Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) : A capacitive reactance compensator

which consists of series capacitor banks shunted by thyristor controlled reactor in order to
provide a smoothly variable series capacitive reactance.
Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) : A combination of static synchronous
compensator (STATCOM) and a static synchronous series compensator (S3C) which are
coupled via a common dc link, to allow bi-directional flow of active power between the
series output terminals of the S3C and the shunt terminals of the STATCOM, and are
controlled to provided concurrent active and reactive compensation without an external
electric energy source. The UPFC, by means of angularity unconstrained series voltage
injection, is able to control, concurrently or selectively, the transmission line voltage
magnitude, impedance and angle or, alternatively, the active and reactive power in line. The
UPFC may also provide independently controllable shunt reactive compensation.
The applications of FACTS controllers to the solution of the steady-state power transfer
limits mentioned in Section 2.3 are summary in Table 2.2 [3].
Table 2.2. Steady-State Issues.
Issue

Voltage
Limits

Problem
Low voltage at heavy load
High voltage
at high load
High voltage following outage
Low voltage
following outage
Load voltage and overload
Line/transformer overload

Thermal
Limits

Loop
flows

Tripping of parallel circuit

Parallel line load sharing
Post-fault sharing
Flow direction reversal

Corrective Action
Supply reactive power
Remove reactive power supply
Absorb reactive power
Absorb reactive power
Supply reactive power
Prevent overload
Supply reactive power and
limit overload
Reduce overload
Limit circuit loading
Adjust series reactance
Adjust phase-angle
Rearrange network or use
thermal limit actions
Adjust phase angle

FACTS device
TCSC, STATCOM
TCSC,TCR
TCR, STATCOM
TCR
STATCOM, TCSC
IPC, TCPAR, TCSC
IPC, TCSC, UPFC
STATCOM
TCSC, TCPAR, UPFC
TCR, IPC
IPC, UPFC, TCR
IPC, UPFC, TCSC
TCPAR
IPC, TCSC, UPFC
TCR, TCPAR
IPC, TCPAR, UPFC

2.5
Power Flow Analysis of networks with FACTS devices
In its most basic form the load flow problem involves solving the set of non-linear algebraic
equations which represent the network under steady state conditions. The reliable solution
of real life transmission and distribution networks is not a trivial matter and Newton-type
methods, with their strong convergence characteristics, have proved most successful [4-5].
The conventional Newton-Rapshon method for the solution of power flow equations is
already well documented [4,5]. The basic principle behind it is that a set of non-linear
algebraic equations obtained from the active and reactive nodal power injections,
f (X) = 0

(2.10)

can be linearised around a base point determined by generation and load powers, and nodal
voltages, commonly initialised with unitary magnitudes and null angles. The N-R algorithm
provides an approximate solution to the non-linear problem described by equation (2.10), by
solving for X i in the linear problem J i X i = -f(X i), where J is known as Jacobian matrix
[4]. The method starts from an initial guess X 0 and updates the solution at each iteration i,
i.e. X i+1 = X i + X i.

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Over the years, special algorithms have been put forward which have addressed the
modelling of controllable devices in Newtons method, such as Load Tap Changing (LTC)
and phase shifting transformers, series and shunt variable compensation. The methods used
for the modelling of controllable devices can be broadly classified into two main categories:
sequential and simultaneous solution method. References [5-11] are just but a few of the
long list of published work in this area using sequential methods. However, a major
drawback in all these methods is that the nodal voltage magnitudes and angles are the only
state variables which are calculated in true Newton fashion, whilst a sub-problem is
formulated for updating the state variables of the controllable devices at the end of each
Newton-Raphson iteration. These methods are mathematically formulated for a system of
non-linear algebraic equations of the form,
f ( X nAC , RnF ) = 0

(2.11)

