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Abstract
Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) implementation is complex and successful applications need to be tailored to each specific
reservoir. Therefore, a systematic, staged evaluation and development process is required to screen, evaluate, pilot test, and
apply EOR processes for particular applications. Pilot testing can play a key role in this process. Prior to field testing, pilot
objectives need to be clearly defined and well spacing, pattern configuration, and injectant volumes determined.
This paper outlines a staged approach to EOR development and focuses specifically on pilot testing best practices. These best
practices were derived from ExxonMobils extensive piloting experience, which includes over 50 field pilot tests covering the
full range of enhanced oil recovery processes. Topics covered include: 1) determining whether a pilot is needed and defining
pilot objectives, 2) considerations for successful pilot design, 3) types of pilots and their advantages and disadvantages, 4)
tools and techniques for assessment of key reservoir mechanisms, and 5) minimizing uncertainty in pilot interpretation. Key
issues that are often addressed by pilots are discussed, including areal sweep and conformance, gravity override, viscous
fingering, and loss of mobility control. Also included are aspects of instrumentation and measurements in pilot injection,
production, and monitoring wells. Several ExxonMobil piloting examples are used to illustrate the best practices, including a
single-well injectivity test, an unconfined pilot with observation wells, a small-scale confined pilot, and a large-scale multipattern pilot.
Staged Process for EOR Project Evaluation and Development
The complexity and cost of EOR requires a disciplined work process for project evaluation, design, and implementation. To
put pilot testing best practices in perspective, Figure 1 outlines a staged workflow that ExxonMobil has used for evaluation
and design of EOR projects. The role of field tests and pilots in this process is highlighted in the yellow box.
EOR evaluation starts with screening-level data collection, candidate process selection, injectant source identification, and
screening economics. If these are favorable, design and implementation of an EOR project then requires in-depth analysis of
the most promising processes. In addition to standard laboratory tests, specialized fluid characterization and reservoirconditions coreflood tests using in-situ fluids and a range of injectants are performed to customize a process for each reservoir.
Reservoir characterization studies are conducted concurrently to identify the key geologic controls on field-scale sweep
efficiency. The laboratory experiments and reservoir characterization studies are then used as input to geologic and dynamic
reservoir simulation modeling of the process at various scales to evaluate options, define a preferred process design, and
provide input to screening-level development and facilities planning. If anticipated rates, recoveries, and economics are
favorable, pilot testing in the target field is often undertaken to resolve uncertainties and fine-tune operational and execution
details. Additional laboratory, reservoir characterization, and simulation work may be undertaken after pilot testing to further
resolve uncertainties, as indicated by the feedback loop in Figure 1. If the technical and commercial outlook is still positive,
this is then followed by commercial scale implementation. Stakeholder reviews, indicated by stars, are held after each stage of
this process. Additional detail on the staged evaluation process, as applied to polymer flooding, is provided by Kaminski et al.
(2007)
Pilot Objectives
Defining clear pilot objectives is the first step in designing and executing a successful pilot. Pilots are conducted to address
key technical and business uncertainties and risks associated with applying an EOR technology in a specific field. The
benefits of piloting, however, need to be weighed against the time and expense of piloting and against other available
alternatives. Conducting a pilot is one of several options for reducing risk that might include additional data
gathering/appraisal or phased development. If there are better alternatives to address uncertainty and risk, then a pilot may not
be required. Clearly stating the key uncertainties and pilot objectives early in the evaluation process helps determine if a pilot
is the best approach for addressing these risks and help guide pilot design and execution.
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Care should be taken when developing pilot objectives to ensure that the pilot is appropriately used as a component of an
overall long-term field development strategy. Pilots should not be a trial and error test of various field recovery processes;
rather they are selectively applied to field test recovery processes that have been technically and economically evaluated
beforehand. Additionally, the recovery process to be field tested should be optimized through both laboratory and reservoir
simulation studies in order to maximize oil recovery at the lowest possible cost. Prior to field testing, the most appropriate well
spacing, pattern configuration, length and orientation of wells, injectant, and injection strategy (e.g, continuous gas injection,
WAG, SWAG, etc.) should be defined. Pilots are not run simply to gain experience with application of technology, although
training of operators may be an important component of the pilot testing program.
