BIOLOGY OF

CHICKEN

INSIDE OF YOUR
CHICKEN

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OUTSIDE OF YOUR
CHICKEN

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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

An understanding of the avian respiratory system is essential to developing a health

monitoring plan for your poultry flock. A knowledge of chicken anatomy, and what the
parts normally look like, will help to recognize when something is wrong and to
take the necessary actions to correct the problem.
The respiratory system is involved in the absorption of oxygen (O2), release of carbon
dioxide (CO2), release of heat (temperature regulation), detoxification of certain
chemicals, rapid adjustments of acid-base balance, and vocalization. While the function
of the avian respiratory system is comparable to that of mammals, the two are
quite different anatomically
Birds dont breathe the same way mammals do. Like mammals, birds have two
symmetrical lungs that are connected to a trachea (windpipe). But here the similarity
ends. Mammalian lungs contain many bronchi (tubes), which lead to small sacs called
alveoli. Because alveoli have only one opening, air can flow into and out of them, but it
cannot flow through them to the outside of a lung. In comparison, the avian lung has
parabronchi which are continuous tubes allowing air to pass through the lung in one
direction. They are laced with blood capillaries and it is here that gas exchange occurs.
The avian respiratory tract starts with the glottis. The glottis closes when feed is passing
down the throat so that the feed does not enter the lungs.The trachea is made up of
cartilaginous rings that prevent its collapse from the negative pressure caused by
inspiration of air.
The syrinx is the voice box. The chickens voice is produced by air pressure on a
sound valve and modified by muscle tension. It is not possible to remove the syrinx to
prevent roosters from crowing. Both roosters and hens are able to crow. The reason
hens dont normally crow is because they dont feel like it due to the effects of the
female hormone and the absence of sufficient levels of the male hormone. When the
ovaries become diseased and the level of female hormones decrease, many hens will
start to show male characteristics, including crowing.
Chicken lungs are relatively small and do not expand. Instead, they are firmly attached
to the ribs. Birds have an incomplete diaphragm and the arrangements of the chest
musculature and the sternum do not lend themselves to expansion in the same way
that the chest of mammals does. Consequently they cant inflate and deflate lungs in
the same way as mammals do. Instead, birds pass air through the lungs by means of
air sacs, a uniquely avian anatomical feature. The air sacs are balloon-like structures
at the ends of the airway system. In the chicken there are nine such sacs: an unpaired
one in the cervical region; two interclavicular air sacs, two abdominal air sacs,
two anterior thoracic air sacs and two posterior thoracic air sacs.

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The key to the avian respiratory system is that distention and compression of the air
sacs, not the lungs, moves air in and out. At any given moment air may be flowing into
and out of the lung and being parked in the air sacs. The lungs are stiff and fixed, not
at all like the distensible lungs of mammals. The air sacs act as bellows to suck air in
and blow it out and also to hold part of the total volume.
With each breath, the chickens respiratory tract is exposed to the inside environment
of a poultry house. Poor environments normally do not cause disease directly but they
do reduce chickens defenses, making them more susceptible to infection from existing
viruses and pathogens.
The air of poultry houses can contain aerosol particles or dust originating from the
floor litter, feed, dried manure, and the skin and feathers of the chickens. These aerosol
particles can have a range of adverse effects on poultry. They act as an irritant to
the respiratory system and coughing is a physiological response designed to remove
them. Excessive coughing lowers the chickens resistance to disease.
The chickens respiratory tract is normally equipped with defense mechanisms to
prevent or limit infection by airborne disease agents; to remove inhaled particles; and to
keep the airways clean. Chicken health is affected by the function of three defensive
elements: the cilia; the mucus secretions; and the presence of scavenging cells which
consume bacteria.
Cilia are tiny hair-like structures in the trachea. Cilia are responsible for propelling the
entrapped particles for disposal.
Mucus is produced in the trachea. Mucus secretion and movement of cilia are well
developed in chickens. The consistency of the mucus produced is important for the
efficiency of the ciliary activity. Cilia cannot function when the mucus is too thick
Scavenging cells in the lungs actively scavenge inhaled particles and bacteria that
gain entrance to the lower respiratory tract. These cells consume bacteria and kill
them, thus preventing their further spread.
It is the integrated function of cilia, mucus and scavenging cells that keeps chicken
airways free of disease-producing organisms. The impairment of even one of these
components permits an accumulation of disease agents in the respiratory tract and may
result in disease.

