RETHINKING ENERGY

BALANCE
Facts You Need to Know About Weight Loss
and Management
by Melinda M. Manore, Ph.D., R.D., CSSD, FACSM

LEARNING OBJECTIVE
To introduce health and fitness professionals to the concept of
dynamic energy balance and new research showing key factors
that contribute to promoting weight management, weight loss/gain,
and overall health.

Key words:
Weight Loss, Energy Intake, Dynamic Energy Balance,
Exercise, Diet

INTRODUCTION

ost people think weight loss is

simple. Eat less and move more!
Although this statement captures
the general approach of weight loss programs, it
cannot and doesnt get at the many factors that
determine our body size and composition. It also

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doesnt get at why it is so difficult to lose weight

and keep it off. This simple message typically
doesnt help your clients either. They have heard it
many times before. What they want to know is
why weight loss is so difficult, why weight loss
changes across time, and how to maintain weight
loss once it is achieved.
Open any nutrition or exercise science
textbook and you will see the static energy
balance diagram, which states that changing
one side of the energy balance equation more
than the other results in either weight gain or
weight loss. This approach to energy balance
assumes that, when you change either energy
intake or energy expenditure, the other side of
the equation isnt affected. Unfortunately, energy balance isnt that simple; it is dynamic,
especially during periods of weight change
(Table 1; Figure 1). Thus, when energy intake
is changed, energy expenditure also changes,
even when no specific recommendations for

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Dynamic Energy Balance

TABLE 1: Definitions of Static and Dynamic
Energy Balance
Static Energy Balance Approach: Assumes that a change in one side of
the energy balance equation (e.g., energy intake) does not change or
influence the other side of the equation (e.g., energy expenditure).
Dynamic Energy Balance Approach: Assumes that numerous biological
and behavioral factors regulate and influence both sides of the energy
balance equation. Thus, a change in one side of the equation (e.g.,
energy intake) can and does influence the other side of the equation
(e.g., energy expenditure).

changing energy expenditure are given. Exactly how changing

one side of the energy balance equation influences the other
side can be very difficult to measure and/or predict.
Below are facts that will help you guide your clients through
weight loss and management and better answer their questions.

FACT 1: -3,500 KCALS m 1 LB BODY WEIGHT LOSS

You probably learned that a reduction of 3,500 kcals will result in
a pound of weight loss. Where did this number come from? Does
it work for everyone regardless of body size and level of activity?
In 1958, Max Wishnofsky, M.D., reviewed the literature on
weight loss in obese sedentary individuals who typically
consumed low-calorie, high-protein diets within a clinical
setting. Under these conditions, he concluded that the caloric
equivalent of 1 lb of body weight lost is approximately 3,500
kcals (21). Across the years, we have transformed this number
into a rule, without questioning whether it holds true for all
individuals regardless of body size, level of physical activity,
age, sex, or genetics. We now know the number of kilocalories
required for 1 lb of weight loss changes depending on how long
the dieting period lasts, what type of diet is fed, and whether
participants engage in physical activity. For example, researchers at the Pennington Biomedical Research Institute (6)
examined weight loss in overweight men and women who
dieted until they lost 15% of their body weight. They either

consumed a very-low-calorie diet (890 kcals per day) or

reduced energy intake by 25%. Participants were not doing
physical activity. They found that, during the early phases of
weight loss (weeks 1 to 4), the energy equivalent for a pound of
weight loss was 2,208 kcals. However, as the diet extended to
weeks 6 and beyond, the energy reduction required for a pound
of weight loss approached Wishnofskys rule (Figure 1).
Researchers hypothesized that, during the early phases of
weight loss, water, glycogen, protein, and fat are lost, whereas
toward the later part of the diet, a greater percentage
of weight loss is from fat. Adipose tissue is approximately
85% fat (4), thus, the energy content of 1 lb of body fat is
approximately 3,470 kcals. Conversely, if the majority of the
weight loss is caused by water, lean tissue, and glycogen losses,
the energy content of these components is low. For example,
the energy content of muscle, which is approximately 65% to
70% water, is approximately 550 kcals per pound. Thus, the
energy content of weight loss will depend on the composition
of the weight loss and how the body is adapting to the energy
restriction placed on it. The impact of adding physical activity
to an energy-restricted weight loss program also can change the
composition of weight loss, energy substrates used, and how
quickly weight loss occurs.

