads
The four heavy lines represent the four actual physical quantities in their proper magnitude and phase (resistance and reactance) the reactance of the machine
relation. (If fluxes and currents are interchanged, the varies between the limiting reactances XSH' and XO'.
four quantities of the alternator are found.)
XII. THE GENERAL LOAD-FORMULA
Starting from the four lines representing the actual
It has been shown in connection with Fig. 6A that in
quantities, two different diagrams can be derived. If transformer
I2 sends flux through the path having a
on theprimary,thenpoa
the primary, then point D3 1S
thethee.
e. m.m.f. f.iS iimpressed on
permeance (mzn
The number of flux lines so produced
selected as the common meeting point of three lines.
the
e. m. f. induced by them) is equal to I2 XSn",
(or
f. is impressed on the secondary however,
If the e. m.
Ifthen point
h meet-.
the
seconr
ever which is also equal to the number of .lines shifted and to
ed as
e.itm.D'fs
hasimpreassed
to be assumed
the common
then
ing point and then the four lines determined by points the free energy. The flux lines which are not shifted
A' B' C' D' represent_the transformer diagram (where appear as the secondary terminal-voltage, (D2 and their
number is equal to 12 ZL, where ZL is the impedance of
D' B'isparallel toA D).
Two things can be observed if the e. m. f. is im- the load. It is also equal to the work done. Hence
pressed in the secondary. First, that q = Be' C/ A' C (work done)/(free energy) = 12 ZL/II XsH" = ZL/Xsa".
D
= B C/A C, that is the thermodynamic efficiency is
.
the same no matter which side the e. m. f. is impressed.
Second, that v" is the ratio of the primary and the sec- .--,\\
ondary e. m. fs. at open circuit.
,.'
,.
It is proved in textbooks that if in any complicated
A
B
(a)
circuit a generated e. m. f. and an ammeter are interF
changed, the reading of the ammeter does not change.
(It is the so-called Theorem of Reciprocity.) Hence
.-D
the short-circuit current in the secondary with an e. m. f.
- ,',.'
in the primary is equal to the short-circuit current of
. . *the primary with the same e. m. f. in the secondary.
- 7
;
Hence if the e. m. f. is impressed on the primary, then
A
C
A C = (I2)s1H/V". If the e. m. f. is impressed on the
(B{
F
secondary then A'C = (I1)sH/V". Since (I1)sH = (I2)SH,
A C v" = A' C v' or A C/A' C = v'/v". But A C
FIG. 9-RESISTANCE AND REACTANCE LOAD
= Eim,/XsH and A 'C = Ejmp/XsH" therefore XSHI/XSH'
(a) Loads in series
= v'/v". Similarly XO'/XO' = v'/v".
(b) Loads in parallel
of
the
electrical
maperformance any
Summarized,
chine can be predetermined if any three of the four
Applying similar reasoning to the alternator,
XsH"
(work
done)/(free energy) = ZL/Xswh .
reactances
are
known.
X",'
limiting
XsHf',
Xo,
of
These are the only formulas which will be used in the
This is a particular case a more general principle
artle.
which states that the performance of any complicated
circuit (transmission system) can be found if the openXIII. SPECIAL CASES OF LOADS
circuit and short-circuit impedances measured from
(a) In case of short-circuits ZL r2 and the alterthe source and from the load are known.
nator short-circuit current is determined by the point
XI. THE REACTANCES UNDER LOAD
where D B/D C = r2/X," (Fig. 7B) and the transformer
a. From the Secondary Side. In the transformer short-circuit current is determined by the point where
the total resultant flux linking the primary is always DC/D B = r2/XS". (Fig. 7A.) D C is perpendicular
constant. If energy is sent from the load towards the to D B.
(b) The load may consist of any combination of
primary, no additional flux can link the primary, but
additional current can flow through the primary. That resistances and reactances. Let two simple cases be
is the primary behaves with respect to the secondary as considered, a resistance and reactance in series and in
if it were permanently short circuited. Hence the re- parallel.
When in a transformer a resistance load is in series
actance of the transformer from the secondary side is
always (XSH"/). with a reactance load, the same I flows through both of
In the alternator the total current flowing through them, while the total secondary terminal voltage is
the primary is always constant. If energy is sent from divided between them. In Fig. 9A, D F is the voltage
Y

April 1930

KRON: GENERALIZED THEORY OF ELECTRICAL MACHINERY

673

across the resistance, F C across the reactance and they Here also D C/D F = RL/XSH", D C/F B = XL/XSH"/
are at right angles to each other. Since D F repre- and D C/D B = ZL/XSHf/.
sents the energy which disappeared in the resistance,
Similar relations hold true for an alternator, except
D F has to be at right angles to the free energy B D, Xsi"T is replaced by XO".
while F C must be parallel to B D. It can be also
Influence of the Boundary Conditions

C_.,,_._._

<

G'

Locus of

Il

\\

XIV. EFFECT OF THE SECONDARY RESISTANCE

The
total resultant secondary flux, D B of the
+s alternator
(Fig. 10) can be divided into two parts.
One part, D F, represents I2 r2, it is always perpendicular to 12 and FD/D C = r2/Xt''. The other part,
B F is the secondary terminal voltage F2.
In the vector diagrams of the paper voltages are not
represented, but fluxes producing those voltages.
At constant power factor the angle between F2 and
\/1 1I2 remains constant and the locus of point G is a circle
with center at G'. The loci of points D and F are also

FIG. 10-Locus DIAGRAM OF

THE

ALTERNATOR

stated that DF/DB = RL/XSH" also FC/D B =

XL/XSH" and D C/D B = ZL/XSH".
When the load consists of a resistance in parallel with
a reactance, the same voltage 4>2 is applied to both of
FE

/\

\ 0

\/
(a)

(b)

FIG. 12-EFFECT OF PRIMARY IMPEDANCE

(a)

/122

Resistance

(b)

Resistance and capacity

circles with center at D' and F'. Point F' lies on the
vertical line through G' and D' F '/D' C =r2lXo"
If F2 is plotted against I2, the so-called OelschlagerEllipses are found.
In case of the transformer (Fig. 11) the reasoning is
similar except D F/D B - r2/XSH".
The scale for F2 and 12 r2 is the same as for 42, that

