Fluids

Content of the Lecture

1. The four phases of matter
2. Hydrodynamics versus Hydrodynamics
3. Variables of State (intensive and extensive)
4. Units and Dimensions (and energy per unit weight)
5. Pressure increase and approximate relation for small kikes and dams
6. Gauges and Barometers
7. Steady flow
8. Turbulent flow and Reynolds number
9. The Continuity equation and conservation of mass
10. Bernoulli equation and the conservation of energy
11. Applications (Torricelli reservoir theorem, constricted section in a
horizontal tube, “Venturei” velocity meter using constricted tube and
manometer, Pitot tube velocity meter, vacuum water-pump, atomizer spray
can)

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There are four phases

Solid: small intermolecular space, definite shape & volume.

Fluid, including:

Liquid: intermediate binding forces and movement, takes the

shape of the container.

Gas (adj. Gaseous): large intermolecular distance, no

binding, fills any available space.

Plasma: charged gas, large intermolecular distance, no

binding, fills any available space.

1. Phases of Matter
Fixed shape Fixed Fluidity
volume
Fluids Gas No No Yes
Fluids Liquid No Yes Yes
Charged Plasma No No Yes
Fluid
Solid Yes Yes No
Fluids are liquids and gases. They are generally compressible,
however, liquids are generally considered as non-compressible as
an approximation.

Hydrodynamics vs hydrostatics.

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3.1 hydrostatics

3.1.1 Variables of State

- independent (basic) variables of state:

to describe the components of a system, we need to know the

values of the following intensive and extensive variables
(parameters):
- (by intensive we mean that the value of the parameter does not
change with the change of the amount of the material, whereas
by extensive we mean that the value of the parameter does
change with the change of the amount of the material).

- intensive

- Temperature: the criterion for equilibrium with respect to

thermal energy transfer (K).
- Pressure: the criterion for mechanical equilibrium (N m-2
known as Pascal, Pa)
- Chemical Potential: the criterion for equilibrium with respect to
transfer of matter, it determines the relative tendency of the
component to be transformed from one phase to another (or to
be transformed into a different compound) (J kg-1 or J mol-1).

- extensive

- Entropy: the principal criterion for thermodynamic equilibrium

(J K-1). The change of entropy ∆S is defined as the transferred
heat q divided by temperature T:
∫T
dq
∆S =

- Volume: it describes the spatial extent of a component (m3).

- Mass: the amount of material (kg, or the number of moles for a
pure component).
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 Derived variables:
example:
density (ML-3)
m kg
ρ= , [ ρ] = 3
V m
pressure (M L T-2 L-2 = M T L ) -2 -1

Observations show that every surface in a fluid at rest experiences

a force directed normally to it and proportional to its area.
- pressure (N m-2) is the force that acts perpendicular to the unit
area of a given surface:
F orce
P resure =
A rea
We use the SI unit system
Pressure is measured in N m-2
1 N.m-2 is known as 1 Pascal
Force = mass x acceleration
= kg x m s-2

Force is measured in Newton (N)

1N = 1 kg . m s-2
= 105 g . cm s-2
= 105 dynes
(1 dyne = 1 g . cm s-2)

Pressure is reported in Pascal (N.m-2)

1 N.m-2 = 1 kg m s-2 m-2
= 1 kg m-1 s-2
Pressure
= Force / area
= (kg m s-2) / m2
= kg m-1 s-2
= Pascal
N kg m kg
[ P] = = 2 2 = = pascal = Pa
m 2
m ⋅s m ⋅ s2

also Pressure can be expressed using several units:

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- 1 N.m-2 i.e. 1 Pascal
= 10 dynes.cm-2
= 9.869 x 10-6 atm
= 10-5 bar
= 10-2 mbar
= 7.501 x 10-4 cm Hg
= 1.0198 x 10-2 cm H2O

1 dyne.cm-2 = 0.1 Pascal

1 atm = 1.013 x 106 dynes.cm-2
= 1.013 x 105 N.m-2 (Pascal)
= 101.3 kPa (kilo Pascal)
= 1013 hPa (hundred Pascal)
1 atm approx. = 105 Pa
= 0.1013 MPa
= 10.13 N.cm-2
= 1.013 bar
= 1013 mbar
= 76 cm Hg
= 1033.3 cm H2O
= 1 kg air cm-2
1.013 MPs = 10 atm
1 MPs approx. = 10 atm
1 bar = 106 dyne cm-2
= 105 N m-2 (Pascal) (Pa)
= 103 hPa (hundred Pascal)
= 102 kPa (kilo Pascal)
= 0.9869 atm
= 75.01 cm Hg
= 1019.8 cm H2O
= 10.198 m H2O
mbar = 103 dyne cm-2
= 102 N m-2 (Pascal)
= 9.869 x 10-4 atm
= 0.07501 cm Hg
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 = 1.0198 cm H2O
= 0.010198 m H2O