FACT 2: DURING PERIODS OF WEIGHT LOSS, ENERGY

BALANCE IS DYNAMIC
During periods of weight loss, energy balance is dynamic V
not static. This fallacy is illustrated in the following example
(17): A 75-kg man consumes an extra 100 kcals per day for 40
years. The amount of extra energy consumed is equal to 1.46
million kilocalories, with an estimated weight gain of 417 lbs
(190 kg) during the 40-year period (e.g., 1.46 million divided
by 3,500 kcals per pound). As a health professional, you
intuitively know that this would not happen, yet how do you
explain the results? This static energy balance approach is

Figure 1. Energy content of weight loss expressed as kilocalories per pound lost.

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assuming that, by changing the diet, no other components of

energy balance changed, but this isnt true. As extra energy is
consumed and weight is gained, energy expenditure would
increase. This weight gain increases the resting metabolic rate,
which subsequently increases total energy expenditure because
there is a greater energy cost in moving and maintaining a
larger body. As one consistently consumes the extra 100 kcals
per day, body weight would increase until energy expenditure
eventually balanced the increased demand for energy (e.g., the
extra 100 kcals per day). Thus, the individual would eventually
become weight stable at a higher body weight, which might
represent a more realistic 6-lb (2.7 kg) weight gain. However,
to maintain this larger body size, the individual would need to
continue to eat the extra 100 kcals per day. For any one person,
the actual amount of weight gained will depend on a number of
individual factors, including the extra kilocalories consumed,
composition of the diet, body composition, type of exercise,
and level of daily physical activity.
The concept of dynamic energy balance and some of the key
factors that influence each side of the energy balance equation
are illustrated in Figure 2. How each individual responds to
changes in each factor will depend on genetics, regulatory
hormones that control energy balance and appetite, gut health,
and the food and exercise environment that can drive eating,
exercise, and body composition. See Galgani and Ravussin (3)
for more details on these factors.

FACT 3. PREDICTING WEIGHT LOSS DURING PERIODS

OF ENERGY RESTRICTION IS DIFFICULT
Wishnofskys 3,500-kcals-per-pound rule is still reported
widely in the research literature and used to predict weight
loss for adults, regardless of body size or composition, level of
physical activity, sex, or age. We now know that predicting
weight loss or gain is not that simple. Researchers at the
National Institutes of Health (NIH) (5) and the Pennington
Biomedical Research Center (PBRC) (18) have spent years
developing mathematical models to better predict weight
change using the dynamic energy balance model. As one
changes energy intake or expenditure, these models take into
account changes in resting metabolic rate, body size, fat and
lean tissue mass, voluntary physical activity, spontaneous
physical activity, the thermic effect of food, and the energy
costs of fat and protein synthesis. For example, as you lose
weight, body composition can change, which alters energy
expenditure. In addition, the energy cost of moving a smaller
body is less, thus, one has to work harder or longer to expend
the same amount of energy in physical activity compared with
when ones body weight was higher. These models calculate
these changes for you. Using the PBRC prediction model for
weight change and data from well-controlled weight loss
studies (6,11), researchers showed that their model predicted
within 2.2 kg of the actual weight loss, while using the
Wishnofskys rule, there was a 11-kg bias (19). However, it is

Figure 2. Key factors regulating and influencing energy balance.