=F2 V".
~~~~~~~isCF

,,

XV. EFFECT OF THE PRIMARY IMPEDANCE

Let current OA (Fig. 12A) flow in a circuit with
impedance ZL, whereOA = Emp/ZL. If the resistance
alone had existed in the circuit, then the current which
would flow through the resistance would be the diameter
TG of the circle through 0 and A with center on
Eimp.
That is O G = Eimp/RL. If the reactance alone
Ei
had existed, the current through it would be the diameter of the circle through 0 and A with center on a
line at right angles to Eimp. That is 0 F = Eimp/XL.
-An investigation will be made of how the current
changes if an impedance Z1 is placed between the load
and the terminals.
With the introduction of Z1 the apparent energy
0 A stored in ZL is divided into two parts. One part

, 1D
F

l? B.
H...

Fou. 11-LocuJs DIAGRAMW OF THE CONSTANT POTENTIAL

TRANSFORMER

them but 12 divides between them (Fig. 9B). One

part M7~ flows through the resistance, it is 90 deg. from
42, while F Bflows in the reactance and is parallel to 12.
The two currents are at right angles to each other.

KRON: GENERALIZED THEORY OF ELECTRICAL MACHINERY

674

Transactions A. I. E. E.

A B is stored in Z1 the other part B 0 is stored in ZL.

Special Problems of the Alternator
Hence A B/B 0 = Z1/ZL and the current is O B.
XVII. THE SALIENT-POLE ALTERNATOR
First it will be assumed that Z1 is a resistance r1.
WITHOUT SECONDARY RESISTANCE
_
Point B can be constructed the following way.
Since the four-line diagram represents the actual
1. Draw circle through 0 and A with center on 0 F existing m. m. fs. and flux linkages not only in time but
2. Find the image of point A as C where A D = D C also in space, this suggests that if the space has different
permeances in different directions, by reducing the flux
3. Plot the current Eimp/ri as 0 H
linkages proportionally in those directions the diagram
4. Connect point C with H
of affairs in case of nonPoint B lies at the intersection of the circle and line C H. must represent the actual state
uniform air-gap permeances also.
The axis at right angles to the poles will be called the
Angle B 0A = angle B C 0 and angle 0 B Ar=
angle H0 C since they are drawn over equal arcs. cross axis. It will be assumed that out of the four
l
reactances belonging to the cross axis, one,
=
ence A B/B 0 == r1/Z1 as required. limiting
OUC/OOH = rl/ZL, hhence
XON is known. All quantities belonging to the crossAngle H 0 B = angle 0 C B since both are drawn on axis have a subscript ( )c while the quantities of the
the same arc 0 B, hence triangle H 0 B is similar to main axis (field-pole axis) have a subscript ( )m
H C 0 and H CIH 0 = H O/H B. In Projective GeSince the primary along the cross axis has no winding
ometry such a point as B is called the "inverse" of point
C with the "center of inversion" at point H and with a
"constant of inversion" 0 H.
If instead of a resistance an impedance Z1 is put in
series with the load, the steps for finding point B are the
same as with a resistance, except instead of the current
E/r1 the current E/Z1 has to be plotted in its proper
------------.----C
phase relation to the impressed e. m. f. (Fig. 12B) and
also the axis 0 F is at right angles to the current E/Z1.
If the locus of point A is a circle, its image is also a
circle, the inverse of the image is again a circle. Hence
/
F
to find the new locus it is sufficient to find three points
on the inverse circle. The quickest way is to find the
inverse of the two points B and H (Fig. 11) lying along
the axis by drawing B E and H E then erecting perpendiculars to these lines from point A. If the image FIG. 13-Locus DIAGRAM OF THE ALTERNATOR WITH SALIENT
P' of the center of the circle P is found, the center of the
POLES, WITHOUT SECONDARY RESISTANCE
inverted circle lies along line E P'.
If the locus of point B is not a circle the inversion has the only flux existing at right angles to the field pole is
to be made for each point.
caused by the m. m. f. of the secondary.
If not only the current 0 B flowing in the circuit is
At a certain load let I2 (V')m = C D (Fig. 13). With
known but all the other currents and fluxes existing a uniform air-gap f2 (v")rn = B D. The m. m. f. acting
among the different parts of the circuit, then with the along the cross-axis is H D/(v')m, the secondary flux
introduction of Z1 every other quantity changes its linkages along the cross axis are H D/(v")m. If howmagnitude and direction in the same ratio as 0 B.
ever, ((lPmaxn)c/(LPmax"1)n = p less than unity, then the
in the same ratio,
XVI. THE TRANSFORMER WITH PRIMARY RESISTANCE cross-component of be2 is decreased
that is f2 (v")m = B F instead of B D, where F H/D H
In case of the constant potential transformer with ((?rmax")c/((Pmax")m = (Xo")c/(Xot)m = P.
introduction of the primary resistance the four
Hence if the power-factor of the load is given and r2 is
the,
points B C D F (Fig. 11) change to B' C' D' F' keeping neglected, the angle between 4D and I2, angle B K C is
their relative magnitude and phase relation. Hence constant, the locus of point K is a circle as before, while
after the introduction of r1 A C = impressed e. m. f., point D and F divide the vertical line in a constant
C C' = I ri, A C' = the total resultant flux linking ratio p. Their loci are ellipses passing through points
the primary, etc.
B and C.
It_should be noticed_that_C C' (I1 r1) is perpendicular
The steps for the construction of the ellipses are the
to A D)' (Ii) and C C'/A D' = rl/XsH'. All the lines following. First draw the original arc C K B and any
D' B' (12) pass through point K which_lies at the inter- vertical line -H' D'. Then
section of the inverse circle and line A H", where point
1. Assume any line B K.
H"w is the inverse of point H.
-2. Draw line C K D.

Since

m/ZL,

BIBH rIm

aserequired.

---

April 1930

KRON: GENERALIZED THEORY OF ELECTRICAL MACHINERY

675

3. Measure on line H' D' the distance F' D', where the following: First draw the circle through B K C,
F' H'/D' H' p = (Xo0"/(Xot1)?.
then
1. Assume any line C K
4. Draw line B D 'D.
2. Draw K B and the vertical line K M
The intersection of B D' and C K determines point D.
3. Find point N so that N M/K M =
The intersection of theverticallineDHand
the vertical line D H and B K
K
4. Draw N P perpendicular to C(X0").
that
K so (XOl")?n
determines point F. of
N PIK C = r2/ (Xol').
The cross component of I1 can be found by con5. DrawlinesCXFandCPL
sideringthat
Sinc
sidering
that (41),
Since F H =
(4)c = (+F2X (V',.
(v"Xc.
6. From point L draw perpendicular to C K
7. Through F draw the vertical line F D
8. Find point G so that G H/F H = (V"t)c/(v"t)r.

dheterinterseioint

5.DawlneH=Fad

Is

XIX. SUDDEN SHORT CIRCUIT OF ALTERNATORS

The case will be considered when an open-circuited
alternator is suddenly short eircuited.
When it is suddenly short circuited, the flux lines
linking the primary and secondary cannot change instantaneously, but the m. m. fs. of the primary and
secondary can. Since at sudden short circuit the existing m1 is A C/A B k times as large as it should be

%-cs of

/11
,
A

II

B~~~~~~~

FIG. 14-Locus DIAGRAM OF THE ALTERNATOR WITH SALIENT

POLES

(42)c =F H/(v")m and

GH = M H(v")c = (42),(V"), = (4l), = F H(V")c/v")m.Hence point G divides H F in a constant ratio and its
locus is also an ellipse.
(cI2)c (V")m_therefore M H =

D'
FIG. 16-VECTOR DIAGRAM OF THE

(Fig. 15) the

ALTERNATOR

WITH SUDDEN

LOAD VARIATION
primary m. m. f.

has_to change suddenly

with the same ratio k from A C to A D.

That is the sudden short-circuit diagram is the same

XVIII. LOCUS OF THE POLYPHASE ALTERNATOR
WITH SALIENT POLES
as the permanent short-circuit diagram with the followIf the vector diagram is plotted in Fig. 14, <2 = B F ing reservations:
1. The field m. m. f. A increases in the ratio
can be divided into FL = 12r2, which is perpendicular
AC/A B= (Actual 4]1)/(Permanent ()=
. ,
2. There is a superfluous 42 left in the alternator
A X C ;l2-C
A
which slowly disappears while the whole diagram A C D
(a)

JZ

.2iZ

(b)

(1

12X

shrinks to its permanent size A B C.

That is the field m. m. f. increases with the ratio
(short circuit current)/(open circuit current) if used as
...
,,,,,_,,,,,,,,,,.
SDa
transformer, or with lPmax'/l9,nin' or Xo//XsH' while
the
secondary m. m. f. increases from zero to llv'.
.I

FIG. 15-SUDDEN SHORT CIRCUIT OF ALTERNATORS

(a) Open circuit

(b) Permanent short circuit

___ __ ___
to 12 CD, where F L/D C = r2/(X0"t) and into
F2 = B3L. If the power factor of the load is constant,
the angle between F2 and '2 remains constant and the
locus of point K is a circle, while the loci of points D, F,
and
Gare
ellipses.
The steps for the construction of the three ellipses are

XX.

SUDDEN LOAD VARIATION OF ALTERNATORS

At a certain load let the alternator diagram be

