CHE 121-1 (Gen Chem- Mehne)

10/02/2013

8/30/13
Beginnings of modern chemistry:
count beginning of chemistry with the beginning of quantitative
(measured by quantity rather than quality) studies instead of
qualitative studies.
o 1772 (before American revolution) Lavoisier studied
carbon + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + heat + light
asked how much (quantitative) of each of these
elements was used and produced
Law of summary of observations
theories or models = things we make up to try and organize
and rationalize our observations.
Measurements:
Property =
Mass =
Weight =
Cost =

Magnitude
3.7
152
48.95

Units
Grams
Pounds
$

Use the SI system (French) international system of units (metric

is now obsolete)
We are pretending the English system does not exist and are using
the SI system

property
Mass
Volume
Temp
Time
Pressure
heat

SI unit
Kilogram
**base unit**
Cubic meter
**derived unit**
Kelvin
(Capitalized bc name
of dead scientist)
second
-

lab unit
Gram = kg/1000
Liter = m^3/ (1000)
Milliliter = m^3 /
(1,000,000)
Degree Celsius
0K=-273.15 degrees
C
second

In lab normally measure to thousandth of a gram

Kelvin considered absolute bc 0 K means 0 temp
room temp about 298 K Kelvin is NOT degrees (F and C both are)

Properties:
Extensive properties = ex: mass; depends upon the amount
of matter chosen for measurement
o size, length, mass, volume, *heat*
Intensive properties = do NOT depend on the amount of
matter chosen for measurement (memory> doesnt matter how
much time coach gives you he needs intensity)
shape, color, pressure, *temperature*, density
In dependent of mass
heat/ temp
o heat> measure of energy (more mass= more heat)
o temperature> concentration of heat
Ex of charcoal
o mass and volume would both be different than friends, but
dividing mass by volume (m/v) gives you density and both
peoples density would be the same
Dont observe density directly
We measure extensive properties and use them to find an intensive
property and something that is a characteristic
9/2/13

Measurements continued:
every measurement has 3 parts:
o
o
o
No measurement is completely precise (there are limits)
o we are rarely counting in the lab and normally making
measurements
Truth in Measurement:
o Significant Figure convention
Report only one digit that is uncertain The last digit of
a number should be the uncertain number.
Dont use zeros to locate decimal points
leading zeros never count (ex: 0.07090 g)
see notes in ch. 1 reading tab on sig figs
Be careful with ambiguous numbers (ex: 2300 mm); fix
problem by using scientific notation or changing units as
we need to (ex: 2300 mm = 2.30 m)
o Propagation of Imprecision (error analysis)
Addition and Subtraction:
A result has the same number of decimal digits
as the fewest in the data
ex: see diagram 1.1
Multiplication and division:
A result has the same number of significant
figures as the fewest in the data.

Balances in lab precision of 3 decimal digits

ex: mass total = 2.361 g; mass container =
2.340 g
fewest given decimals is 3 so 3 in the
results of 0.021 g (*only 2 sigs)
ex: (line of ink on paper)
w= .1124 cm
L= 2.0 cm
Want area so multiply two numbers. from
calc A=0.2248 cm^2 (CALC LIES) Fewest
given sig figs is L that has 2. So answer
should be written A=0.22 cm^2
Another ex: (paint strip)
L= 52.3 cm; W= 5 cm
A= 261.5 cm^2. W is only 1 significant figure so
you have to round answer to 300 cm but this
answer is ambiguous so write answer as 3x10^2
cm^2 bc this makes it clear there is only 1 sig fig.
If you leave number in the display without rounding
every step in a series of calculations you can round at
end of calculations and be ok.

Factor-Label Method aka Conversion Factor Approach aka

Dimensional Analysis:
(all reference to the same thing which is solving problems by
looking at the units instead of plugging measurement into
equations) Ask not what the equation is, but how do I get the
units for the quantities Ive measured into the units of what I want.
Diagram 1.2 and 1.3
Doing this method if you get the right units you probably got the
right answer.
1.2 The Scientific Method = a systematic approach to research
Carefully define problem
Perform experiments and record data
o data obtained may be

qualitative = general observations about the system.

quantitative = comprising numbers obtained by various
measurements of the system.
Interpretation (attempt to explain observed phenomena)
o Form a hypothesis= tentative explanation for a set of
observations.
Perform more experiments to test validity of hypothesis
Summarize info as a law
o law = a concise verbal or mathematical statement of a
relationship between phenomena that is always the same
under the same conditions.
hypothesis after many tests may become theory
o theory = a unifying principle that explains a body of facts
and/or those laws that are based on them.
**Scientific progress is seldom, if ever, made in a rigid, step by
step fashion
3 steps:
o observation> representation> interpretation cycle that
continues!