F ( X nAC , RnF ) = 0

(2.12)

where f(X nAC , RnF)=0 represents the vector functions of nodal AC network equations,
F(X nAC , RnF)=0 describes the vector functions of FACTS device equations, XnAC is the
vector of all AC system state variables given by the nodal voltage angles and magnitudes,
and RnF is the vector of all FACTS devices state variables. These vectors are expressed as,
f = [ f 1 , f 2 ,..., f nAC ] T

(2.13)

F = [ F1 , F2 ,..., FnF ] T

(2.14)

X nAC = [ x1 , x 2 ,..., xnAC ]T

(2.15)

RnF = [r1 , r2 ,..., rnF ] T

(2.16)

The sequential solutions start with an initial guess (Xo nAC, Ro nF). Equation (2.11) is solved
for X1 nAC keeping Ro nF fixed, then equation (2.12) is solved for R1 nF with X1 nAC fixed. The
method continues solving sequentially one set of equations after the other with initial values
given by the previous solution until a predefined convergence criteria is satisfied for both
set of equations.
This sequential iterative approach is rather attractive because it is straightforward to
implement in existing Newton-Raphson programs but caution has to be exercised because it
will yield no quadratic convergence.
A fundamentally different approach for the modelling of controllable devices, within the
context of the load flow problem, was developed at a very early stage by Peterson and Scott
Meyer [12]. It is a highly efficient method which combines simultaneously the state
variables corresponding to the controllable devices with the nodal voltage magnitudes and
angles of the network in a single frame-of-reference for a unified, iterative solution through
a Newton-Rapshon technique. The method retains Newtons quadratic convergence
characteristics. Two types of controllable devices were addressed is that work, namely
LTCs and phase-shifting transformers. The method is not necessarily easy to implement. It
requires the Jacobian matrix to be modified in order to incorporate the contributions
corresponding to LTCs and phase-shifters. In such iterative environment the state variables
of LTCs are adjusted automatically so as to satisfy specified voltage magnitudes and the
state variables of the phase-shifters are adjusted automatically so as to satisfy specified
power flows.

14

Owing to the limitations exhibited by non-compliant Newton-Raphson techniques, the early

work of Peterson and Meyer has been extended in this research to encompass different
FACTS devices. They include a two-winding transformer model with complex tap-changing
facilities in both the primary and secondary windings modelling LTC and PS, a TCSC, an
IPC, a UPFC, and a SVC.
The unified approach lumps the AC nodal network and FACTS state variables into a single
vector and solves the system of equations,
g ( X nAC , RnF ) = 0

(2.17)

where g represents the nodal AC network equations and the equations introduced by the
FACTS devices given by (2.11) and (2.12), respectively.
The increase in the dimensions of the Jacobian matrix is equal to the number of additional
equations introduced by the FACTS devices. This number depends on the FACTS
controllers embedded in the network and the variables that these devices are controlling.
The new structure of the Jacobian matrix is then,
. . . x nAC r1
. . . rnF
x1
f1
.
.
.

AC network

f nAC
F1
.
.
.

(2.18)
FACTS
controllers

FnF
2.6
Initialisation of FACTS devices
Good starting conditions are mandatory in any non-linear iterative process with local
convergence properties. The solution of the load flow equations by the Newton-Rapshon
technique does not differ in this respect. This iterative solution works efficiently if the initial
conditions are relatively close to the solution and the resulting Jacobian matrix evaluated at
each iteration is not singular. Quite often ill-chosen starting conditions are responsible for
the load flow solution diverging or arriving at some anomalous value. This is a problem
which has engaged many researches. As yet no definitive answer as to the ideal starting
point for solving the load flow equations has been put forward. However, engineering
judgement indicates that for the simple case in which no controlled nodes or branches are
present, 1 pu voltage magnitude for all PQ nodes and 0 voltage angle for all nodes provides
a suitable starting condition [13]. For the case in which controllable devices are present
then the issue is not as clear cut as the case above. Suitable strategies for initialising FACTS
devices are proposed in this thesis. The initialisation of those controllers whose state
variables are expressed by transcendental equations is based on engineering judgement.
Otherwise, closed-form equations are deduced to obtain suitable initialisations.

15