~~~~~~AB C D (Fig. 16) and let the load change suddenly to

such a value that after equilibrium is established the
alternator diagram is A B C D'.
Again it is assumed that the flux linkages cannot
____
change suddenly, only the m. m. fs.
Since 41 is larger than it should be by A D/A D',
therefore the primary m. m. f. Ih changes suddenly in

676

KRON: GENERALIZED THEORY OF ELECTRICAL MACHINERY

the same ratio and phase-displacement from A C to

A C' where A C'/A C = A D/A D' and angle D A D'
= angle C' A C. 12 V' changes from D C to D C' just
as in case of sudden short-circuit.
While point D moves to D', point C' moves to C when
equilibrium is established.
E2

Transactions A. I. E. E.

XXII. THE SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR WITH SALIENT

POLES
Let the vector diagram of an alternator with salient
poles be plotted in Fig. 18. If it is assumed that F2 is
constant the locus of point L is a circle while points
F and D move so that FHI/DH = (Xo",)c/(Xo()m,
F L/D C = r2/ (Xo")m and F L is perpendicular to D C.
The loci of points D, F, and G will be ellipses.
The steps for the construction of the ellipses are the

FIG. 17-Locus DIAGRAM OF THE SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

(The writer has no means of checking the correctness of this reasoning, except one particular case, the
FIG. 19-Locus DIAGRAM OF THE REACTION MACHINE
sudden short circuit from open circuit when point D
moves from C to B.)
following: First draw the circle and any vertical line
M N. Then
D
1. Assume any line C NA
2. Find point K so that K M/N M = (Xo",)c/ (Xo,,).
3. Draw line C K
I,r~~~)
4. Draw KP perpendicular to NC so that
K P/NC = (X,")m
5. Draw line CP L
6. From L draw a perpendicular to N?C
A
B I1 H A C
7. From point F draw the vertical line H F D
8. Find point so that HFH
(v),

I12

FIG. 18-Locus DIAGRAM OF THE SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR WITH

SALIENT POLES

rz

Part II. Synchronous Machines

XXI. THE SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
Let the vector diagram of the alternator be Fig. 17.
If it is assumed that F2 is constant and Ii is stationary,
then the loci of points F and D are circles.
The diagram will be more familiar if instead of keeping I1 stationary F2 is kept stationary and Ih is rotated
around point B. The locus of point C is a circle and
that of D' another circle with center at H where
H F/H B = r2/XO'".

FIG. 20-Locus DIAGRAM OF THE SYNCHRONOUS CONVERTER

XXIII. THE REACTION MACHINE

If it is assumed that the excitation ~of a synchronous
motor with salient poles, A C (Fig. 18) is zero, the loci
of points D and F are again ellipses, (Fig. 19). The
angle between 12 and +2 shows that torque is exerted
by the rotor at all positions except when 2 iS along the.
field axis or at right angles to it.