1.3 Classifications of Matter:

Matter = anything that occupies space and has mass
o In principle, all mater can exist as solid, liquid, or gas
Chemistry = the study of matter and the changes it undergoes
melting point = the temp at which a solid will melt to form a liquid
boiling point= goes from liquid to gas
Water is unique molecules are more closely packed in liquid state
than solid state
substance = matter that has a definite or constant composition
and distinct properties; substances differ from one another in
composition.

 at present over 66 million substances are known

ex: water silver, table salt, carbon dioxide
mixture = a combination of 2 or more substances in which the
substances retain their distinct identities.
o do NOT have constant composition (ex: air from different
cities)
o ex: soft drinks, milk, cement
o homogeneous or heterogeneous
homogeneous= SAME composition throughout
solution (sugar in water)
heterogeneous= Composition is NOT uniform
throughout (sand and nails)
o *ANY mixture can be created and then separated by
PHYSICAL means to where the components of the mixture
have the same composition and properties as they did to start
with
Elements and Compounds
Element= a substance that cannot be separated into simpler
substances by chemical means
o 118 identified (periodic table)
o only 5 elements (oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, and
calcium, comprise over 90% of the earths crust.
Compound = a substance composed of 2 or more elements
chemically united in fixed proportions
o Can be separated only by chemical means into pure
components.
1.4 Physical and Chemical Properties of matter:
physical property = can be measured and observed without
changing the composition of a substance.
Chemical property = to observe this property we must carry out a
chemical CHANGE (ex: burning hydrogen and oxygen gas originals
will have vanished and different substance water will be created.
Impossible to recover originals by physical change)
All measurable properties of matter fall into 2 categories: extensive
and intensive properties
o extensive property = depends on how much matter is
being considered (mass, volume)

o intensive property = does NOT depend on the amount of

matter being considered. (temp, melting point, boiling point,
and density)
**Intensive property is IN dependent of mass
1.5 Measurement:
macroscopic properties = can be determined directly
microscopic properties = on the atomic or molecular scale, must
be determined by an indirect method (ex: density)
SI Base Units
Length
Meter
m
Mass
Kilogram
kg
Time
Second
s****** (NOT sec)
Electrical current
Ampere
A
Temperature
Kelvin
K
Amount of substance
Mole
Mol
Luminous intensity
Candela
cd

Mass and Weight

o Mass= measure of the quantity of matter in an object
o weight= the force that gravity exerts on an object
Volume = length (m) cubed so SI unit is the cubic meter; non SI
unit is Liter (L)
o Liter= the volume occupied by one cubic decimeter
L and mL used normally for liquid volume. One Liter =
1000 milliliters or 1000 cubic centimeters
1 mL = 1000 cm^3

Density = the mass of an object divided by its volume (m/v)

o unit = kg/m^3 but thats large so grams per cubic centimeter
and grams per milliliter more commonly used
Temp scales
o **complicated equations on page 11 to convert bw degrees
Celsius and Fahrenheit
o Absolute 0 on the Kelvin scale = -273.15 degrees Celsius
Celsius and Kelvin scales have units of equal magnitude

1.6 Handling Numbers:

Scientific Notation
o To add and subtract with notation first write each quantity
with the same exponent n.
o to multiply multiply like normal and then add the exponents
together.
Significant figures = the meaningful digits in a measured or
calculated quantity. The last digit is understood to be uncertain. The
amount of uncertainty depends on the measuring device used.
o Guidelines for sig figs on pg. 15 of textbook
any digit that is not 0 is significant (845 cm. = 3 sigs)
zeroes bw nonzero digits are significant (606m= 3 sigs)
zeroes to the left of the first nonzero digit are not sig.
(0.08 contains 1 sig) leading zeros never sig.
if a number is greater than 1, then all the zeroes
written to the right of the decimal point count as sig
(3.040 has 4 sigs; 0.090 has 2 sigs)
For numbers that do not contain decimal points, the
trailing zeros (that is, zeros after the last nonzero
digit) may or may not be sig. (ambiguous) Use scientific
notation to make clear 400 cm> 4x10^2 or 4.0x10^2
or 4.00x10^2)
Sig figs apply to measurements, but something that is
true by definition is exact and does not influence sig
figs.
o How to apply significant figures in calculations:
In addition and subtraction, the answer cannot have
more digits to the right of the decimal point than either
of the original numbers.