With these comments in mind, specific piloting objectives may include the following:
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The pilot should be designed and operated to ensure that it is interpretable. It is important that surrounding operations do
not affect pilot results. In addition, high-integrity well completions are essential to understand and control sweep
efficiency in the reservoir. Finally, a reliable injectant supply is required.
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Producing Pilots
Pilots that incorporate production wells, otherwise known as "oil-in-the-tank" pilots, provide the most direct data on oil
recovery, fluid transport through the reservoir, and pressure drop between injectors and producers. Important factors to
consider when designing and interpreting producing pilots include:
Drift: is the pattern acting as a truly confined flow system?
Balance: are the relative rates of injectors and producers allocated to maximize areal sweep efficiency in the pilot area?
Isolation: is the zone taking injection the only zone that is producing?
The cost of running a pilot that is truly confined, balanced, and isolated may be considerable since offset production may need
to be curtailed. This is especially important in systems with gas or light oil where pressure gradients across the pilot site may
result in significant fluid flux that will compromise pilot interpretation. A compromise may have to be struck between the best
possible data and a situation that can be simulated later with reasonable confidence.
Another opportunity provided by a producing pilot is the experience with separation and handling of produced fluids. Smallscale facilities can be constructed, and easily modified, to gain experience with separation and recycling of fluids. If the pilot
is successful, then the experience gained with facilities design will translate into cost savings associated with construction of
the commercial facilities.
Observation wells provide a means of monitoring fluid movement at various points intermediate to the injector and producer.
Valuable information on conformance, fluid transport in the reservoir, and fluid mobilities can be gained from observation
wells. Methods for data acquisition from observation wells typically include logging, sampling, and pressure measurements.
Figure 5 summarizes some representative producing pilot configurations. Producing pilots provide not only an understanding
of the injectivity of fluids into the formation, but more importantly, some quantitative data on the production potential of the
recovery process, and subsequently a rough estimate of oil recovery. Single, inverted five-spot patterns are often used to
provide such information. Observation wells are often included to evaluate the vertical sweep and displacement efficiency at
the observers, vertical and areal sweep at a distance, fluid mobilities within the formation, and to estimate oil recovery.
As indicated in Figure 6, although unconfined producing pilots can provide some production experience rapidly and at
relatively low cost, the swept volume can be difficult to evaluate and performance may not be representative of a repeated
pattern and difficult to scale. In addition, they are sensitive to fluid drift and can take as long to run as a true pattern flood.
Better recovery estimates can be obtained by using a single, normal five-spot pattern. In this design, water or gas is injected at
the four corners of the pattern to provide confinement of the oil within the pattern, and therefore improved estimates of
recovery compared to an unconfined pattern. To reduce pilot duration, confined pilots are typically run at a closer well
spacing than planned for commercial application. Advantages and disadvantages of such small-scale confined pilots are
summarized in Figure 7. This type of pilot can provide good estimates of oil displacement and, when coupled with the use of
observation wells, vertical sweep efficiency as a function of distance from the injection well at modest cost. In addition,
detailed data on pressure gradients, fluid mobilities, and fluid transport can be obtained that enable rigorous calibration of
simulation models. However, the small size of the pattern may not sample representative heterogeneities, reflect the balance
of a repeated pattern flood, scale to wider well spacings, or indicate long-term problems.
For improved confidence in scaling pilot results to potential full-field applications, repeated, inverted five-spot patterns have
sometimes been used. This arrangement provides the best estimates of oil recovery and sweep efficiency, the best data for
calibrating simulation models, and the most direct scale-up to commercial operations. However, this type of pilot will have
the longest duration and will require extensive evaluation time. Naturally, piloting costs increase with the number of patterns
placed on test. Advantages and disadvantages of large-scale, multipattern pilots are summarized in Figure 8.
Assessment of Key Reservoir Mechanisms
The specific tools used to assess key reservoir mechanisms will depend on the EOR process being pilot tested. For illustrative
purposes, this section will focus on the key reservoir mechanisms associated with gas injection EOR. Figure 9 summarizes
three significant problems can arise in horizontal gas injection and water-alternating-gas (WAG) EOR projects (Healy et al.
1994). This figure focuses on problems associated with horizontal floods as these make up the majority of gas injection EOR
pilots that have been conducted to date.