April 1930

677

KRON: GENERALIZED THEORY OF ELECTRICAL MACHINERY

XXIV. THE SYNCHRONOUS CONVERTER

If brushes are put on a synchronous motor along the
cross axis, the difference of potential appearing between the brushes is alwavs equal to the component
Of CIa2 along the main axis, B H (Fig. 18). If current is
taken out through the brushes, only that component
of the rotor current can pass out which is in line with
the brushes, that is H D. The actual current flowing
in the rotor is C H, the actual a2 is B H and always lies
along the main axis. The locus of point D is again an
ellipse (Fig. 20).
Induction Machines
XXV. MACHINES WITH SHORT-CIRCUITED
SECONDARIES
In the induction machines two separate phases will be
considered to exist at right angles in space. One of the
phases will be called main phase and all quantities belonging to it will have the subscript ( )m; the other will
be called cross phase and its quantities will have the

subscript (

current is assumed as a standard of reference and the

flux is assumed to occupy different angles. The notation -t+ I represents energy flowing from the space
where b is stored toward the circuit in which I flows.

When the angles are multiples of 90 deg. only one type

of energy flows. When b occupies some intermediary
position between two perpendicular lines, both processes represented by the perpendiculars occur between
4a and I.
If the current and the flux reside in different phases,
Fig. 21B should be consulted which is similar to Fig. 21A
except the reference current is shifted 90 deg.
The knowledge of the direction of the flow of energy is
especially important in variable-speed machines beL

In the synchronous machines it has been assumed

that the total resultant secondary flux, (D2 divides into
two parts. One part represents the resistance drop in
the secondary, I2 r2, the remaining part represents the
terminal voltage, F2. In the induction machines the
secondary is permanently short circuited and ()2)"I)m FIG. 22-Locus DIAGRAM OF THE POLYPHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
WITHOUT PRIMARY RESISTANCE
divides again into two parts. One part represents
voltage
generated
represents
a
I2 r2, the remaining part
in the secondary due to its rotation through a flux cause those speeds, where the flow of energy changes
((P2)C linking it at right angles in space. The magnitude direction, have special importance.
XXVII. THE POLYPHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
A two-phase motor will be assumed, in which the
phase
Reac iv
phases
are identical in every respect. Since the im0tAct ivive
pressed e. m. fs. are 90 deg. out of phase, to each flux
Reactive
Reactive
Acbve
0,p,
IActive
and
current in one phase corresponds an equal current
3egs/
0
0
30
Degs
and flux in the other phase but displaced 90 deg. in time.
0
Reactive
Act ive
When in Fig. 22 (v1)2)m = D C then (vIa2)C = D K it is
Reactive 4
equal to D C but lags 90 deg.
>(a )
(4)2)m can be divided into two parts. One part
(@)
D F = I2 r2, it is at right angles to I2 and D F/DB =
In one phsae
Between phases
FIG. 21-DIRECTION OF THE FLOW OF ENERGY
r2/(XSH"). The other part, F C, is due to its rotation
through (T2)c, it is equal to (ef), X rev. per min. and is
of this generated e. m. f. is (va2), X rev. per min. and is at right angles to D K, that is it lies along D C. Hence
represented on the diagram always at right angles to (I2)m and (I2)v)m are always perpendicular and the locus
of point D is a circle with its center on B C.
(D2)c.
The load acts as a variable resistance R2 and at
XXVI. DIRECTION OF THE FLOW OF ENERGY
B = R2/XSH'". = v(1
B
any
point D C D7IDF/D
relativ
maThe angle between (i2 and I2 shows the relative mag- r2/XSH"therefore
C = r2/R2 But DFID
r.p. m)/vi2
nitude and the direction of flow of the two types of
= slip = s. Heee R2 = r2/_S.
energies between the machine and the load.
Locked Point. At point L where C L/L B = r2/XsHt"
This relation can be generalized and stated that in
any vector diagram the angle between any flux line and the motor is locked. The length of F C is zero, hence
any current line shows the relative magnitude and the no energy comes from the cross phase.
No-Load Point. At point B where (eia)m iS at 180
direction of the energies flowing between the circuit of
deg. to (Ii)m the motor runs at no load, because no
the current and the space in which the flux resides.
If the current and the flux reside in the same phase, energy passes into the rotor.
Motor Action. Between points L and B the angle
Fig. 21A should be consulted. The position of the

0R

4)

1r=2'

KRON: GENERALIZED THEORY OF ELECTRICAL MACHINERY

678

- (F2 shows that both active and reactive energies

flow from the source toward the secondary.
Generator Action. Beyond point B below the horizontal line to C the angle Ih - ')2 shows that active
energy flows from the rotor toward the source (hence
rotor has to be driven) but still reactive energy flows
from the source toward the secondary just as in case of
motor action.
Electric Brake Action. If the rotor is driven in the
negative direction, point D moves beyond point L,

Transactions A. I. E. E.

ratio as point F divides D C. Hence rev. per min.

L M, if L N = unity (Slip = M N = s).
The significance of line L N can be seen from the
following consideration. If the infinite-speed point, C,
the locked point, L, and the synchronous-speed point B
are given, the speed for any point D can be found in a
different way. Assume any point H. Then line D H
divides line L Q in the ratio rev. per min./syn. where
line L Q is parallel to the line H C. This is true because
angle D H B = angle D C B, also angle L H D = angle
L C D and angle L Q H = angle L N C. Now if point
H coincides with the infinite speed point C, the speedscale line L Q becomes parallel to the tangent at point C.
Hence on the inverted circle if the three characteristic speed points H L' U (Fig. 23) are given, the speed
scale line is found again by drawing a line L Q parallel
to the tangent at the infinite-speed point H (or by drawing a perpendicular line to the diameter of the circle).
As the primary current A D varies, line D H cuts off a
distance L' P = rev. per min., if L' Q = unity.

(PQ = slip)

:S=l,=-0
/oK

T F.

/><//
_.j
\(Orm
/
e'
B

F:

02

Torque. The torque of each phase is equal to the

product of the projection of (Ii)m on (nI,), with (IK)c.
Since on Fig. 22 (fr), is vertical and constant, the ver;o '<tical projection of (Ii)m multiplied by (4f)1 is the tor\que. That is D T is proportional to the torque.
Since the torque is zero at infinite speed and at synchronous speed, the torque is represented by a line
perpendicular to the line connecting the infinite speed
point and the zero speed point. Hence in Fig. 23 line
D T, perpendicular to line U H, represents the torque
to the same scale as in Fig. 22.