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Dynamic Energy Balance

important to remember that these prediction models were
developed using the results from weight loss studies with
overweight and obese individuals. If you are working with
active individuals who are leaner and capable of much higher
levels of exercise, you may need to adapt your results to fit your
clients unique characteristics. Regardless of their limitations,
these models will help you do a better job of estimating the time
required for weight changes to occur and provide your clients
with more realistic weight loss goals for a designated period.
These two prediction models are Web-based for simple use.
Below is a brief description of each model:
The NIH model (7) can be found at the NIH Web site: http://
bwsimulator.niddk.nih.gov. This model has two options: 1)
setting a goal weight or 2) indicating what diet and physical
activity changes you want to make to achieve a designated
weight loss or gain goal. Age, sex, height, and current body
weight and physical activity level are required. If the goal
weight option is selected, the goal weight and the number of
days to reach this weight goal are given. The calculator then
indicates how much of a change in energy intake or
expenditure are needed to reach the goal weight in the
designated time frame. The model provides the number of
calories needed to maintain the new body weight at the
designated level of physical activity. If the lifestyle change
option is selected, the diet and physical activity changes to be
made and the period are added. The model then predicts the
level of change required in each category to reach the goal.

The Pennington model (18) can be found at the PBRC Web

site: https://www.pbrc.edu/research-and-faculty/calculators/.
This model requires that age, sex, height, and current weight
be entered, along with the daily energy-deficient (kilocalories
per day) goal. A graph and table then show how long it will
take to achieve the goal weight based on the energy deficit
entered. This Web site does not ask about current physical
activity level or how exercise energy expenditure may
change during the designated period. Because physical
activity is not part of this model, its application to active
individuals is limited.

energy from protein). The current Recommended Dietary

Allowance for protein is 0.8 g/kg body weight per day or
20% to 35% of total energy intake (8), with higher recommendations for active individuals (1.4-1.7 g/protein per kilogram
per day) (12). During periods of energy restriction, the goal is
to meet or exceed these same absolute levels of protein intake
to help preserve lean tissue. If energy is severely restricted and/
or individuals are physically active, the need for protein
may be even higher (10). For example, researchers placed
20 healthy resistance-trained male athletes (body mass index,
23 to 24 kg/m2) on an energy-restricted diet (60% of habitual
energy intake) (9). During this time, they were assigned
randomly to either a control (1 g/protein per kilogram body
weight; n = 10) or treatment group (2.3 g/protein per kilogram
body weight; n = 10). Results showed that loss of lean mass
was greater in the control group (-1.6 kg in 1 week) compared
with that in the treatment group (-0.3 kg). Thus, the higher
protein intake (35% of energy intake) helped preserve lean
tissue when energy intake was severely restricted for a short
time. However, there currently are no data supporting intakes
higher than 2.5 g protein per kilogram per day when dieting for
weight loss in the general population (10).
Timing of protein intake also is important especially if
physical activity is included as part of the weight loss program.
Spreading food and protein intake throughout the day ensures
that adequate protein is available for building, repair, and
maintenance of lean tissue. In addition, higher protein diets
have been associated with increased satiety and reductions in
energy intake. For example, researchers fed 19 healthy

FACT 4. DURING PERIODS OF ENERGY RESTRICTION,

PROTEIN NEEDS INCREASE
When individuals restrict energy intake for weight loss, protein
intake typically decreases unless specific attention has been
given to consuming more protein. During periods of energy
restriction, some proteins will be used for energy, depending on
the level of energy restriction and the type and amount of
physical activity being performed. Thus, protein needs increase
with energy restriction, both absolute (grams per kilogram body
weight per day) and relative amounts (percentage of total

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TABLE 2: Weight Management Facts: Key Points

Weight Management Facts

Bottom Line

Fact 1: -3,500 kcals m 1 lb body weight loss.

The number of kilocalories required for 1 lb of weight loss changes depending on how long the
dieting period lasts, what type of diet is fed, and whether participants engage in physical activity.
In one research study, this varied from 2,200 to 3,500 kcals per day (Figure 1).

Fact 2: During periods of weight loss, energy

balance is dynamic.