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THERMOREGULATION

As this term indicates, it is associated with the regulation of the temperature of the bird.
Fowls are homeothermic animals. However, while every attempt is made to achieve a
stable body temperature, there are times when, under extreme conditions, the birds
temperature will vary up or down. When this variation is too great the bird is likely to die.

Fat and heat loss

The layer of fat usually found under the skin plus the coat of feathers provide very good
protection from low temperature and it is unlikely that birds other than young chickens
will die of hypothermia. For a constant deep body temperature to be maintained,
heat production must equal heat loss. Heat is produced by metabolic processes or may
be gained from the environment when environmental temperature is above bird
temperature. Birds lose heat to the atmosphere when the environmental temperature is
below the birds body temperature, and when temperatures are approaching the birds
body temperature if the relative humidity is low.
Heat is lost by the bird as sensible heat directly to the atmosphere when the
temperature gradient is sufficiently great and as insensible heat by the evaporation of
water from the respiratory system and skin when the temperature gradient is less but
relative humidity is low. At high temperature the birds increase their respiration rate to
increase the amount of air passing through the respiratory system to increase the
cooling by evaporation. This panting also involves gular flutter which is the rapid
movement of the upper throat tissues to increase evaporation. The movement of air
around the body of the bird will assist in removing heat from the bird as sensible heat
and as insensible heat.

High respiratory rate and eggshell formation

An increase in the respiratory rate at high temperatures will increase the loss of carbon
dioxide from the body. While carbon dioxide is removed from the body because of its
toxicity, a certain amount is used in the formation of eggshells. Eggshell is essentially
calcium plus carbon dioxide that forms calcium carbonate. At higher environmental
temperatures, layers often lay eggs with weaker shells because their panting to cool
themselves removes more carbon dioxide from the body.
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MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF CHICKENS

The male reproductive organs in the domestic fowl consist of two testes, each with a
deferent duct that leads from the testes to the cloaca. The testes are bean shaped
bodies located against the backbone at the front of the kidney. Their size is not constant
and they become larger when the birds are actively mating. The left testis is often larger
than the right. On the inside of each is a small, flattened area that is believed to
correspond to the epididymis of mammals. The deferent duct starts at this flattened
area.

Deferent duct

The deferent duct transports the sperm from the testes where they are formed to the
cloaca from which they enter the oviduct of the female when mating. The deferent duct
enters a small pimple-like structure in the cloaca. This structure equates to the
mammalian penis and is much larger in ducks to form a penis like organ. The deferent
duct is quite narrow at first but widens as it approaches the cloaca.
Testes and sperm

In the testes very twisted tubes called seminiferous tubules are found. It is in these
tubules that a special process of cell division called meiosis and transformation
produces the sperm. One cubic millimetre of the fluid called semen produced by the
male contains on average 3-5 million sperm. Under a microscope the sperm of the fowl
will be seen to have a long pointed head with a long tail. The testes also produce
hormones called androgens that influence the development of what are called

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secondary sex characteristics such as comb growth and condition, male behaviour and
mating.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

We begin with the ovary. The ovary is a cluster of various sizes of developing follicles.
The follicle is a sack that contains the developing yolk. It takes about 10 days for a yolk
to grow from a very small size to the normal size found in eggs. The oviduct is a long
tube containing many blood vessels and glands. The function of the oviduct is to
produce the albumen, shell membranes and the shell around the yolk to complete the
egg. Normally, a yolk is released when the follicle ruptures (breaks). Then the yolk
enters a thin-walled infundibulum, the first part of the reproductive tract (oviduct). It is in
the infundibulum where the egg can become fertilized if sperm are present. The egg
then passes to the magnum where albumen (egg white) is placed around the yolk. The
egg then passes to the isthmus where the shell membranes are placed around the egg.
The egg then moves to the shell gland (uterus) where a hard calcified shell is placed
around the developing egg. The egg passes quickly through the vagina just before it is
laid.

