THESCAFFOLDINGOFRHETORIC

November1897
ByWinstonS.Churchill
WinstonS.Churchill,renewalcopyright2000

[Thisarticlewasneverpublished,thoughsomeoftheideasitcontainedwereincorporatedin
Savrola,thenovelWSCwaswriting.]

fromearliestantiquityhaveappealedto
Ofallthetalentsbestoweduponmen,none
issopreciousasthegiftoforatory.He
menwillcontinuetoinfluencetheiractions.
whoenjoysitwieldsapowermoredurable
Thesentimentalandemotionalpartsofthe
thanthatofagreatking.Heisan
humanmindwillevenderivenewvigour
fromthespreadofeducationandthe
independentforceintheworld.
easinessofintercourse.Nordoesthis
Abandonedbyhisparty,betrayedbyhis
beliefdependonspeculationalone.The
friends,strippedofhisoffices,whoevercan
peopleoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaare
commandthispowerisstillformidable.
morehighlyeducatedthananyothergreat
Manyhavewatcheditseffects.Ameeting
ofgravecitizens,protectedbyallthe
communityintheworld.Whatevercan
cynicismoftheseprosaicdays,isunableto
addtotheimprovementoftheindividual
whetherbymaterialinventionsorpolitical
resistitsinfluence.Fromunresponsive
institutionsistherefoundingreater
silencetheyadvancetogrudgingapproval
proportionthanelsewhere.Innocountry
andthencetocompleteagreementwith
doessogreatavolumeofeducatedpublic
thespeaker.Thecheersbecomelouder
opinionexistandyetinnocountryisthe
andmorefrequent;theenthusiasm
momentarilyincreases;untiltheyare
influenceoforatorysomarked.
convulsedbyemotionstheyareunableto

controlandshakenbypassionsofwhich
Thenatureofsogreatandpermanenta
theyhaveresignedthedirection.
forcemaywellclaimandhasoften
receivedcarefulinvestigation.Isitbornor

acquired?Doesitworkforgoodorill?Isit
Itishoweverfreelywrittenandfrequently
realorartificial?Sucharethequestions
remarkedthatthedayoforatoryispassing.
thatphilosophersfromthedaysofAristotle
Thenewspaperreportandthegrowing
knowledgeofmenhave,itissaid,ledto
haverevolved.Nordotheyremain
thedeclineofrhetoric.Nownorhetorician
unanswered.Andyet,withrespecttothe
wouldbelikelytoadmitthathisarthadlost
oratoryoftheEnglishspeakingpeoples,
thereisroomforfurtherinquiry.Itappears
itspowers,andifthispropositionbe
thattherearecertainelementsinherentin
generallyaffirmed,theconclusionfollows
allrhetoric:thattherearecertainfeatures
thatthereareatpresentnoorators.Butit
commontoallthefinestspeechesinthe
bynomeansfollowsthatthefuturewillbe
equallybarren.Therewasonceapartyin
Englishlanguage.Inpaintingpartly
thestatethatthoughtthatthepowerof
mechanicalarrangementsofcolourgive
personalityinpoliticswasathingofthe
pleasuretotheeye.Inmusiccertain
combinationsofchordsanddiscordsare
past,thattookasamotto'Measuresnot
agreeabletotheear.Andtheartoforatory
Men',andforthwithproceededtoblindly
hasalsoits'values'andits'thoroughbase':
followagreatmanforthirtyyears.Human
andthisitistheambitiousaimofthis
weaknessappearstobeoneofthefew
unvaryingfeaturesoflifeandweare
articletoexamine.
convincedthatthoseprimaryforceswhich

ReprintedbyPermissionofMr.WinstonS.Churchill

Astheanalysisproceedsweshallobserve
thatrhetoricalpowerisneitherwholly
bestowednorwhollyacquired,but
cultivated.Thepeculiartemperamentand
talentsoftheoratormustbehisbynature.
Theirdevelopmentisencouragedby
practice.Theoratorisreal.Therhetoricis
partlyartificial.Partly,butnotwholly;for
thenatureoftheartististhespiritofhis
art,andmuchthatappearstobetheresult
ofstudyisduetoinstinct.Ifweexamine
thisstrangebeingbythelightofhistorywe
shalldiscoverthatheisincharacter
sympathetic,sentimentalandearnest:that
heisoftenaseasilyinfluencedbyothersas
othersarebyhim.Indeedtheoratoristhe
embodimentofthepassionsofthe
multitude.Beforehecaninspirethemwith
anyemotionhemustbeswayedbyit
himself.Whenhewouldrousetheir
indignationhisheartisfilledwithanger.
Beforehecanmovetheirtearshisown
mustflow.Toconvincethemhemust
himselfbelieve.Hisopinionsmaychange
astheirimpressionsfade,buteveryorator
meanswhathesaysatthemomenthesays
it.Hemaybeofteninconsistent.Heis
neverconsciouslyinsincere.