The overconsumption of kilocalories will increase body weight if there is no change in overall
energy expenditure. However, as weight is gained, more energy is needed to maintain the
larger body. Weight will plateau as the increased energy expenditure matches the increased
energy intake.

Fact 3. Predicting weight loss during periods of

energy restriction is difficult.

Two mathematical models have been developed to help predict weight gain/loss based on
changes in lifestyle. NIH model: http://bwsimulator.niddk.nih.gov. Pennington model:
https://www.pbrc.edu/research-and-faculty/calculators/.

Fact 4. During periods of energy restriction, protein

needs increase.

If energy is restricted, protein intake should exceed the Recommended Dietary Allowance of
0.8 g/kg body weight per day. Typical recommendations range from 1.4 to 1.7 g/protein per
kilogram per day, similar to what is recommended to active individuals. There is no indication
that a protein intake 92.5 g/kg body weight is necessary for the general population.

Fact 5. Low-energy dense diet can increase satiety.

Following a low-energy dense diet plan can increase satiety while lowering total energy intake. A
low-energy dense diet is high in whole fruits and vegetables and whole grains and incorporates
low-fat dairy, legumes/beans, and lean meats.

sedentary individuals (body mass index [BMI] range, 22.5 to

30.1 kg/m2) three different diets in sequential order (20). First,
they consumed a weight-maintaining diet for 2 weeks (energy
distribution = 15% protein, 35% fat, and 50% carbohydrate).
Second, they consumed an isocaloric diet (30% of energy from
protein, 25% fat, and 50% carbohydrate) for 2 weeks. Finally,
they were fed an ad libitum diet (energy distribution = 30%
protein, 20% fat, and 50% carbohydrate) for 12 weeks. When
subjects were allowed to eat ad libitum on the high-protein diet
(30% of energy intake), they spontaneously decreased energy
intake (-441 T 64 kcals per day) during the 12-week period. Thus,
the higher protein diet was more satiating, leading to lower total
energy intake, even while carbohydrate was held constant.

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FACT 5. LOW-ENERGY DENSE FOOD AND

HIGH-INTENSITY EXERCISE CAN ALTER SATIETY
AND HUNGER
Changing eating behaviors is one of the most difficult
challenges of any weight loss program; thus, a diet that
increases satiety (fullness) could increase dietary adherence and
potentially successful weight loss (15). Research by Rolls et al.
(14) at Pennsylvania State University shows that following a
low-energy dense diet plan can increase satiety while lowering
total energy intake. A low-energy dense diet is high in whole
fruits and vegetables and whole grains and incorporates low-fat
dairy, legumes/beans, and lean meats. Overall, the diet is lower
in fat and higher in fiber and water while reducing or

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13

Dynamic Energy Balance

eliminating energy-containing beverages, especially sweetened
beverages and alcohol. This type of eating pattern means that
an individual can consume a greater volume of food and feel
satisfied while overall energy intake is lower. The energy
density of a diet or a food is determined by measuring the
amount of energy (kilocalories) for a given amount (grams) of
food (kilocalories per gram). Evidence shows that a low-energy
density eating plan is effective at reducing energy intake,
facilitating weight loss and prevention of weight regain, and
maintaining satiety in well-controlled feeding studies and in
free-living conditions (2,13). Rolls et al. (1,16) have demonstrated the effectiveness of a low-energy density eating plan on
energy intake and weight loss. They found that by reducing
energy density by a designated amount (e.g., 25%) decreases
energy intake by a similar percentage (23% to 24%; approximately -500 kcals per day deficit on a 2,000 kcals/day diet),
yet participants reported similar levels of hunger and fullness
ratings or enjoyment of the meals compared with control
conditions. Thus, reducing the energy density of the diet can
reduce energy intake dramatically while still feeling satisfied. A
key component of a low-energy density eating plan is to
increase intake of foods high in water and fiber to promote
satiation while reducing both high-fat foods (i.e., potato chips,
cheese, cookies) and low water and fiber foods (i.e., baked
tortilla chips, pretzels). This dietary approach can help your
clients better adhere to a healthier eating plan and lower energy
intake, without counting calories.
Exercise type and intensity also can impact feelings of
hunger and lower energy intake after exercise. We now know
that acute exercise, especially high-intensity exercise (960%
O2max), can suppress appetite by altering gut appetiteV
regulating hormones for 2 to 10 hours after exercise (7).
However, research results are mixed and depend on subject
characteristics (e.g., body fatness, level of fitness, age, or sex)
and exercise duration, intensity, type, and mode. Overall, in
exercise-trained males, it seems that higher-intensity exercise
elicits suppression of gut appetite hormones, but studies in
women are mixed (7). If appetite suppression does occur after
exercise, it can lower energy intake at the next meal and
potentially lower overall energy intake. Thus, encouraging your
clients to combine some higher-intensity exercise with a lowenergy dense diet may help them manage hunger and reduce
total energy intake, especially if these two behaviors occur
regularly throughout the week.