1 cm H2O(at 4 C)=o
980.6 dynes.cm-2
= 98.06 N m-2 (Pascal)
= 0.9677 x 10-3 atm
= 0.9806 x 10-3 bar
= 0.9806 mbar
= 0.0735 cm Hg

1 cm Hg (at 4 C) =
o
1.333 x 104 dynes cm2
= 1333 N m2
= 0.01316 atm
= 0.01333 bar
= 13.33 mbar

1 mm Hg (at 4 C)i.e. 1
o
torrcillie
= 1333 dynes cm2
= 133.3 N m2 (Pascal)
= 0.001316 atm
= 0.001333 bar
= 1.333 mbar
Avoid the misuse of units for pressure and energy:

Force = mass * acceleration;

Acceleration = velocity / time
= m s-2
Energy = Force * distance;
(= work done)
The unit used to express energy (and work) is the Joule:
= kg . m s-2 * m = kg m2 s-2 = Joule (J)
=N *m

In soil water potential calculation, we need to express energy

relative to the mass, volume or weight of moisture content
compared to free water in a dish at the soil surface:
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 Energy per unit mass (kg)
= (kg m2 s-2 ) / kg
= J / kg
= m2 s-2
Energy per unit volume (m3)
= (kg m2 s-2) / m3
= kg m-1 s-2
= Pascal
Energy per unit weight (kg m s-2)
= (kg m2 s-2) / (kg m s-2)
=m

• To convert between these units, all you need to know is the

density of water, and the acceleration of gravity: assume water
density 1 Mg/m3 and gravity = 9.8 m s-2. Two examples:
1 J / kg = 1 k Pa= 0.001M Pa = 0.1 m (= 0.01 bar).
100 J / kg = 100k Pa= 0.1 M Pa = 10 m (= 1 bar).

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increase of pressure (over atmospheric) at a point
inside a liquid depends on:
- liquid density
- depth of the point

How to calculate the value of this increase of pressure?

it is equal to the weight (mg) of the liquid column acting over a
cross section area (force divided by area):

Pressure increase
= force / area
= mass * acceleration / area
= [(volume) * density] * g / area
= [(area x height) * density) * g / area
= A* h * ρ * g /A
= hρg
Or to remember easily ρgh
This is pressure of incompressible (uniform) fluid.

Another way to report this is to consider a tank filled with liquid,

depth = h, cross-section = A. The weight of liquid is balanced by
the upward force from the bottom of the tank supporting the
liquid (Newton’s third law):

weight of liquid = reaction

A * h * ρ * g = P*A
h * ρ * g = P
ρgh = P

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Approximate relation for small dikes and dams:
the average of pressure at the water column half depth
= ½ρgh
so the total force on the exposed area of the dam body
= ½ ρ g h * area

Example 1:
Find pressure on the ocean floor at a depth of 3 km.
Solution:
P = gρh =
m kg
9.80 2 ⋅ 1.00 × 10 3 3 ⋅ 3.0 × 10 3 m =
s m
kg
2.94 × 10 7 = 29 .4 MPa ≈ 300 atm
m ⋅ s2

Example 2:
Estimate the height of the Earth’s atmosphere,
(use the approximation, 1 atm = 105 Pa).
Solution: We use the barometric formula in a crude
approximation that the air density is uniform vertically.

Air density at STP (atmospheric pressure and normal temperature)

is about 1 kg.m-3, and atmospheric pressure ~105 Pa=105 kg.m-1s-2,
so:
kg m kg
P = ρgh ⇒ 1 3
⋅ 9.80 2 ⋅ h m ≈ 10 5
m s m s2
⇒ h ≈ 10 4 m = 10 km

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 Gauges and the Barometer
Absolute pressure (measured above vacuum pressure) P:
P = Po + Pg

Gauge pressure (measured above or below atmospheric pressure):

Pg = P − Po

P0 is the atmospheric pressure

Pg is an excess (gauge) pressure additional to the atmospheric

pressure (it could have a negative sign, as it is the case when we
use a vacuum pump).

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