First, in some situations, it may not be possible to inject water and gas at the desired rates. Reservoir variables that control
injectivity are effective permeabilities and near-wellbore damage. Water injectivity has been a problem in some floods,
especially in low-permeability reservoirs. If injectivity is a potential problem, it can be evaluated in the design phase through
careful laboratory measurements, and by conducting pilot injectivity tests.
A second problem is that gas can channel through high-permeability thief zones, leading to poorer-than-expected sweep
efficiency. Channeling is controlled by permeability distribution. Gas channeling can be evaluated in the design phase by
doing thorough geological and reservoir description studies along with small-scale reservoir simulation studies that properly
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account for the governing geologic heterogeneities. Also, the sweep experienced in a prior waterflood will provide a strong
indication of the degree of channeling to be expected in a gas injection project. Thus, an accurate reservoir description
combined with history matching prior waterflood performance can help evaluate the potential for channeling in the gas flood.
The final potential problem is that gas, which is usually less dense than oil or water, can gravity override or flow to the top of a
reservoir unit as it moves away from injection wells. When this occurs, it will sweep only the very top portion of the zone. Gas
override is highly sensitive to vertical permeability as well as the lateral extent of barriers to vertical flow. Again, geological
and reservoir description studies and perhaps pilot tests can help to identify conformance problems and thus avoid a surprise.
Because gravity override is sensitive to the viscous-to-gravity ratio (VGR), it is important to operate a gas injection or WAG
pilot at water and gas throughput rates and well spacing that result in a VGR comparable to that which could be achieved in a
commercial-scale project (Stone 1982, Jenkins 1984).
As indicated previously, the key mechanisms to be assessed during pilot testing of gas injection processes include injectivity,
gravity override, channeling, viscous fingering, and areal sweep. Figure 10 summarizes the data needed for interpretation of
each mechanism and monitoring tools and techniques that can be used to acquire the required data.
Understanding injectivity changes requires measurement of not only the injectivity index, but also the permeability distribution
and fluid mobilities near the injection well. Frequent measurements of injection rates and bottom-hole pressures are used to
provide high-resolution injectivity data. Flow profiles, fall-off tests, and step-rate tests have been used to characterize the
near-well permeability distribution and fluid mobilities. Permanent downhole monitoring tools are now being used routinely
to obtain high-resolution real-time temperature and pressure data.
To properly assess gravity override, the change in oil saturation with depth and distance behind the passing gas displacement
front and the effective pattern vertical permeability are needed. Time-lapse logging, coring behind the flood front, and either
vertical or cross-layer pulse tests have been used to provide this information. Cased-hole logging tools used for time-lapse
logging include nuclear logs (steel and non-metallic casing) for gas saturation and total porosity and induction logs (nonmetallic casing) for water saturation. Fitz and Ganapathy (1993) provide an example of quantitative monitoring of fluid
saturation changes during a gas injection EOR project. Post-flood core wells have been used to measure vertical conformance
and remaining oil saturation. In some cases, spot fluid samples for composition have been collected at observation wells, but
usually after critical log data have been obtained.
Channeling and loss of mobility control or viscous fingering are the other key mechanisms affecting sweep efficiency. In
addition to assessing the change in oil saturation behind the flood front, the GOR and water cut behavior of producers over
time, inter-well tracers (radioactive or chemical), and pressure surveys are commonly used to estimate the degree of
channeling and viscous fingering. Careful and regular sampling of produced fluids, flowing and static bottomhole pressure
surveys, and time-lapse logging are available techniques for acquiring such data.
Lastly, flood conformance or areal sweep is needed to compliment the channeling and gravity override data and determine the
volumetric sweep efficiency within the pattern. Swept pore volume can be determined by carefully tracking the movement and
breakthrough of tracers at production wells and keeping accurate records of oil, water, and gas production
Pilot Interpretation
Successful pilot interpretation requires advance planning. It is essential that a detailed reservoir simulation model of the pilot
area (with appropriate boundary conditions) be built in advance to optimize the pilot design and monitoring program,
anticipate data needed for history matching the pilot, enable timely interpretation of pilot, and to assess the need for selective
use of additional observation wells and post-flood coring. The geology of pilot area and a good understanding of the target oil
distribution are critical inputs to the simulation model. Pilot wells should be cored and logged, if at all possible. Core, log,
and pressure transient data should be integrated into a consistent reservoir description.