FEMALE
REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM

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The female
reproductive system
of the chicken is
divided into two
separate parts: the
ovary and the oviduct.
In almost all species
of birds, including
chickens, only the left
ovary and oviduct are
functional. Although
the embryo has two
ovaries and oviducts,
only the left pair (i.e.,
ovary and oviduct)
develops. The right
typically regresses
during development
and is non-functional
in the adult bird.
There have been
cases, however,
where the left ovary
and oviduct have
been damaged and
the right one has
developed to replace
it
Mammals typically give birth to their offpsring, the offspring of birds develop outside
the body of the parents - in eggs. When carried in the womb, mammalian embryos
receive their daily requirement for nutrients directly from their mother via the placenta.
For birds, however, all the nutrients that will be needed for the embryo to fully develop
must be provided.
The ovary is a cluster of developing yolks or ova and is located midway between the
neck and the tail of the bird, attached to the back. The ovary is fully formed when pullet
chicks hatch, but it is very small until the chicks reach sexual maturity. At hatch, pullet
chicks have tens of thousands of potential eggs (i.e., ova) which theoretically could be
laid. Most of these, however, never develop to the point of ovulation. So the maximum
number of eggs a hen can lay is determined when she hatches since no new ova are
added once the chick has hatched. Each ovum (singular form of ova) starts out as a
single cell surrounded by a vitelline membrane.
As the ovum develops, yolk is added. The color of the yolk comes from fat soluble
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pigments called xanthophylls contained in the hens diet. Hens fed diets with yellow
maize, or allowed to range on grass, typically have dark yellow yolks. Hens fed diets
with white maize, sorghum, millet or wheat typically have pale yolks. The color of the
yolks from these hens can be improved by the addition of marigold petals to provide
the desired level of xanthophylls in the yolk.
Ovulation is the term used for the release of the mature ovum from the ovary into the
second part of the female reproductive system, the oviduct. The ovum, which is
enclosed in a sac, ruptures along the suture line or stigma.
The second major part of the female chickens reproductive system is the oviduct. The
oviduct is a long convoluted tube (25-27 inches long when fully developed) which is
divided into five major sections. They are the:
Infundibulum or funnel, magnum, isthmus, uterus or shell gland, and vagina.