In multiplication and division, the number of significant

figures in the final product or quotient is determined by
the original number that has the smallest number of sig
figs.
exact numbers obtained from definitions (not
measurements) can be considered to have infinite sig
figs!
usually can round intermediate answers as well.
Accuracy and Precision
o accuracy = how close a measurement is to the true value of
the quantity that was measured (3 measurements can be 3
different extremes and very different therefore not precise
but average out to a number that is the value you should be
getting and accurate)
o precision = how closely two or more measurements of the
same quantity agree with one another. (3 measurements can
all be very similar and therefore precise but the reality is
youre not getting the accurate number)

1.7 Dimensional Analysis in Solving Problems:

Dimensional analysis is the procedure we use to convert between
units in solving chemistry problems.

Missed lecture on Atomic Theory: (periodic table, elements)

9/9/13
Chemical Laws:
mass is conserved during chemical reactions
o ex: carbon + oxygen->carbon dioxide + heat + light
total mass -> total mass
Chemical compounds have definite composition
Atomic Theory

matter is composed of atoms (atom is smallest thing, nothing

smaller)
an elements atoms are identical to each other and unique to that
element
o carbon atom is a carbon atom and an oxygen atom is an
oxygen atom but they are different
chemical reaction is the rearrangement of atoms (nothing created
nor destroyed)
Dalton predicted a chemical law that had not been observed (bc only
applies to certain chemical reactions)> law of multiple proportions
Cathode ray (beam of electrons) tube: physicists in 1890s> showed
atoms can come apart; gives us modern ideas about atoms
Structures of an atom:
more details on handout
mass number, A
atomic number, Z
properties of atom determined by number of protons in the nucleus
9/11/13
Common Compounds and Ions:
Allotropes = each of two or more different physical forms in which an
element can exist. (ex: O2 diatomic oxygen and O3 still oxygen but known
as ozone)
Naming Compounds (Nomenclature)
> 70 million compounds to name

common names (trivial names)

o trivial means dont tell you what compound is made out of
o ex: water is common name for substance with molecular
formula H20; lime for CaO
systematic names:
o tell you something about the composition of the substance
o ex: water = dihydrogen monoxide; lime = calcium oxide
o *see handout
o 9/13/13
first word: cation positive ion
ous if it is lower charge
ic if it is higher charge
Stock System:
o chromium (II) and chromium (III)
o lead (II) and lead (IV)
could have lead (II) chloride
In class use stock system because it is easier but be able to
read and understand the other system with ous and ic
o naming continued
second word: anion (negative ion)
ide
monatomic
anion (negative ion)

ate
anion (negative ion)
contains oxygen
Acid
oxy-acids
o -ic acid
other acids
o hydro--ic acid

Examples:
carbon monoxide = CO
carbon dioxide = CO2
o *see table 2.4 for prefixes
ICl = iodine monochloride
N2O5= dinitrogen pentoxide
o sometimes prefixes on both first and second word
o Use prefixes if elements are close to each other on the
periodic table and not forming ionic bonds and might be
multiple options.
2.1 The Atomic Theory
5th century B.C. Democritus expressed belief that all mater
consists of very small, indivisible particles he named atomos
(uncuttable or indivisible)
1808> John Dalton (English scientist and school teacher) defined
atoms which marked the beginning of the modern era of chemistry.
Hypotheses Daltons atomic theory is based on:

o Elements are composed of extremely small particles, called

atoms
o All atoms of one element are identical (size, mass, chemical
properties), and the atoms of different elements are different
o Compounds made of atoms of more than one element. Ratio
of the numbers of atoms of any two of the elements present
is either an integer or a simple fraction.
extension of Prousts law of definite proportions
which says different samples of the same compound
always contain its constituent elements in the same
proportion by mass
law of multiple proportions = if 2 elements can
combine to form more than one compound, the masses
of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the
other element are in ratios of small whole numbers.
aka the compounds differ in the number of
atoms of each kind that combine (ex: carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide)
o Chemical reaction involves separation combination, or
rearrangement of atoms; it does not result in their creation or
destruction.
law of conservation of mass = matter can be neither
created nor destroyed
2.2 The Structure of the Atom
atom = basic unit of an element that can enter into chemical
combination
Subatomic particles:
o electron
cathode ray experiment showed that electrons are
negative because beam attracted to positive anode
plate and repelled by plate bearing negative charges
very small mass (JJ Thomson and R.A. Millikan found)
o protons
Thompsons plum pudding model was accepted
for years which says that the atom could be thought of
as a uniform, positive sphere of matter in which
electrons are embedded