The following pilot design and operational best practices help to minimize uncertainties in test interpretation and facilitate
history matching of pilot results:
Production facilities, well completions, tubulars, and artificial lift should be representative of the anticipated commercialscale development.
Several good base-line logs and possibly a single-well tracer test should be run in wells before the test begins and at
regular time intervals to verify reproducibility of the log measurements and ensure accurate determination of saturation
changes during time-lapse logging at observation wells. Having logging tools dedicated to the project also helps to ensure
reproducibility.
An adequate period of steady baseline injection and production should be achieved prior to initiating the EOR process.
This will reduce uncertainty in interpretation of injectivity, saturation changes, and incremental oil production
Fluid drift should be minimized so that pilot area acts as a truly confined system. This can be accomplished by regulating
rates in the surrounding patterns or locating the pilot in an area without strong pressure gradients.
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The relative rates of injectors and producers should be allocated to maintain pattern balance and maximize areal sweep
efficiency in the pilot area.
Steady and uninterrupted injection and production rates should be maintained. This is important to maintain the desired
VGR, maintain pattern balance, and minimize the effects of external influences.
Injection and production zones should be isolated so that only the targeted production zone is taking injection.
An adequate volume of EOR fluid should be injected to reduce uncertainty in interpretation of sweep efficiency,
saturation changes and incremental oil production. Experience indicates that the volume of EOR fluid injected needs to
be at least 20% of the pattern hydrocarbon pore volume before the pilot can be adequately interpreted.
The original pilot operating and monitoring plan should be continued until sufficient data are acquired to validate
simulation models; do not attempt to optimize based on early results.
Assessing incremental oil recovery over waterflood should be a key objective of a pilot. This can be accomplished in several
ways, each of which has advantages and disadvantages:
In cases where the waterflood is very mature (>90% water cut), an increase in oil cut can provide a direct measure of
improved recovery. A disadvantage is that this may delay the pilot or the waterflood may only contact part of the target
zone.
In cases where the waterflood is less mature, the baseline waterflood recovery can be estimated by using a reservoir
simulation model to history match the pilot area and extrapolate the pre-pilot waterflood production trend. This requires
an adequate pre-pilot waterflood period to reduce uncertainty in the history match and extrapolation.
Pilot Examples
The best practices described above were derived from ExxonMobils extensive piloting experience, which includes over 50
field pilot tests covering the full range of enhanced oil recovery processes. Table 1 is a list of representative ExxonMobil pilot
tests that have previously been described in the open literature. Four ExxonMobil pilot tests are used below to illustrate 1)
definition of pilot objectives, 2) design of pilots to meet the objectives, 3) tools and techniques for assessment of key reservoir
mechanisms, and 4) integrated interpretation of pilot data aided by reservoir simulation.
Single-Well Injectivity Test
This example is a low permeability sandstone reservoir located in Wyoming, USA. Average reservoir permeability is 6.6 md,
average formation thickness is 50 ft, and the reservoir is being waterflooded on a vertical well spacing of 80 acres. The
concern was that injectivity would be low during miscible CO2 WAG injection. Therefore, an injectivity test was done to
determine injectivity before, during, and after CO2 injection and to estimate field-scale injectivity to assist prediction of
miscible process performance.
The test consisted of three months of baseline water injection followed by two months of CO2 injection before returning the
well to water injection. The radius of investigation of the test was approximately 100 ft. Bottomhole injection pressures and
surface injection rates were monitored continuously during the test to determine injectivity index changes during injection of
water and CO2. Pressure fall-off tests were done and injection flow profiles were measured during both the baseline water
injection and CO2 injection to characterize the permeability distribution and changes in fluid mobilities in the near-well region.
Step-rate tests were also done to confirm that the formation was not fractured.
The results of the test were used to calibrate a radial simulation model of the near-well region. Results of the radial model
were used to guide the construction of a full-field simulation model, which was then used to evaluate WAG injection process
options.