The first part of the oviduct, the infundibulum or funnel, is 3-4 inches long, and engulfs
the ovum released from the ovary. Funnel is an inaccurate choice of name for this part
since it gives the vision of the infundibulum waiting for the ovum to fall into it, which is
not the case. Instead the released ovum stays in place and the muscular infundibulum
moves to surround it. The ovum or yolk remains in the infundibulum for 15-18 minutes.
Fertilization, if it is going to occur, takes place in the infundibulum.
The next section of the oviduct is the magnum which is 13 inches long and is the largest
section of the oviduct as its name implies (from the Latin word for large). The ovum or
yolk remains here 3 hours during which time the thick white or albumen is added.
The third section of the oviduct is the isthmus which is 4 inches long. The developing
egg remains here for 75 minutes. The isthmus, as its name implies, is slightly
constricted (The term isthmus refers to a narrow band of tissue connecting two larger
parts of an anatomical structure). The isthmus is where the inner and outer shell
membranes are added.
The next section of the oviduct is the shell gland or uterus. The shell gland is 4-5 inches
long, and the egg remains here for 20 plus hours. As its name implies, the shell is
placed on the egg here. The shell is largely made up of calcium carbonate. The hen
mobilizes 47% of her body calcium from her bones to make the egg shell, with the diet
providing the remainder of the required calcium. Pigment deposition, if there is any, is
also done in the shell gland.
The last part of the oviduct is the vagina which is about 4-5 inches long and does not
really play a part in egg formation. The vagina is made of muscle which helps push the
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egg out of the hens body. The bloom or cuticle is also added to the egg in the vagina
prior to oviposition (the laying of the fully formed egg).
Near the junction of the vagina and the shell gland, there are deep glands known as
sperm host glands. They get their name from the fact that they can store sperm for long
periods of time (10 days to 2 weeks). When an egg is laid, some of these sperm can be
squeezed out of the glands into the oviduct so that they can migrate farther up the
oviduct to fertilize an ovum. This is one of the really remarkable things about birds; the
sperm remain viable at body temperature.
Birds lay eggs in clutches. A clutch consists of one or more eggs laid each day for
several days, followed by a rest period of about a day or more. Then another egg or set
of eggs is laid. For commercial egg layers clutch size is typically quite large.
In chicken hens, ovulation usually occurs in the morning and under normal daylight
conditions, almost never after 3:00 PM. The total time to form a new egg is about 25-26
hours. This includes about 3 hours to make the albumen, 1 hours for the shell
membranes, and about 20 hours for the shell itself.
Occasionally, a hen will produce double-yolked eggs. This phenomenon can be related
to hen age but genetic factors are also involved. Young hens sometimes release two
yolks from the ovary in quick succession. Double-yolked eggs are typically larger in size
than single yolk eggs. Double-yolked eggs are not suitable for hatching. There is
typically not enough nutrients and space available for two chicks to develop to hatch
Even rarer is an egg within an egg. This occurs when an egg that is nearly ready to be
laid reverses direction and moves up the oviduct and encounters another egg in
process of being put together. The results is that the first egg gets a new layer of
albumen added and two eggs are encased together within a new shell. Such eggs are
so rare that no one knows exactly why they happen.
Another egg problem that is commonly noted Blood spots are normally found on or
around the yolk. The main cause is a small break in one of the tiny blood vessels
around the yolk when it is ovulated. High levels of activity during the time of ovulation
can increase the incidence of blood spots.
Meat spots are usually brown in color and are more often associated with the egg white.
They are formed when small pieces of the wall of the oviduct are sloughed off when the
egg is passing through. In commercial operations, eggs with blood or meat spots are
typically identified during candling and removed. It is rare, therefore, to see these eggs
in stores. The incidence is higher in brown shelled eggs, and it is harder to identify them
when candling the darker colored shells.

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DOUBLE YOLKED
EGG EGG

MEAT
SOPT

BLOOD
SPOT

MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF CHICKENS

The muscular system provides the mechanical activity for the animal in the form of
mobility of the different parts of the skeleton or its appendages, the movement of
materials along tubular organs such as the alimentary canal, air passages and blood
vessels, and the pumping of the blood through the circulatory system by the heart.
Muscles are structured from special muscle cells in the form of fibres that have the
ability to contract or shorten. When they relax the muscle lengthens.
Muscle types

There are three types of muscle found in the animal body. These are:

Involuntary muscles found in the walls of the alimentary canal, blood vessels, air
passages and other tubular structures. These muscles are beyond the control of
the will and are called involuntary muscles. The fibres of these muscles do not
carry transverse striation or stripes and are therefore said to be unstriped or
unstriated.

Cardiac muscle of the heart. This too is involuntary muscle but is striated an and
is structured differently to other muscle. It is nucleated, contains many Fibres and

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forms a syncytium with many nucleii but no differentiation of the protoplasm into
cells.

The striated or striped, voluntary muscles of the body that move the various parts
of the skeleton or appendages. These consist of very minute thread-like muscle
fibres in bundles enclosed by sheaths of fibrous tissue.