FIG. 23-LOCIJS DIAGRAM OF THE POLYPHASE INDIJCTION MOTOR

XXVIII.
THE SINGLE-PHASE
M INDUCTION MOTOR
XVIITHSNGEPAE1DCO
OP

The single-phase motor will be considered as a twothe voltage F C changes direction and the angle be- phase motor, in which no e. m. f. is impressed on the
tween (42).. and F C shows that active energy comes primary of the cross phase.
from the cross phase into the secondary of the main
First the cross phase will be considered. The only
phase. But angle (Ii)m -(42)m shows that active
energy flows also from its primary into the secondary
T
of the main phase. Both of these energies are dissiV
pated in the secondary.
u
Effect of Primary Resistance. The effect of the priR
(02)mr.P.M.
mary resistance is taken care of by inverting the circle
around point E, (Fig. 23) where A E = E/r1 or
A C/A E = rl/XsH' as shown before. The' locked

point L is inverted to L' by drawing a circle L L' A

with center on the horizontal line. C C' is perpendicular to A D and CU'/A D = rlXsHt'. The secondary
currents always pass through point K on line A H.
Speed Scale. In Fig. 22 F C = (T). X rev, per mmi.
and D C = (hI2)m. Since (cb2), = (4+2)rn therefore
F C/D) C = rev, per mmn. (as a fraction of synchronous
speed).
A scale for speed can be found by noticing that triangle D F B is similar to N C L (the ratio of the sides
beinag rI/XSH") and D BC to M NC.__From this it
follows that point M divides the line L N in the same

FIG. 24-CROSS PHASE

OF THE

SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

e. m. f. generated in it is in its secondary and it is due

to its rotation through ('I2) m. The value of this generated e. m. f. is equal to (4 2)m X rev. per min. The
primary of the cross-phase is always open. In Fig. 24
let P R represent the e. m. f. (I2)nI X rev, per mm., impressed on the secondary of the cross-phase. If (r.Xc
were zero, then (12). would be represented by P Q where
Q R = ('q), P11 (P Q R is the standard four line diagram
at open-circuit). Due to the presence of (r2), point Q
is inverted to U where U Q/U P - (r2),/(X/'t)c. Every
other quantity is reduced in the same proportion.
Hence P 1R is thle e. m. f. impressed on the secondary

April 1930

KRON: GENERALIZED THEORY OF ELECTRICAL MACHINERY

= (t2)m X rev. per min., T R is the resistance drop in

the secondary while P T is the actual flux (4'2), linking
the secondary. A part of this P V = (v"). (12), iS the
flux (i1), linking the primary of! the cross phase. With
the variation of the load only the length P R changes,
but the configuration of all quantities remains the same.
Considering the vector diagram of the main phase in
Fig. 25, let A B = E/(Xo')m and A C - E/(XsH'>)f.
At any load (b2)m = D C can be divided into two parts.
One part ) F is (12 r,)m is always 90 deg. from (I2)rn and
D) F/D B = (r2)m (XSH')m. The other part F C is the
e. m. f. generated through its rotation through (+2)c,
it is equal to (4)2)c X rev. per min. and is always 90 deg.
from (b2)c. If the vector diagram of the cross phase is
placed on this diagram then (<N2)mf X rev. per min. is
always 90 deg. from &P2)m
The motion of point D is subjected to the following
conditions.

(02) r.p.m.R

FIG. 25-Locus DIAGRAM OF

(00im

THE

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION

I
S

S0O

MOTOR WITHOUT PRIMARY RESISTANCE

1. Angle a=constant,henceangle

=constant

= 90 deg.
3. D)F is perpendicular to D B and D F/D B
=
These conditions can be satisfied only if point G is
fixed. Hence the locus of point D is a circle through
points G and C.
Locked Point. Point L, where angle (12)m - (412)m iS
90 deg., is the locked point because F C is zero and
LKCI/L B= (r2)m/(XsH")m.
Motor Action. Between points L and N the angle
(II)m - (bD), shows that active energy flows from the
primary toward the cross phase.
No-load Point. At point N where the angle (Il)m
= (12)c passes through 90 deg. the motor runs without
load.
Synchronous-Speed Point. Between points N and S
the angle (Il)m - (42). shows that now active energy
flows from the cross flux toward the primary, but the
angle (I2)m - (n2). shows that active energy flows also
from the secondary of the main phase toward the cross
phase. That is between these points the copper loss in
the secondary of the cross phase is supplied partly from
the shaft and partly from the source. At point 5,

(rD)m/(XsH")m.

where (12)m is 90 deg. from (c12), all the cross phase

losses are supplied from the shaft.
Generator Point. Between points S and G the angles
(I2)m,- (b2). and (Ii)m -( -2). show that the copper
loss in the secondary of the main phase is supplied
partly from the shaft and partly from the source. At
point G where (Ii)m is at 180 deg. from (bD2)m all the
rotor losses are supplied from the shaft and the only
load is (X01'),. Hence G CIG B = (X0"X),(XSH"/)r and
at point G ('f2), = (Cb2)mGenerator Action. Beyond point C the angles (I,)m
-(412)m and (Ii)m - (f2)c show that active energy

passes into the source.

Speed Scale. F C = (t2), X rev. per min. = D T
X rev. per min. = (4I2)m X rev. per min. X cos a
rev. per min. = M C X (rev. per min.)2. Hence
F C/M C = (rev. per min.)2.
Point F may correspond to a positive or a negative
speed and if the rotor rotates in the negative direction,
point D describes the same path again instead of moving
to C beyond point L.
The speed can be represented by one line. If a triangle L 0 Q is drawn similar to C M D then it can be
proved that L P/L Q = C F/C M = (rev. per min.

1=+Q Draw F Z perpendicular to A C. Triangle B D H

since a + 0 = 90 deg.
2. Angle C M G = constant

679

is similar to triangle D F Z since their sides are miutually

perpendicular and D ZID H = r2/(XsH"),,. As in the
polyphase motor C ZIC D = X/L0. The triangle
L X P is similar to C Z F, consequently L P/L Q
= C F/C M = (rev. per min.)2.
The speed scale L Q is again perpendicular to the
diameter of the circle and point Q lies on the line connecting the synchronous-speed point S and the infinite.
speed point H.
Torque. Since there is only one primary current,
torque = (Ii)m X (b4)1 X cos A D V = A D X D V
_
X Cos A D V/(v")m.
The torque is zero at points L and H, since D V = o,
also at point N where cos A D V = 0.
Effect of Primary Resistance. The primary resistance
is taken care of by inverting the diagram around point
E/ri. All quantities keep their configurations.
Similarly to the polyphase motor, all (42), lines pass
through one point lying at the intersection of the locus
and the line connecting the origin with the infinite-speed

point.