Unconfined Pilot with Observation Wells
Evidence of gravity segregation between water and an enriched hydrocarbon gas was observed in a tertiary horizontal miscible
WAG flood at the Judy Creek Beaverhill Lake A Pool. The gas override resulted in bypassing of potential miscible reserves
and decreased ultimate oil recovery. An unconfined producing pilot was undertaken by Imperial Oil Resources, a majority
indirectly owned affiliate of ExxonMobil, to verify the existence and extent of gravity override, quantify the factors affecting
vertical sweep efficiency, identify optimum well spacing and pattern size, and determine residual oil saturations to water and
enriched hydrocarbon gas (Pritchard et al. 1990). Results of the pilot were used to calibrate a mechanistic reservoir simulation
model, which was subsequently used to guide optimization of pattern configuration and WAG operating strategies (Pritchard
and Neiman 1992). The field is a limestone reef reservoir located about 200 km northwest of Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Its
average horizontal permeability is 43 md and average thickness is 68 ft. Gravity override was a concern because the reservoir
has good vertical permeability. The pilot was situated in a location that 1) was representative of the reef margin facies that
was the primary target of the hydrocarbon miscible flood, 2) would ensure an interpretable pilot, and 3) would be an economic
venture on its own by accessing unswept reservoir.
The pilot pattern configuration is shown in Figure 11. The test consisted of six months of baseline water injection followed by
one year of WAG injection with enriched hydrocarbon gas at a volumetric WAG ratio of 1.0. This WAG ratio was
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accomplished by one week of enriched hydrocarbon gas injection at an average rate of 2000 reservoir m3/day followed by
three weeks of water injection at an average rate of 660 reservoir m3/day. These rates were chosen to achieve the same VGR
as the planned commercial operation. The gas was injected at a higher rate than the water to maximize vertical sweep at the
injector and be representative of the vertical injection profile of a commercial operation. A lower water injection rate was used
to reduce the total average fluid rate and thus achieve the target VGR.
The monitoring program included:
Induction resistivity and neutron logging to determine oil, water, and gas saturation changes at a fiberglass-cased
observation well (Georgi et al. 1991). The observation well was placed within the expected WAG commingled zone
based on pre-pilot reservoir simulation modeling. The location was chosen so to confirm the expected size and shape of
the WAG commingled zone (Figure 12).
Production and injection profile logs for monitoring changes in fluid production rates and fluid entry horizons. These
consisted of a suite of spinner, density, capacitance, and temperature tools.
Water and solvent tracer for defining the areal distribution of injected water and gas. A gas-phase tracer (sulfur
hexafluoride) and liquid phase tracer (tritiated toluene) were used to monitor fluid movement.
Conclusions of the pilot, based on an integrated interpretation of the monitoring data, were that 1) a definite oil bank was
formed by the miscible process, 2) gravity override was consistent with the simulation model predictions, and 3) a reduction in
pattern size would improve sweep efficiency and ultimate oil recovery. The calibrated simulation model was used to define an
optimized injection strategy comprising: 1) injection of an initial high-rate bank of the enriched gas prior to WAG injection, 2)
tapering the WAG ratio, 3) proper timing of lean chase gas injection, and 4) tailoring of WAG cycle length and bank size to
pattern geology.
Small-Scale Confined Pilot
The initial pilot of the solids-stabilized emulsion (SSE) heavy oil recovery process developed by ExxonMobil was conducted
at the Celtic field in Saskatchewan, Canada. The SSE process involves the generation and injection of solids-stabilized waterin-oil emulsion to more favorably displace viscous oils (Kaminsky and Wattenbarger 2008). After several years of laboratory
and theoretical development, the SSE recovery process was deemed ready for piloting in the field. The objectives of the pilot
were (1) to gain operational experience with the SSE process, (2) to confirm the ability to generate and inject a solidsstabilized emulsion in the field, (3) to confirm the in situ stability of the injectant, and (4) to confirm improved reservoir
displacement. After review of several potential pilot locations, the Celtic field was chosen because its reservoir characteristics
matched the desirable target characteristics for the SSE process, it had existing infrastructure, and it was well-characterized
with historic performance data.