There are white and red types of skeletal muscle fibers found in birds and all muscles
have some white fibers and some red fibers. However, the proportion varies and some
muscles are predominantly white and others predominantly red or dark. White fibers
lacks a compound called myoglobin, but store more glycogen and have a fast
contraction of short duration. They have little staying power. The breast muscles of
fowls, the muscles of flight, are predominantly white fibers and fowls have very poor
flying ability. They fly very short distances with a very rapid wing movement. Red fibers
have myoglobin and other cellular structures for continuous production of energy for
contraction. These fibers have a slow contraction of long duration. The flight muscles of
flying birds consist mainly of red fibers.

The poultry meat we eat is skeletal muscle. The breast meat of chicken often is referred
to as white meat. White meat results from muscles that are used less frequently.
Chickens usually do not fly. Consequently, they do not use their breast muscles as often
as they would if they flew more frequently or for longer distances on a regular basis.
The leg meat, such as thigh meat, typically is referred to as dark meat. Dark meat
results from muscles that are used for sustained activity. Chickens use their legs for
walking. The higher activity of the leg muscles increases the muscles need for oxygen.
The darker color of more active muscles comes from a chemical compound in the
muscle called myoglobin, which is important for oxygen transport. Other species of
poultry that are capable of flight (such as some ducks, geese, and guinea fowl) have
dark meat throughout their bodies (that is, in the breast, thigh, and drumstick).
Consumers, in general, tend to prefer white chicken meat, which typically is used in
value-added products, such as chicken nuggets and chicken fingers. White meat often
is considered the healthier of the two types of chicken meat because it has less fat and

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more protein than dark meat. The higher fat content of dark chicken meat gives it more
flavors.

NERVOUS SYSTEM OF CHICKENS

The nervous system and the important sensory organs play a key role in the day-to-day
functioning of the animal. The nervous system integrates and controls the various
functions of the body, while the sensory organs detect the various stimuli in the birds
environment that it reacts to. Functions are actively (voluntarily) or automatically
(involuntarily) controlled:
Voluntary control occurs where the animal, in its response to some activity or stimulus,
has a choice in what actions (if any) It may take. It chooses to respond in one way or
another, such as to move a particular part(s) of its anatomy. The nerves that make up
this voluntary part of the nervous system are called voluntary, or somatic, nerves.
Involuntary control exists where the animal has no choice and the response to an
activity or event occurs without the animal having any conscious control. Examples of
the functioning of this part of the nervous system are the regulation of heart beat and
circulation, digestion, and respiration. It is obvious that the animal cannot afford to have
to remember to keep its heart beating, its digestive system functioning or even just to
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breath. The part of the nervous system that regulates such important functions is called
the autonomic, or involuntary, nervous system.
The Brain

The brain is located in the head and is well protected by the bones of the cranium. The
brain consists of a number of parts, which in turn consist of various special cells that
have the ability to detect, recognize, remember and direct. Thus the brain is the control
centre for the many functions and activities of the many systems, organs and tissues
that make up the birds body. The parts and major regions that make up the avian brain
are as follows:

The forebrain which consists mainly of the cerebral hemispheres and the
olfactory lobes. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are located on the lower
side of the forebrain.

The midbrain which mainly consists of the optic lobes.

The hindbrain which consists mainly of the cerebellum and the medulla
oblongata.