XXIX.

THE DOUBLE SQUIRREL-CAGE INDUCTION

MOTOR
In the double squirrel-cage induction motor another
load is added in parallel to the ordinary induction motor
load. This additional load is the reactance, X3 of the
lower cage (or of the tertiary winding) which also has a
resistance r3. __
In Fig. 26 A B = E/X0' and A C = E /XsH' where
XOI and XSH' are constants of the motor without the

KRON: GENERALIZED THEORY OF ELECTRICAL MACHINERY

680

lower cage.. With any load the primary current is

AD, the total rotor current is D B, and D C/D B
= ZL/XSH".
The total rotor current D B divides into two parts.
One part DK = I2 flows in the upper cage, the other
part K B = I3 flows in the lower cage.
The total resultant flux (D, linking the upper cage
consists of two parts. One part D T-= 4 is the total
resultant flux linking the lower cage, the other part,
C T resides between the two cages. To each of these
fluxes in the main phase corresponds an equal flux in
the cross phase displaced 90 deg. in space as well as in
time.
The upper cage behaves just as an ordinary induction
motor. The total resultant secondary flux +2 = D C

//-a._ +%

_. R

\
K
'~o
\;ww X
{V S

rPp
/llt(,)c
\

us

A-S:'-Ml.

Locus

cawtLout
,0werc te
FIG. 26-Locus DIAGRAM OF THE DOUBLE SQUIRREL-CAGE
INDUCTION MOTOR WITHOUT PRIMARY RESISTANCE

Transactions A. I. E. E.

KG D. Since D T/B K = R3/XSH// = (K G/B K)

(R2/XsH") therefore BK/KG = R2/R3 = (r2/s)
(r3/s) = r2/r3 = constant.
Since C TIK B = -constant and G K/K B = constant, therefore C T/G B = constant. Since C T and
G B are also always parallel and T G is always perpendicular to both of them, triangles B N G and N T C
are similar. N CIN B = constant, hence the loci of the
three points K, G, and T are circles with their centers on
line B C, passing through points M and N. These
points are located between B and C such that
B M/M N = r2/r3 and N C/B M = X3/XSH'.
If the three circles are drawn, for any assumed
I3 = B K the position of point D is found at the intersection of line N G D and the semicircle on diameter
K C.
The locus of point D is not a circle, hence each point
of the locus has to be separately constructed.
With the variation of r2/r3 and x3 point D can assume
any desired position between the large circle on B C
which is the locus of the motor without the lower cage
(r3 = c) and the two circles through N, one of which,
on B N, is the locus of the motor without the upper
cage (r2 = OD)
Since triangle K D C represents the voltage and current in the upper cage, it can be seen that the effect of
the lower cage upon the locus of the original motor is to
leave point C in its original position and as point D
moves on its original circle, point B is rotated on circle
B K M, thereby changing the position of the instantaneous circle from load to load. That is each point
of the original locus describes a circle, the diameter of
each circle being proportional to the distance of that
point from C.
Locked Point.

This consideration immediately sug-

gests how to find the locked point. Let the locked point
divides into two parts. One part is D F = I2 r2, 90 deg. of the motor without the lower cage be at L', where
from I2 where D F/D K = r2/XSH". The other part C L' L' B = r2/XsH". If a circle is drawn through L'
is F C = (F2). X rev. per min., 90 deg. from (+2)c, which on L' C with diameter LI J where M J is parallel to
lies along line D K. Hence D C is always 90 deg. from B L', then the intersection of this circle with the locus
is the locked point. Of course at this point D C/D K =
I2 and D C/D K = R2/XSH' = (r2/s) /XSHJ".
The lower cage which is in parallel with the upper r2/XSH'".
Speed. For any point D on the locus the semicircle
cage and therefore has the same e. m. f. +2 impressed
upon it, has in addition to r3 and ()3), and additional K D R C represents the instantaneous locus of the upper
reactance X3 in series. Hence f2 is divided now into cage, R the locked point. Hence if a vertical line is
three parts. One part, C T is the e. m. f. across the drawn from R to the diameter K C, line D C divides it
reactance X3, is equal to I3 X3, is parallel to I3 = B K into two parts, such that rev. per min./syn. = RIP/R Q
and C T/B K = X3/XSH". The other part, D U is the just as in an ordinary induction motor.
A second scale for speed is F C/D C = rev.
e. m. f. across r3, is equal to I3 r3, is perpendicular to I3
and D UIK B = r3/XsH". The third part is U T = per min./syn. A third scale is U 1'/1) T = rev. per
(f3). X rev per mmi., 90 deg. from (e3)C which lies along min./syn.
Torque. The projection of ()m on (Ii). multiplied
line K B. Similarly to the upper_cage D U + U T
= D T lies 90 deg. from B K and D T/B K = R3/XsH"' by (IK)C gives the torque of one phase. Hence just as in
= (r3/x)/XsH". an induction motor the vertical component of I1 is
Due to the perpendicular position of the currents and proportional to the torque.
Effect of Primary Resistance. Each point of the locus
the fluxes the triangle C D T is similar to triangle
K G D. Since D(I7 = D K X R2/XsH"! each side of should be inverted around point E/r1. All currents
triangle C D T is R2/XsH"t times as large as the sides of and fluxes will keep their relative configurations.