The Celtic SSE pilot was designed as an isolated five-spot pattern with four corner injection wells, a central producing well,
and three observation wells (see Figure 13). Use of a full, isolated pattern minimized interference with existing operations and
ensured that oil recovery during the pilot came from within the pilot pattern. Initial characterization of the pilot included:
logging, coring, extensive coreflood analysis, a new method to measure steady-state relative permeabilities for heavy oil
systems, fluid characterization, geologic modeling, and reservoir simulation. Initial reservoir modeling studies were conducted
prior to the pilot to confirm that the chosen well spacing and three-year piloting period would be sufficient to gather necessary
injection, production, and observation-well data to meet pilot objectives. Falloff tests were conducted periodically to further
characterize the pilot area and to evaluate changes in well injectivity.
The reservoir surveillance program included: close monitoring of injection and production rates, continuous measurement of
bottomhole pressures and temperatures, producer sampling and analysis, tracers, and observation well logging. Fiber-optic
sensors were placed in each of the observation wells to measure pressure response. Temperature logs were run in the
observation wells on a routine basis to help detect the arrival of the slightly heated injected fluid. Carbon-oxygen and
induction logs were run less frequently to detect changes in fluid saturation. Water-phase and injector-specific oil-phase tracers
were added to the injected fluid to help track the movement of the injected fluids and to aid in the determination of in situ
stability. Regular sampling and an in-line viscometer was used to control the quality of the injectant. These quality controls
were helpful in identifying and correcting initial start-up problems with injectant preparation. At the end of the three-year
pilot, a post-flood well was drilled to take core from the swept region of the flood. The ability to generate and inject solidsstabilized emulsion in the field was demonstrated early on in the pilot. Integrated analysis of the post-flood core-well results
and extensive surveillance data allowed estimation of the in situ stability of the injectant and displacement performance, which
were found to be consistent with prior laboratory corefloods and performance estimates.
Large-Scale Multi-pattern Pilot
The first pilot of the liquid-assisted steam enhanced recovery (LASER) process was tested in the H22 pad of the Cold Lake
field in Alberta, Canada (Leaute 2002, Leaute and Carey 2005). The LASER process, developed by Imperial Oil, involves the
addition of an intermediate hydrocarbon solvent to steam injected in later cycles of cyclic steam stimulation (CSS) operation.
Laboratory physical models, theoretical analysis, and reservoir simulations provided the confidence to test this novel recovery
concept in the field.
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The primary objectives of the LASER pilot were to validate the improvement in cycle bitumen recovery over the base CSS
process and to determine the amount of solvent recovery. Due to the variability in CSS well performance, both between wells
and in individual wells over time, a large-scale multi-pattern pilot design was chosen. In this design, LASER was applied to
several wells in the H22 pad and its performance was compared to that of a neighboring control pad (H21), where CSS was
applied without the addition of solvent. The H22 and H21 pads were chosen for the pilot and control because they had nearly
identical pad-level performance through the first six cycles of CSS and because their performance and reservoir characteristics
were representative of future LASER targets (see Figure 14).
Starting in 2000, solvent was introduced in the seventh and eight cycles into eight wells of the H22 pad, with extensive welllevel and pad-level analysis of injection and production data. Frequent sampling, in-line measurement, and analysis of
produced well streams allowed for accurate determination of the solvent production. A key element of the sampling protocol
was to measure the solvent in both produced liquid and vapor streams. Statistical analysis along with reservoir simulation and
history-matching were used to estimate improvements in cycle bitumen recovery, confirm understanding of the process, and
estimate performance in future cycles and in commercial application.
Summary
A staged approach to EOR development focusing specifically on pilot testing best practices has been outlined. Topics covered
include: 1) factors to consider when determining whether a pilot is needed and defining pilot objectives, 2) requirements for a
successful pilot, 3) types of pilots and their advantages and disadvantages, 4) tools and techniques for assessment of key
reservoir mechanisms, and 5) minimizing uncertainty in pilot interpretation.
Application of these best practices enables the acquisition of accurate and definitive test data to 1) assess effects of reservoir
geology on process performance, particularly sweep efficiency, 2) calibrate reservoir simulation models for full-field
predictions, 3) improve field production forecasts, 4) reduce technical and economic risk, and 5) guide improvements in
current operating strategy to improve economics/recovery.