image of plum pudding

another discovery about atoms:

o in 1910, Rutherford conducted gold foil experiment and
measured the scattering of alpha particles. Most of the alpha
particles passed trough with little or no deflection but a few
were deflected at wide angles or turned back completely.
Conclusion was that instead of being uniform like Thompson
thought all of the charged particles were concentrated in the
nucleus and most of the atom was empty space.
o neutrons
In 1932, James Chadwick provided proof and name for
neutrons (knew Rutherfords model had a problem
because Hydrogen and Helium should have had mass
ratio of 2:1 according to Rutherford but it was 4:1 in
reality)

Radioactivity:
o spontaneous emission of particles and/or radiation
o 3 types of rays are produced by decay of radioactive
substances:
Alpha rays (positively charged particles)
Beta rays or Beta particles (are electrons)
high energy gamma rays (no charge)

2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes:

atomic number (Z)
mass number (A)j
hydrogen in most common form has 1 proton and 0 neutrons but
every other atomic nuclei have both protons and neutrons
Isotope = same atomic number but different mass numbers. aka
different number of neutrons

chemical properties of element determined primarily by number of

protons and electrons. Neutron do not take part in chemical
changes under normal conditions. (isotopes same types of
compounds and reactivities)

2.4 The Periodic Table:

chart in which elements having similar chemical and physical
properties are grouped together.
Horizontal rows = periods= by atomic number
o from left to right physical properties gradually change from
metallic to nonmetallic
vertical columns = groups or families = similarities in chemical
properties
3 categories:
o metal > good conductor of heat and electricity
majority of known elements
o nonmental > poor conductor of heat and electricity
17 elements
o metalloid> intermediate between properties of metals and
nonmetals
8 elements
Special names:
o alkali metals> first column (excluding hydrogen)
o alkaline earth metals> 2nd column
o halogens > column to the left of noble gases beginning with
F
o Noble gases or rare gases> far right column
2.5 Molecules and Ions:
Molecules:
o of all the elements, only the 6 noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe,
Rn) exist in nature as single atoms monatomic gases Most
matter is composed of molecules or ions formed from atoms

o molecule = at least 2 atoms in a definite arrangement held

together by chemical forces (chemical bonds)
o Difference in molecule and compound:
molecule can be atoms of the same element or atoms of
different elements
Hydrogen gas
compound by definition is 2 or more elements
water
o Molecules are electrically neutral
o diatomic molecule = contains only two atoms (nitrogen,
oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine)
can contain atoms of different elements (HCl and CO)
o polyatomic molecules = molecules containing more than
two atoms (ex: water, NH3)
Ions:
o atom or a group of atoms that has a net positive or negative
charge
o ionic compound = formed from cations and anions
o monatomic ions = contain only one atom
ex: Mg2+, Fe3+, etc
o Polyatomic ions = ions containing more than one atom
ex: NH4+, OH-, etc
o
2.6 Chemical Formulas:
chemical formula = composition of molecules and ionic
compounds in terms of chemical symbols

3 types:
o molecular formula = EXACT NUMBER of atoms of each
element in the smallest unit of a substance; the true
formulas of molecules

Can not talk about molecular formula if it does not exist

as a molecule (ex: NaCl) not for ionic compounds
o empirical formula = Simplest whole number ratio of atoms
(not necessarily the actual number of atoms in a given
molecule) Relative number of atoms of each element in any
amount of compound.
reducing the subscripts in the molecular formulas
can be determined for any type compound
o structural formula= shows how atoms are bonded to one
another in a molecule (H---O---H); different types are in use.

2 models:
o Ball and stick models
balls not proportional to the size of atoms, greatly
exaggerate space between atoms in a molecule; show
3d shape
technically still structural formula
o space filling models
MORE ACCURATE; but dont show 3d shape well and
hard to put together.