April 1930

KRON: GENERALIZED THEORY OF ELECTRICAL MACHINERY

681

XXX. THE REPULSION MOTOR

The brush axis will be considered as the axis of the
main phase.
Let the motor be short circuited and let (Fig. 27)
A B = E/(Xo')m, AC = E/(XSH')m. If the cross
phase, which is always open circuited, is put in series
with the main phase, line A C is inverted to A C' where
C C'/C' A = (Xo')c/(XsH)m.
Let a = (number of cross turns)/(number of main
turns).
When the motor is running, an e. m. f. FR =
(X), X rev. per min./a is generated in the secondary of
the main phase which is perpendicular to R C. Also
A D is parallel and proportional to R C, since all the
(41), is produced by I,, that is A D/R C = A C'/C' C.
Hence line D R always passes through point C' which
divides D R in the same ratio. The loci of points D and
R are circles.
At infinite speed (4)1)= R C = 0, I] = 0 and
(12)C X rev. per min. /a lies at F' C where A F'IA B =

// 2

S=-00

,,+Noo

F=1
C',

-\

XXXI. THE CONDENSER (OR SPLIT-PHASE) MOTOR

The split-phase motor can be considered as the sum of
two single-phase motors. The first motor exists if
e. m. f. is impressed on the primary of one phase (main
phase) while the primary of the other phase (cross
phase) is short circuited. The second motor exists if
e. m. f. is impressed on the primary of the cross phase,
while the primary of the main phase is short circuited.
If all currents and fluxes existing in each single-phase
motor are added, the resultant represents all the actual
currents and fluxes of the split-phase motor.
The actual current in the primary of the main-phase
is the current flowing in the first case plus the shortcircuit current in the second ca!e. Similar relations
hold for the cross phase. However, the Theorem of
Reciprocity states that if in any circuit an applied voltage and an ammeter are interchanged, the reading of the
ammeter does not change. That is the short-circuit
current in the primary of the main phase is equal
and opposite to the short-circuit current in the primary
of the cross phase, hence they do not appear in the current coming from the line.
To find the locus diagram of the condenser motor,
first the locus diagram of a single-phase motor with
short-circuited cross phase has to be developed.
The Single-Phase Motor with Short-Circuited Cross
Phase. Its theory is identical with the theory of the
ordinary single-phase motor with open-circuited secon1-.);dary, except the vector diagram of the cross phase

---

:\^
(Fig.\\\Su
28) differs from

Fig. 24.

In Fig. 28 it is assumed that the cross'phase has a

resistance (r1), and a condenser (xi), in its primary.
Also a = (conductors in cross phase)/(conductors in
\ lm/ R
main phase). The steps for constructing Fig. 28 are
the following:
1. Assume any distance D R representing (42)m X
FIG. 27-LocUs DIAGRAM OF THE REPULSION MOTOR WITHOUT rev. per min. X a, the e. m. f. impressed on the seconPRIMARY RESISTANCE
dary of the cross phase. D R = E/(XsH,),.
2. BR =G)XDDR.
r2/(XsH")mfi. The diameters of the circles are parallel to
3. The loads are (r1), and (xi),. If they were
F'C.
variable the locus would be a circle with center at 0
Considering triangle K D R, the two stationary points where O PIP B = (xl (ri)G.
C' and A divide two of the sides in constant ratios.
4. The load, however, remains at a definite value at
Hence the third side K D also must be divided in a all speeds, hence the position of (12) is always at a
constant ratio by a stationary point H lying along line point K where KRf/K B (zl),/(XsH'),. To find
A C'. That is I2 always passes through point H.
this point draw a circle through M and B with its center
Locked Point. At point L where (,2)m is at right along the vertical line at point B, where M R/M B =
angles to (t2)m, the motor is locked.
(rl),/ (XSH ),. [This circle is the locus of all loads with
No-Load Point. At point N where I2 is perpendicular constant (r1),.]
to I, no energy flows toward the secondary.
5. The effect of (r2), is taken care of by inverting
Speed. Just as in the polyphase induction motor, point K around point F where DE = E/(r2)c or
L P, a perpendicular line to the diameter of the locus, D ft/D E' = (r2)C/(XSH"')C. The other quantities can be
is the speed scale.
drawn in as usual.
Torque.__The torque h1 2 cos 6 is proportional to
The vector diagram of the main phase is similarly
A D X M D which is proportional to the perpendicular constructed to Fig. 25. To find the locus, the only
line D T drawn to line A N.
-quantity needed from Fig. 28 is angle a, because it
of
Primary
Resistance.
Combine
(ri)m
and
determines the position of point G in Fig. 25. It may
E,ffect
(r1). into r1 and invert the locus around point E/r1.
happen with larger (x1). that angle ae is negative. In
B

F1

G3C

KRON: GENERALIZED THEORY OF ELECTRICAL MACHINERY

682

that case point G lies to the left of point B. The construction of all quantities, however, remains the same.
The center of circle G C L lies below the horizontal line
and no load occurs above synchronous speed.
Care should be taken in the speed scale. In Fig. 25
where ((1)2 = R D cos a the synchronous speed is represented by the distance L Q. In Fig. 28, however,
(1)2) is less than N D X cos a by a constant ratio
D U/D H = b, hence the synchronous speed is representedbyLQ X b.
The Condenser Motor. The actual constants of each
phase should be used. Let an e. m. f. be impressed on
the primary of the main phase and let the primary of the
E