Several ExxonMobil pilot tests were used to illustrate the best practices and the role of pilots in the staged EOR development
planning process. The case histories included a single-well injectivity test, an unconfined pilot with observation wells, a
small-scale confined pilot, and a large-scale multi-pattern pilot.
Nomenclature
CSS = Cyclic Steam Stimulation
EOR = Enhanced Oil Recovery
LASER = Liquid-Assisted Steam Enhanced Recovery
OSR = Oil/Steam Ratio
SSE = Solid-Stabilized Emulsion
SWAG = Simultaneous Water and Gas
WAG = Water Alternating Gas
Exxon Mobil Corporation has numerous subsidiaries, many with names that include ExxonMobil, Exxon, Esso and Mobil. For
convenience and simplicity in this paper, the parent company and its subsidiaries may be referenced separately or collectively
as "ExxonMobil." Abbreviated references describing global or regional operational organizations and global or regional
business lines are also sometimes used for convenience and simplicity. Nothing in this paper is intended to override the
corporate separateness of these separate legal entities. Working relationships discussed in this paper do not necessarily
represent a reporting connection, but may reflect a functional guidance, stewardship, or service relationship
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank ExxonMobil Management for their support and permission to publish this paper. In addition,
the authors would also like to thank the many current and former employees of ExxonMobil and its affiliates who have
contributed to the development of the pilot testing best practices described in this paper.
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Pritchard, D.W.L., Georgi, D.T., Hemingson, P., and Okazawa, T. 1990. Reservoir Surveillance Impacts Management of the Judy Creek
Hydrocarbon Miscible Flood. Paper SPE/DOE 20228 presented at the SPE/DOE Seventh Symposium on Enhanced Oil Recovery in Tulsa,
April 22-25.
Pritchard, D.W.L., and Neiman, R.E. 1992. Improving Oil Recovery through WAG Cycle Optimization in a Gravity-Override-Dominated
Miscible Flood. Paper SPE/DOE 24181 presented at the SPE/DOE Eighth Symposium on Enhanced Oil Recovery in Tulsa, April 22-24.
Pursley, S.A., Healy, R.N., and Sandvik, E.I. 1973. A Field Test of Surfactant Flooding, Loudon, Illinois. JPT 25 (7): 793-802.
Pursley, S.A., and Graham, H.L. 1975. Borregos Field Surfactant Pilot Test. JPT 27 (6): 695-700.
Reppert, T.R., Bragg, J.R., Wilkinson, J.R., Snow, T.M., Maer Jr., N.K., and Gale, W.W. 1990. Second Ripley Surfactant Flood Pilot Test.
Paper SPE 20219 presented at SPE/DOE Enhanced Oil Recovery Symposium, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 22-25 April.
Saltuklaroglu, M. Wright, G. N., Conrad, P. R., McIntyre, J. R., and Manchester, G. J. 2000. Mobils SAGD Experience at Celtic,
Saskatchewan. J. Canadian Petroleum Technlogy April: 45.
Stiles, L.H., Chiquito, R.M., George, C.J., and Long, L.D. 1983. Design and Operation of a CO2 Tertiary Pilot: Means San Andres Unit.
SPE 11987 presented at SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Francisco, California, 5-8 October.
Stone, H. L. 1982. Vertical Conformance in an Alternating Water-Miscible Gas Flood. SPE 11130, presented at the 57th Annual Technical
Conference of the SPE, New Orleans, LA, Sept. 26-29.
Tweidt, L.I., Chase, W.D., Holowatuk, C.R., Lane, R.H., and Mitchell, C.M. 1997. Improving Sweep Efficiency in the Norman Wells
Naturally Fractured Reservoir through the use of Polymer Gels: A Field Case History. paper SPE 38901 presented at the SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, TX 5-8 October.
10
SPE 118055
Wood, Kelvin N., Lai, Francis S., and Heacock, Dennis W. 1993. Water Tracing Enhances Miscible Pilot. SPEFE 8 (1): 65-70.