Formulas of Ionic Compounds:

o usually the same as their empirical formulas
o arrangement of cations and anions is such that the
compounds are electrically neutral.
o *charges on cation and anion not shown in the formula

2.7 Naming Compounds: (image pg. 49)

3 categories:
o ionic compounds

binary compounds = formed from just 2 elements

metal cation then nonmetallic anion (ex: NaCl
sodium chloride)
anion named by adding ide
ternary compounds = consisting of 3 elements
designate different cations of the same element
with roman numerals (stock system)
o molecular compounds
usually composed of nonmetallic elements
many are binary compounds
name of first element then second element root with
ide
ex: HCl > hydrogen chloride
common for one pair of elements to form several
different compounds
CO carbon monoxide
CO2 carbon dioxide
mono (1)
di (2)
tri (3)
tetra (4)
penta (5)
hexa (6)
hepta (7)
octa (8)

nona (9)
deca (10)
guidelines with prefixes:
mono- omitted for first element
for oxides, ending a in the prefix
sometimes omitted
o ex: N2O4> dinitrogen tetroxide

o Acids
acid = substance that yields hydrogen ions (H+) when
dissolved in water
HCl
hydrogen chloride > molecular compound in
gaseous or pure liquid state
hydrochloric acid > dissolved in water molecules
break up into ions
Oxoacids = acids that contain hydrogen, oxygen, and
another element (central element)
ex: H2CO3 carbonic acid; H2SO4 sulfuric acid
usually written H central O
names all end with ic
Rules for naming 2 or more oxoacids with
different number of O atoms
add one O atom to ic acid = per-ic
acid
o ex: HClO4 perchloric acid
remove one O atom -ous acid
o ex: nitrous acid HNO2
remove two O atoms hypo -ous acid

o HBrO hypobromous acid

ic acids
H2CO3 carbonic acid
HClO3 chloric acid
HNO3 nitric acid
H3PO4 phosphoric acid
H2SO4 sulfuric acid
Oxoanions = anions of oxoacids
Rules for naming:
when all H ions removed anion ends with
ate
o ex: CO3 with neg 2 charge
(carbonate)
When all H ions removed from the ous
acid, anion ends with -ite
o ex: ClO2 (chlorite)
one or more but not all of the hydrogen ions
have been removed must indicate the
number of H ions present
See naming oxoacids and oxoanions chart on pg. 51

o Bases
substance that yields hydroxide ions when dissolved in
water
name element and then put hydroxide
ex:
NaOH Sodium hydroxide; KOH Potassium
hydroxide

o Hydrates
compounds that have a specific number of water
molecules attached to them
anhydrous means the compound no longer has water
associated with it
use prefixes to indicate how many water molecules
2.8 Introduction to Organic Compounds
hydrocarbons = contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms
alkanes = one class of hydrocarbons
all names end with ane
Chart on pg. 53 of first 10 straight-Chain Alkanes

Stoichiometry:
dictionary: the relationship between the relative quantities of
substances taking part in a reaction or forming a compound,
typically a ratio of whole integers.
atomic mass = atomic weight = means relative mass
is no units can write amu after as abbreviation
for atomic mass units
periodic table contains mean (average) of atomic
mass of all isotopes of an element
Mass of an atom:
o based on carbon-12 isotope which is assigned a mass of
exactly 12 atomic mass units (amu).
Normally we are not considered with just one atom but a compound or
molecule

Molecular weight add up to get total:

carbon dioxide = C + 2(O) = (12.0 amu) + 2(16.0 amu) = 44.0
amu
Defining the mole:
NOT the quantity represented by Avogadros number
The amount of substance that contains as many entities (whatever
you are measuring out molecules if molecular, formula weights if
working with empirical formula, atoms if you have atoms) as there
are atoms in exactly 0.012kg of C-12
o SI, 1971
Restated differently the numerousness of entities in a system
equal to that of atoms in (exactly) 0.012kg of C-12
Mole is the unit of matter;
Mass of 1 mole of 1 element and 1 mole of another element can be
very different.
9/20/13 (missed class notes from Joseph)
Avogadros number = 6.02214129 x10^23
If what you have is only the relative amount of 2 substances than all
you can figure out in the lab is the empirical formula
Memorize 6.02x10^23 for Avogadros number = NsubscriptA
1 mole definition not measurement so dont have to worry about
significant figures

9/27/13
3

types of balanced equations:

overall equations:
complete ionic equation:
net ionic equation: Generalized; you can not do directly in lab. all
reactions between strong acids and strong bases have the same net
ionic equation. (sour + bitter = salty)

CONCEPT: Balanced equations are indicating really a conservation of

mass. Matter is rearranged but conserved.

States (l, s, aq, g)> may be liquid under reaction conditions, but
label according to what it is on its own at room temperature.
chemical equation is
o 1) counting atoms (ex: 2 formula units of KCLO^3 and that
will give 2 formula units of KCL and 3 molecules of oxygen)
IONS> formula units
non ionic> molecule
o 2) measuring substance in moles (ex: 2 moles, 2 moles, and
three moles) Advantage can convert to mass using the
molar mass
o 3) measuring mass (plug in molar masses) shows that mass
is conserved!