C_%X;g 0
o B

~~~~P(42)mxrpmx~x

1. Draw any line K" T" and measure L" P" = (rev.
per min.)22
2. Draw line K' T' representing the same speed,
that is L' P' = (rev. per min.)22
3. Draw 1 J perpendicular to A T" where
H J/A T" = (ri)m/ (XsH')m [A H = E (XsH')m}] representing the resistance drop in the primary of the main
phase when acts as a single-phase motor. Then J T"
= (1)2)m
In Fig. 28 the short-circuit current T V is always
proportional to (42)2. X rev. per min. and is always at
a constant angle (90 deg. - 3) from it. Let T V/D R
= d. In Fig. 29 the number of volts corresponding to
((12)m = J T" X (XSH')m (V")m. [J T' in amperesi
The number of volts generated in the secondary of the
cross phase = J T" (XSH')m X a X rev. per min./(v")m.
This has to be equal to T V X (v"), (XSH"),/d = number of volts represented bylDK in Fig. 28. Hence
4. Calculate
Tu D (in mm.) = J T" (in mm.) X rev.
per min. X constant, where constant = (XSH')m X a
X dl/(XSH )C(V ).m1X) c
5. Draw T' D at an angle 3 from J T". Then A T"
+ T"D = (Il),n
6. Draw this same distance at point T' parallel to

A,.}.

\KR

FIG. 28-SHORT-CIRCUJITED CROSS PHASE OF THE SINGLE-PHASE

<F

,,

INDUCTION MOTOR \DH. S. /-kXW-

cross phase be short circuited. The locus of the pri-

mary current in the main phase is the circle L" SF' K" in
Fig. 29. Let the same e. m. f. be impressed on the
primary of the cross phase and let the primary of the
main phase be short circuited. The locus of the pri-R
mary currenlt in the cross phase is the circle L 5' K'.
(The current scales should be identical.)
Locus of_the Line Current. If the primary currents
A T" and AT' orresponding to the same speeds are
added, the locus of IotOal (Coming from the line is found
to be again a circle L T S K. Hence it is sufficient to
add three points, the infinite-speed points (K" and K')
the synchronous-speed points (S" and S'), and the
locked points (L" and L') to determine the locus.
Speed_Scale. It will be also noticed that the speed
scale L Q for 'to/al can be constructed in exactly the
same way as in a_single-phase motor. That is for any
assumed 'total = A T the line T K cuts off from L, Q
a distance L P proportional to (rev, per mmn.)2 (L Q
= unity).
Locus of the Phase Currents. It is sufficient to find
the short-circuited current in the cross phase. The
steps are the following:

Transactions A. I. E. E.

xG
(1

A\S

\ |<

@ <\

,;=_O~~~~~~~~~~-D'-.~
.../

...

~
.h XM
/~O
~
(? C /
t<X

FIG. 29 LOCUS DIAGRAM OF THE CONDENSER MOTOR

__

itself_in the opposite direction as T' Z. Then AT'

T' Z = (Il)c

7. Reverse T" D and T' Z thereby finding two other

points U and X on the loci corresponding to the same
but negative speeds.
If the short-circuit current in the main phase is
constructed instead of the short-circuit current in the
crossphase, the same results are found .
It is interesting to note that if the motor is driven in
the negative direction the phase currents have different
values but 'total describes again the same locus just
as in a single-phase motor.
Actual Currents and Fluxes. A H = E (Xsu')m and
A G = E/(XsH'),. H C = (I1 r,)m, is perpendicular to
AD and HC/AOD = (rl)m/(XsH')m. B C/A C = (?J)m,

April 1930

KRON: GENERALIZED THEORY OF ELECTRICAL MACHINERY

DF/I B = (r2)m/(XsH")m. Similarly in the cross

phase where in addition G N/A Z = (x1),/(XSH')C, G N
is parallel to A Z and represents the voltage across the
condenser.
The correctness of the results is proved by the fact
that F C representing the e. m. f. generated in the secondary of the main phase due to its rotation through
(42)c, is always perpendicular to Z M = (I2), and is
always equal to (c12)c X rev. per min./a (both expressed
in volts). Similarly M R is also always perpendicular
to D C = ((2)m and is equal to (4'2)m X rev. per min.
X a, just as is required by the theory.
Torque. The total torque is the difference of the
torques of the phases. In synchronous watts: torque
= (Ii)m X cos M A D X (A M/A G) X Eimp/a - (Ii),
X cos C A Z X (A C/A 1) X Eimp X a.
If (Ii)m and (Ii), are given, it is sufficient to draw
only lines H C and G M for finding the torque.

F1
F2
r
R
I1

BETWEEN

DESIGN CONSTANTS

Steinmetz:

leakage reactance of the primary

= leakage reactance of the secondary
Xm = mutual reactance

TRANS., 1911, p. 367.

Short-Circuit Currents in Synchronous Machines,
A. Franklin:
I. E. E. TRANS., VOl. XLIV,
1925, p. 420.
Branson: Single-Phase Induction Motors, A. I. E. E. TRANS.,

Then
+ Xm

XSH'

= XI

X2
+ Xm)
=Xm/(2
? = Xm/(Xi + Xm)

Xo = X2 + Xm XSHI = X2 + X1 Xm/(XI + Xm)

1912, p. 1749.

V = Xm/(X2 + Xm)

Morril: The Revolving Field Theory of the Capacitor Motor,

A. I. E. E. Quarterly TRANS., Vol. 48, April 1929, p. 614.

b. Let
X, = self-inductive reactance of the primary
X2 = self-inductive reactance of the secondary
K = coefficient of coupling
Then
XOl = X1 XSH' = X1 (1 - K2) n7 = K2
= X2
XSH" = X2 (1 - K2)
xol/

Discussion
R. H. Park: The diagram (b) of Fig. 3 of the paper will look
a little more familiar if we draw it as in Fig. 1 herewith. Let the

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness
to Dr. W. J. Branson, who taught him the use of the
open-circuit and the short-circuit reactances in the
design of polyphase and the single-phase induction2
motor. Also, he wishes to thank Mr. E. E. Dreese for
his suggestions and criticisms.
NOMENCLATURE
=
XO
Open-circuit reactance, measured from the
primary side
Xi" = Open-circuit reactance, measured from the
secondary side
XSH = Ideal short-circuit reactance, measured fromf
the primary side
XSHZ' = Ideal short-circuit reactance, measured from
the secondary side

Current Phenomena."

and Converters."
"Synchronous
Arnold: "Die Wechselstromtechnik."
Steinmetz: Mechanical Forces in Magnetic Fields, A. I. E. E.

xi=

Xl

secondary winding
= Actual resistance
= Apparent resistance
= Primary current

"Alternating
"The InductionMotor."
~~~~~~~~~~~Behrend:
Beied:"h
ndcin
oo.
Blondel:
Motors

a. Let

X2

= Difference of potential at the terminals of the

primary winding
= Difference of potential at the terminals of the

= Secondary current
I2
6)max' = Maximum possible permeance, measured from
the primary side
=
(Ymax' Maximum possible permeance, measured from
the secondary side
(Ymin' = Minimum possible permeance, measured from
the primary side
pmin" = Minimum possible permeance, measured from
the secondary side
( )m = Quantity belonging to the main phase
( )c = Quantity belonging to the cross phase
Bibliography
Planek: "Treatise on Thermodynamics"

Appendix
CONNECTION

683

circuit of Fig. 2 herewith represent the equivalent circuit of an

induction motor. A certain amount of current Im flows in the
magnetizing branch of the circuit, and a certain amount of

IM

FIG. 1
current Il is coming out of the slip rings. If the slip rings are

b1 = Total resultant flux linking the primary short circuited, the secondary current will be wholly reactive,
..
if the slip rings are feeding resistance
~I2

load, the locus of

~~~~~~~~~~~and
a.
will be a circle. The primary current Ii is
secondary
current
- Total resultant flux linking the secondary the vector sum of Im and Il. Thus the lines on the diagram of
winding
Fig. 3b can be identified in conventional terms if desired.
wlnctlng

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