E+00
E-03
E+00
E-02
E-01
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
g/cm3
J
Pas
C
kPa
m3
m3
SPE 118055
11
Field
Date
1965-66
1969-70
1980-81
1982-83
1982-86
1982-86
Type Pilot
5-Spot
5-Spot
5-Spot
5-Spot
40-Acre Multi-Pattern
80-Acre Multi-Pattern
Surfactant
Surfactant
Surfactant
Surfactant
Surfactant
Surfactant
1982-83
1987
Non-Producing
Unconfined pattern
CO2 Miscible
Hydrocarbon Miscible
Redwater
Slaughter
1988-89
1991-92
Multi-Pattern
Multi-Pattern
Hydrocarbon Miscible
CO2 Foam
Greater Aneth
1992-94
Multi-Pattern
CO2 Foam
2001-2005
Single-Patten
1986-90
Multi-Pattern
Polymer Gel
Cold Lake-Ethyl
Cold Lake-May
Cold Lake-Leming
196419721975-
Multi-Pattern
Multi-Pattern
Multi-Pattern
Buckles (1979)
Buckles (1979)
Buckles (1979)
2002-
Multi-Pattern
South Belridge
1986-87
Multi-pattern
Steam Foam
1992-96
1984-87
1996-99
Multi-pattern
Single Pattern
Single-Well (Horizontal)
Steam Drive
In-Situ Combustion
SAGD
Norman Wells
Process
Celtic
1997-2001
Dual-Well (Horizontal)
SAGD
Celtic
2002-2005
5-Spot
SSE
References
Pursley (1975)
Pursley, et al. (1973)
Bragg et al. (1982, 1983)
Reppert et al. (1990)
Huh et al. (1990)
Huh et al. (1990)
12
SPE 118055
Lab Data
Reservoir Simulation
Pilot Testing
Surveillance
Process Untested
Reservoir Complex
or not Well Understood
Low Economic /
Injectant Supply Risk
Significant Economic /
Injectant Supply Risk
Small-Scale Pilot
Commercial Application
Commercial Application
Determine: Injectivity
Determine:
Injectivity
Vertical sweep at observers
Displacement efficiency at observers
Vertical sweep vs. distance
Reservoir description between
injection and observation wells
Determine:
Injectivity
Vertical sweep at observer
Displacement efficiency at observer
Reservoir description between injection
and observation well
Determine:
Injectivity
Vertical sweep at observer
Displacement efficiency at observers
Areal sweep
Reservoir description between
injection and observation wells
SPE 118055
13
Non-Producing Pilots
Advantages
Disadvantages
Low cost
No oil in tank
Estimate of injectivity
Fast results
Advantages
Disadvantages
Estimate of injectivity
Low cost
Rough estimates of mobility control,
oil mobilization, chemical retention
Fast results
14
SPE 118055
Advantages
Disadvantages
Advantages
Disadvantages
Very expensive
Extensive evaluation time
Confirmed oil-in-the-tank
Best data for calibrating simulators
Easiest to scale-up to commercial
performance
Commercial-scale operating
experience and cost data
Evaluation of Problem
Injectivity
Potential Problem
Water
Gas
Water
Lab measurements
Pilot injectivity tests
Time
Gas channels through
high-permeability
zones
Geological, reservoir
description studies
Gas
Gas
Geological, reservoir
description studies
Simulation studies to test
completion strategy and
injection rate
Pilot test for vertical sweep
SPE 118055
15
Tools / Techniques
Injectivity index
Injection rates
Flow profiles
Bottom-hole pressure
Fall-off tests
Step-rate tests
Gravity override
Vertical permeability
Core data
GOR or water cuts versus time at producers Sample producers for early
breakthrough of injectant
Inter-well tracers
Sample producers
Pressure surveys
Figure 12. Simplified cross-section of Judy Creek VSP showing observation well location.
16
SPE 118055
injection well
production well
observation well
INJ1
35
ft
PROD
45
ft
25
ft
INJ2
OBS2 OBS1
INJ4
OBS3
150 ft
40
ft
INJ3
Figure 14. Comparison of LASER (orange) and CSS (blue) performance for Cold Lake LASER Pilot.
675
0.5
12
600
525
10
15
20
11
0.45
0.4
0.35
20
450
0.3
375
0.25
300
0.2
225
0.15
150
0.1
75
Cycle 6
Cycle 7
-0
ar
0.05
0
00
01
02
03
04
01
02
03
04
gggggbbbbu
u
u
u
u
e
e
e
e
F
F
F
F
A
A
A
A
A
Cycle OSR
750