WARNING: when doing conversions to find an answer be very careful

that you write moles that are equivalent based off the balance equation
(coefficients) and not just 1 mole.
Formula units:
empirical formula (lowest whole # ratio)

Ionic compounds do not exist as individual molecules; a formula

unit thus indicates the lowest reduced ratio of ions in the compound
if dont know if a substance is ionic or molecular can refer to
everything as formula unit. However, calling all molecules is
lying.
A unit of the formula listed (ex: NaCl)

Yields:
actual yield = in laboratory; reality; what you find
theoretical yield = equation used; not what you find in lab; mass
you SHOULD get for product if you have ____ mass of limiting
reagent
relative yield = percentage yield = (actual yield / theoretical
yield) x 100%
9/30/13
Quantitative Use of Chemical Equations
Limiting Reagent = the reactants that determines the max amount
of products that can be formed
If you dont already know which is the limiting reagent (maybe told
one is in excess) than first thing you need to find out is which one is
limiting
No matter how many reactions, only one limiting reagent;
often have excess of everything besides most expensive reagent
3.1 Atomic Mass (pg. 61)
even the smallest speck of dust that eyes cant see contains as
many as 1x10^16 atoms (God you are amazing!)
it is possible to determine the mass of one atom RELATIVE to
another atom experimentally
o Step 1: assign a value to the mass of one atom to use as a
standard

atomic mass = aka. atomic weight = the mass of an

atom in atomic mass units (amu).
one atomic mass unit = a mass exactly equal to
one twelfth the mass of one carbon-12 atom
atomic mass of C-12 is 12 amu
ex: hydrogen 8.40% as massive as carbon 12 atom so atomic must
be .0840 x 12 amu= 1.008 amu
Average Atomic Mass
o periodic table contains the average atomic mass of all
isotopes of that element (not actual atomic mass for any
atom in any of the isotopes)
multiply percent abundance of each isotope times the
atomic mass of that isotope and add up for the average.
MUCH more abundance of C-12 than C-13

3.2 Avogadros Number and the Molar Mass of an Element:

bc atoms so small it is convenient to have a special unit to describe
a very large number of atoms. Chemists measure atoms and
molecules in moles
o mole= amount of substance that contains as many
elementary entities (atoms, molecules, or other particles, as
there are atoms in exactly 12 g (or .0012 kg) of the carbon12 isotope.
actual number of atoms in 12 g of carbon-12 is
determined experimentally and called Avogadros
number. (6.022 x 10^23)
o CONCEPT: Because atoms and molecules are so tiny we need
a huge number to study them in manageable quantities.
recap:
1 mole of carbon-12:
o mass of exactly 12 g
molar mass: mass (in grams or kilograms) of 1 mole
of units (such as atoms or molecules) of a substance
molar mass of Carbon-12 (in grams) = atomic
mass in amu
ex: atom mass of Na= 22.99 amu and its molar
mass is 22.99 g (found on periodic table)
CONCEPT: If we know the atomic mass of an
element, we also know its molar mass.

in calculations, molar mass units = g/mol or

kg/mol.
o contains 6.022 x 10^23 atoms

CONCEPT: knowing the molar moss and As number we can calculate

the mass of a single atom in grams; As number can be used to convert from
the atomic mass units to mass in grams and vice versa
ex: (12 g carbon-12 atoms)/(6.022x10^23 carbon-12 atoms) =
1.993x10^-23 g
*Conversion factor b/w grams and moles is molar mass
On problems try beginning by thinking about what the molar mass is.
3.3 Molecular Mass
Molecular mass= molecular weight = in molecules formula
mass = sum of the atomic masses (in amu) in the molecule
multiply atomic masses of each element by the # of atoms of that
element and sum all elements
ex: water> 2(1.008amu) + 16.00 amu = 18.02 amu
CONCEPT: The molar mass of a compound (in grams) is numerically
equal to its molecular mass (in amu)
CONCEPT: molar mass> grams; molecular mass> amu
For ionic compounds that do not contain discrete molecular units, we
use the term formula mass
formula unit of NaCl is one Na+ ion and one Cl- ion. Formula mass
is mass of one formula unit. (amu)
3.4 The Mass Spectrometer

most direct and most accurate way to determine atomic and

molecular masses
a gaseous sample is bombarded by a stream of high energy
electrons. Collisions bw electrons and gaseous atoms (or molecules)
produce positive ions by dislodging an electron. Positive ions
accelerated by 2 oppositely charged plates as they pass through.
Emerging ions are deflected into a circular path by a magnet.
Radius depends on the charge to mass ratio. mass of each ion is
determined from the magnitude of deflection
o wider curve> smaller charge/mass ratio
o smaller curve> greater charge/mass ratio
first one developed in 1920s
amount of current (detector registers) directly proportional to the
number of ions, enables us to determine the relative abundance of
isotopes.
masses of molecules can also be determined.