The olfactory lobes of the forebrain are the receptor areas for the olfactory nerves and
are the centre for smell, while the optic lobes are the receptor areas for the optic nerve
and are the centre for sight. The optic lobes of poultry are very large when compared
with those of other species in relation to total brain size. This indicates that sight plays a
major role in the normal behaviour of fowls. The very small gland called the pituitary
gland, or hypophysis, is associated with the hypothalamus. This gland is of major
importance as an endocrine gland, so much so that it is often called the master gland.
Many of its secretions regulate the operation of many other glands as well as the
functions of the systems, organs and tissues of the bird.
SPINAL CORD
The spinal cord, as the name suggests, is a cord of nerve tissue that extends from the
medulla oblongata of the brain along almost the full extremity of the vertebral column
through the canal provided for that purpose. The spinal cord and the brain constitute the
Central Nervous System (often referred to as the CNS). Like the brain, the spinal cord is
well protected, firstly by its spinal fluid and the sheath that encloses it, all of which is
fully enclosed within the bones of the vertebral column. The various nerves that provide
for the control of the various systems, organs and tissues of the body leave the spinal
cord through appropriate openings located in the joints between the different vertebrae.
If the spinal cord should be broken, the connection between the brain and the parts that
it controls will be broken and hence control of the effected parts will be lost. For

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example, a break of the spinal cord in the lower back will result in the loss of control
(paralysis) of the legs and other functions that take place below the break.
Nerves

The nerve cell or neuron consists of a cell body with one or more elongated projections
extending from it. The cell body contains the nucleus. The projections are part of the
cytoplasm and are called axons if they are long and singular, or dendrites if the are
short and branched.
Nerve endings or receptors at one end carry the sensors that respond to the stimuli,
while on the opposite side, the stimulus is transferred ultimately to the brain. The nerve
endings are the means by which stimuli are perceived or control exercised. The
remainder of the nerve cell acts as a message carrier to the brain in much the same
way that telephone line carries a message between two telephones. These messages
are in the form of very weak electrical currents.
There are a number of different types of nerve endings on nerve cells depending on the
task they have to carry out, such as smell, hear, see or perceive touch. The bird may
then react to these stimuli and response is directed via the nerves of a particular
system, organ or tissue. Those that send messages to the muscles to respond are often
called motor nerves or motor neurons.
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The circulatory system is responsible for the transport of the various essential
compounds and other factors around the body, as well as the removal of the metabolic
wastes that accumulate in the tissues from body activities, to the appropriate places.
The compounds and other factors transported around the body are blood, nutrients,
medications and antibodies to fight infection, the residue of worn out cells and the
wastes of metabolism. There are times when undesirable compounds and factors are
found in the system as well, such as poisons or toxins and disease causing organisms.
The circulatory system consists of a number of organs and an associated transport
system. This mainly includes heart, the blood vessels, the spleen, the bone marrow, the
blood and the lymph vessels. The blood and vascular system develops very early in the
life of the embryo as the nutrition of the rapidly developing embryo is urgent and a
transport system is required to transport the nutrients to where they are needed.
Evidence of the system can be seen within about an hour and the system is clearly
defined and operating within two days. By day three, it is possible to see the beat of the
embryonic heart with the naked eye.
BLOOD CIRCULATION
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In broad terms the heart acts as the pump that pumps in two directions:
1.

To the lungs where the carbon dioxide in the blood is removed and
the oxygen replaced

2.

To the rest of the body to deliver the nutrients and oxygen to the
cells and to collect wastes and carbon dioxide

The blood leaves the heart via arteries called the aorta (to the body) and the pulmonary
artery (to the lungs). The blood always enters the heart via the vena cava vein (from the
body) and the pulmonary vein (from the lungs).
The heart is located in the thoracic cavity between the two lobes of the liver and mainly
in front of that organ. It is relatively large and is enclosed in a thin membrane called the
pericardium. The avian heart has two atria and two ventricles (four chambers), as is
found in mammals. In general shape, it is typically conical with its apex, or pointed end,
directed to the rear and slightly left of middle.
The walls of the atria are thin while those of the ventricles are quite thick. This is
because of the atria only have to move the blood from the atria to the ventricle while the
ventricles are responsible for pumping blood around the body. Microscopically, the
muscle of the heart is similar to that of mammals as the fibres are nucleated, striated
and form a syncytium (a mass of cytoplasm with numerous nuclei).

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