SUMMARY
Weight loss is difficult. Thus, it is not surprising that many of
your clients have been on numerous weight loss diets, with
mixed results (Table 2). Understanding dynamic energy balance
and applying this approach to your weight management plans
will help you and your clients make more realistic goals and
approaches for weight change. For weight loss, a reduction in

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energy intake is extremely important, but unless the energy

deficit is altered across time to account for changes in body
weight, weight loss will slow and eventually stop. Predicting
weight loss results based on changes in diet and exercise is not
a precise science. New mathematical prediction models are
designed to predict weight change more accurately, based on
the lifestyle changes implemented. During periods of energy
restriction, protein needs increase, especially if physical activity
increases. Thus, specific protein recommendations need to
accompany any weight loss diet. Research suggests that highintensity exercise can blunt appetite after exercise and lower
total daily energy intake, but more research is needed before
specific recommendations can be given. Finally, helping your
clients eat a low-energy dense diet may not only help them lose
weight and consume a healthier diet but also help them keep
the weight off once weight loss is achieved.

References
1. Bell EA, Castellanos VH, Pelkman CL, Thorwart ML, Rolls BJ. Energy
density of foods affects energy intake in normal-weight women. Am J
Clin Nutr. 1998;67(3):412Y20.
2. Ello-Martin JA, Ledikwe JH, Rolls BJ. The influence of food portion size
and energy density on energy intake: Implications for weight management. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;82(1):236SY41S.
3. Galgani J, Ravussin E. Energy metabolism, fuel selection and body
weight regulation. Int J Obesity (Lond). 2008;32(Suppl 7):S109Y19.
4. Gropper SS, Smith J. Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism.
Belmont (CA): Wadsworth Cenagge Learning; 2013.
5. Hall KD, Sacks G, Chandramohan D, et al. Quantification of the effect of
energy imbalance on bodyweight. Lancet. 2011;378(9793):826Y37.
6. Heymsfield SB, Thomas D, Martin CK, et al. Energy content of weight
loss: Kinetic features during voluntary caloric restriction. Metabolism.
2012;61(7):937Y43.
7. Howe SM, Hand TM, Manore MM. Exercise-trained men and women:
Role of exercise and diet on appetite and energy intake. Nutrients.
2014;6(11):4935Y60.
8. Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. Standing Committee on
the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Intakes, National Research Council.
Dietary Reference Intakes: Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty
Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington (DC):
National Academy Press; 2005.
9. Mettler S, Mitchell N, Tipton KD. Increased protein intake reduces lean
body mass loss during weight loss in athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc.
2010;42(2):326Y37.
10. Phillips SM. A brief review of higher dietary protein diets in weight loss:
A focus on athletes. Sports Med. 2014;44(Suppl 2):S149Y53.
11. Redman LM, Heilbronn LK, Martin CK, et al. Metabolic and behavioral
compensations in response to caloric restriction: implications for the
maintenance of weight loss. PLoS ONE. 2009;4(2):e4377.
12. Rodriguez NR, DiMarco NM, Langley S; American Dietetic Association;
Dietitians of Canada; American College of Sports Medicine: Nutrition
and Athletic Performance. Position of the American Dietetic Association,
Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine:
Nutrition and athletic performance. J Am Diet Assoc. 2009;109(3):
509Y27.