3.5 Percent Composition of Compounds:

percent composition = percent by mass of each element in a
compound [(n x molar mass of element / molar mass of the
compound) x 100]
o n= number of moles of element in 1 mole of compound
o ex: water H20 has two moles of hydrogen Subscript.
Both molecular and empirical formula tell us percent composition by
mass of compound.
can check: do percentages add up to almost exactly 100?
CONCEPT: if given percent composition can find the empirical
formula; but always empirical formula!
o convenient to assume we started with 100 g
o 1) mass percent
convert to grams and divide by molar mass
o 2) moles of each element
divide by the smallest number of moles
o 3) mole ratios of elements

 change to integer subscripts

o 4) empirical formula
CONCEPT: in a chemical formula, the subscripts represent the ratio of
the number of moles of each element that combine to form one mole of the
compound.
3.6 Experimental Determination of Empirical Formulas:
1) chemical analysis tells us # of grams of each element present in
a given amount of a compound
2) convert quantities in grams to number of moles of each element
3) find empirical formula (method assuming 100g)
empirical literally means based only on observation and
measurement
Determination of Molecular Formulas:
o must know approximate molar mass
o use method assuming 100 g when given percent compositions
to find empirical formula (molecular may be same or may be
a multiple) so find the molar mass of the empirical formula
and see how it compares to the molar mass of the compound.
(ex 3.11 pg. 74)
3.7 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations:
chemical reaction = process in which a substance (or substances)
is changed into one or more new substances.
chemical equation = uses chemical symbols to show what happens
during a chemical reaction
Writing chemical equations:
o to conform with law of conservation of mass, there must be
the same number of each type of atom on both sides of the
arrow (balance equation)
o CONCEPT: ratio of the number of molecules is equal to the
ratio of the number of moles (coefficient can read to mean
either)
o reactants = starting materials in chemical reaction
o products = substance formed as a result of a chemical
reaction

o aq denotes not any liquid (l) but water environment

o Balancing formulas:
CONCEPT: changing the subscripts would change the
identity of the substance
use the simplest possible set of whole number ratios to
balance
3.8 Amounts of Reactants and Products:
Stoichiometry = quantitative study of reactants and products in a
chemical reaction
whatever unit given use moles to calculate the amount of product
formed in a reaction. (mole method = stoichiometric coefficients
in a chemical equation can be interpreted as the number of moles
of each substance)

means stoichiometrically equivalent to or equivalent to

o CONCEPT: molar mass is conversion factor between moles
and grams!
o General steps for solving a stoichiometry problem:
1) write a balanced equation for the reaction
convert the given amount of reactant in whatever unit it
is given to moles
use the mole ratio from the balanced equation to
calculate the number of moles of product formed
convert moles of product to grams (can use molar
mass) or other units of product.
o CONCEPT: 2 main useful tools are molar mass and mole ratio

3.9 Limiting Reagents

in real life, reactants are usually not present in the proportions
indicated by the balanced equation but the goal is to produce the
max quantity of a useful compound so there is frequently a large
excess of one reactant to ensure the more expensive reactant is
completely converted.
o limiting reagent = the reactant used up first in a reaction
o excess reagents = reactants present in quantities greater
than necessary to react with the quantity of the limiting
reagent.

image> men and women dancing partners

to determine which is limiting and which is excess when
given a equation take amount of moles initially (info
given to you in prob) and use equivalency of coefficients
to find moles of product. (one thats less is limiting)

3.10 Reaction Yield:

theoretical yield = amount of product that would result if all the
limiting reagent reacted (max obtainable yield predicted by the
balanced equation)
actual yield = amount of product ACTUALLY obtained from carrying
out a reaction (almost always less than theoretical)
percent yield = proportion of actual yield to theoretical yield
o % yield = (actual yield/ theoretical yield) x 100%
o temp and pressure can affect
9/30/13
Another kind of common calculation with chemical equation planning
not directly involved with stoichiometry
Rxns w/ solutions
o pure substances: masses, atomic wts --> numerousness
o solutions: volumes, concentrations -->
concentration =
amount of solute in a given amount of solution OR
in a given amount of solvent
Units: no one standard unit; could be by mass in
solution (ex: vinegar) or could be confusing like
mass and volume (i.v bags)
chemist like to make concentration mole of solute
in a given volume of solution
unit: Molar, italics M, or underlined capital
M. (amount of solute, in moles/ volume of
solution, in Liters)

o most of the time measuring in mL (a

thousand make up L)
ex: .1 M CuSO4
o means 1000 mL solution is equivalent
to .1 mole CuSO4
o half a mole would be 500 mL (.05)

Definitions:
solution = a homogenous mixture; at least 2
components and one is normally in smaller
amount
solute = substance(s) present in a smaller
amount
may be numerous solutes! They would each
have unique concentrations.
solvent = substance present in a larger amount

10/2/13
4.5 and 4.6
Planning Reactions Solutions (sans Titrations)
ity way we make nouns out of adjectives
o molar concentration or molarity

o (amount in moles of solute)/ (volume of solution in Liters)

o put line under M for unit
Dilution Calculations:
amount in moles (of solute) before dilution is always equal to
amount in moles (of solute) after dilution
Amount of solvent is what changes
amount of solute before dilution = amount of solute after dilution

4.1- 4.4 Types of Chemical Reactions> see handout instead of text

4.1 General properties of aqueous solutions
solute = substance present in a smaller amount
solvent = substance present in a larger amount
all solutes that dissolve in water fit into one of 2 categories:
o electrolytes > when dissolved in water results in solution
that can conduct electricity
acids and bases electrolytes
strong electrolytes > solute 100% dissociated into
ions in solution (compound breaks up into cations
and anions)
all ionic compounds
weak electrolytes >
o nonelectrolytes > when dissolved in water results in
solution that can NOT conduct electricity
o hydration = process in which an ion is surrounded by water
molecules arranged in a specific manner

o chemical equilibrium = a chemical state in which no change

can be observed (break up as fast as recombine)
4.2 Precipitation Reactions:
formation of insoluble product, or precipitate (solid that separates
from solution)
usually involve ionic compounds
metathesis reaction = double displacement = exchange of parts bw
two compounds
Solubility = max amount of solute that will dissolve in a given
quantity of solvent at a specific temp
Equation types:
o molecular
formulas of compounds written as though all species
existed as molecules or whole units
shows reagents but not what is actually happening in
solution
o ionic
shows dissolved species as free ions
spectator ions = ions that are not involved in the overall
reaction (appear on both sides unchanged)
o net ionic
only what actually takes part in reaction
ions that are the same on both sides removed (take out
spectator ions)
CONCEPT: when ionic compounds dissolve in water they break
apart into their component cations and anions
4.3 Acid-Base Reactions: (proton transfer processes)

Acids:
o donate H+ ions when dissolved in water
o sour taste
o react with certain metals such as zinc, magnesium, and iron
to produce hydrogen gas
o aqueous acid solutions conduct electricity
Bases
o bitter
o slippery
Bronsteds definitions do not require acid or base to be in aqueous
solution
neutralization reaction> acid and base
generally acid/ base reactions produce a salt

4.4 Oxidation- Reduction Reactions (electron transfer reactions)

redox = a process in which one substance or molecule is reduced
and another oxidized; oxidation and reduction considered together
as complimentary processes: redox reactions involve electron
transfer.
oxidation = loss of electrons
reduction = gain of electrons
o OIL RIG (oxidation is loss reduction is gain)
reducing agent = donates electrons
oxidizing agent = accepts electrons (causing element it accepts
from to be oxidized)
Common Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
o Combination

 = 2 or more combine to form a single product

o Decomposition
= breakdown of a compound into components
o Combustion
= substance reacts with oxygen, usually with the
release of heat and light to produce a flame
all redox
o Displacement (replacement)
= ion (or atom) in a compound is replaced by an ion (or
atom) of another element
hydrogen, metal, and halogen
o Exchange
positive and negative ions switch places
4.5 Concentration of Solutions
concentration of solution = amount of solute present in a given
amount of solvent or a given amount of solution
molarity (M) = molar concentration = number of moles of solute
per liter of solution (solution not solvent)
o depends on temp
o unit: moles/ liter
Dilution of Solutions:
o procedure for preparing a less concentrated solution from a
more concentrated one
o (moles of solute b4)(volume of solution initially) = (moles of
solute after dilution)(volume of solution finally)

Started Thermo (heat) dynamics (motion) the movement or

motion of heat.
Now study of movement of all kinds of energy