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13. Rolls BJ. The relationship between dietary energy density and energy
intake. Physiol Behav. 2009;97(5):609Y15.
14. Rolls BJ. Plenary Lecture 1: Dietary strategies for the prevention and
treatment of obesity. Proc Nutr Soc. 2010;69(1):70Y9.
15. Rolls BJ. Dietary strategies for weight management. Nestle Nutr Inst
Workshop Ser. 2012;73:37Y48.
16. Rolls BJ, Roe LS, Meengs JS. Reductions in portion size and energy
density of foods are additive and lead to sustained decreases in energy
intake. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;83(1):11Y7.
17. Swinburn B, Ravussin E. Energy balance or fat balance? Am J Clin Nutr.
1993;57(Suppl. 5):766SY70S.
18. Thomas DM, Ciesla A, Levine JA, Stevens JG, Martin CK. A
mathematical model of weight change with adaptation. Math Biosci
Eng. 2009;6(4):873Y87.
19. Thomas DM, Gonzalez MC, Pereira AZ, Redman LM, Heymsfield SB.
Time to correctly predict the amount of weight loss with dieting. J Acad
Nutr Diet. 2014;114(6):857Y61.
20. Weigle DS, Breen PA, Matthys CC, et al. A high-protein diet induces
sustained reductions in appetite, ad libitum caloric intake, and body
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ghrelin concentrations. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;82(1):41Y8.

Disclosure: Author is funded currently by USDA NIFA Childhood Obesity Prevention (no. 2013-67001-20418; no. 201168001-30020), OSU USDA AES and OSU USDA W2005
Multistate Obesity Prevention. She has consulted for Clif Bar
and received honoraria from Gatorade Sports Science Institute.

Melinda M. Manore, Ph.D., R.D., CSSD,

FACSM, is a professor of Nutrition, College
of Public Health and Human Sciences at
Oregon State University. Her research
focuses on obesity and chronic disease
prevention, sport nutrition, and the energy
and nutritional needs of active individuals.
She is especially interested in the interactive role of diet and
exercise for energy balance and to achieve and maintain a
healthy sustainable weight.

21. Wishnofsky M. Caloric equivalents of gained or lost weight. Am J Clin

Nutr. 1958;6(5):542Y6.

BRIDGING THE GAP

Recommended Reading:
Donnelly JE, Blair SN, Jakicic JM, Manore MM, Rankin JW, Smith BK.
Appropriate physical activity intervention strategies for weight loss
and prevention of weight regain for adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc.
2009;41(2):459.
Galgani J, Ravussin E. Energy metabolism, fuel selection and body weight
regulation. Int J Obesity. 2008;32(Suppl. 7):S109Y19.
Manore MM. Weight management in the performance athlete. Nestle Nutr
Inst Workshop Ser. 2013;75:123Y33.
Shook RP, Hand GA, Blair SN. Top 10 research questions related to energy
balance. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2014;85(1):49Y58.
Sweat W, Manore MM. Dietary fiber: Simple steps for managing weight and
improving health. ACSM Health Fitness J. 2015;19(1),9Y16.

Exercise and health professionals typically predict weight

loss/gain for clients by using the static energy balance
model, which does not apply during times of weight
change. They also assume that 3,500 kilocalories equals
1 lb of weight loss/gain, which is not always true. When
clients struggle to reach their designated weight goals, we
often assume that the client is not following the program.
New mathematical models, which incorporate the dynamic
energy balance approach into their estimates of weight
change, will produce more realistic estimates of actual
weight changes during periods of weight gain or loss.

Sweat W, Manore MM. Too good to be true? Eating more and losing weight
with a low energy dense diet. ACSM Health Fitness J.
2012;16(4),22Y8.

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