Thedominionofmatterovermindher
rebelliousslave,isinthisstateofhuman
developmentalmostabsolute:norcanwe
proceedwiththisinquirywithoutbriefly
consideringtheindispensablephysical
attributesoftheorator.Firstofalla
strikingpresenceisanecessity.Often
small,uglyordeformedheisinvestedwith
apersonalsignificance,whichvaryingin
everycasedefiesdefinition.Sometimesa
slightandnotunpleasingstammeror
impedimenthasbeenofsomeassistancein
securingtheattentionoftheaudience,but
usuallyaclearandresonantvoicegives
expressionofhisthoughts.

Thedirect,thoughnottheadmitted,object
whichtheoratorhasinviewistoallaythe
commonplaceinfluencesandcritical

facultiesofhisaudience,bypresentingto
theirimaginationsaseriesofvivid
impressionswhicharereplacedbeforethey
canbetoocloselyexaminedandvanish
beforetheycanbeassailed.Thefollowing
appeartobethesixprincipalelementsby
whichthisobjectisattained.

I.Correctnessofdiction.Knowledgeofa
languageismeasuredbytheniceandexact
appreciationofwords.Thereisnomore
importantelementinthetechniqueof
rhetoricthanthecontinualemploymentof
thebestpossibleword.Whateverpartof
speechitisitmustineachcaseabsolutely
expressthefullmeaningofthespeaker.It
willleavenoroomforalternatives.Words
existinvirtueofnoarbitraryrulebuthave
beenevolvedbythetasteandexperience
ofmankindandtheinstinctoflanguageis
implantedverydeeplyinthehuman
character.Therearefewaudiencesso
ignorantastobeincapableofadmiring
correctdictionforeveniftheyhavenever
heardthewordbeforetheywill,ifitbe
rightlyusedunderstanditsmeaning.The
Scotchhavebeendescribedasa'sternand
dour'folk.'Dour'isarareanduncommon
word:butwhatelsecoulditconveytothe
AngloSaxonmindthanthecharacterofthe
peopleofacold,greyland,severe,just,
thriftyandreligious.Sopowerfulindeedis
thefascinationofcorrectexpressionthatit
notonlyinfluencestheaudience,but
sometimeseveninducestheorator,
withoutprejudicetohissincerity,toadapt
hisprinciplestohisphrases.

Theunreflectingoftenimaginethatthe
effectsoforatoryareproducedbytheuse
oflongwords.Theerrorofthisideawill
appearfromwhathasbeenwritten.The
shorterwordsofalanguageareusuallythe
moreancient.Theirmeaningismore
ingrainedinthenationalcharacterandthey
appealwithgreaterforcetosimple
understandingsthanwordsrecently
introducedfromtheLatinandtheGreek.

ReprintedbyPermissionofMr.WinstonS.Churchill

AllthespeechesofgreatEnglish
rhetoriciansexceptwhenaddressinghighly
culturedaudiencesdisplayanuniform
preferenceforshort,homelywordsof
commonusagesolongassuchwordscan
fullyexpresstheirthoughtsandfeelings.It
sufficestomentionasafamousexample
thenameofJohnBright.Indeedthegreat
sayingsofmostcountrieshavebeen
expressedinaboriginalwords.'Wir
fuerchtenalleinGott'saidBismarck,and
therebygaveanimpulsetotheGerman
nationwhichhasnotyetdiedaway.What
canbemoresimple?Thewordsemployed
areallamongthosethatthehumanmind
wouldearliestevolve.

II.Rhythm.Thegreatinfluenceofsound
onthehumanbrainiswellknown.The
sentencesoftheoratorwhenheappealsto
hisartbecomelong,rollingandsonorous.
Thepeculiarbalanceofthephrases
producesacadencewhichresemblesblank
verseratherthanprose.Itwouldbeeasy
tomultiplyexamplessincenearlyevery
famousperorationintheEnglishlanguage
mightbequoted.Weprefertoalludeonly
totheopeninglinesofDrJohnson's
'Rasselas'asaremarkableinstanceof
correctnessofdictionandrhythmwhichin
aspeechcouldnothavefailedtoproducea
tremendouseffectuponanaudience.

III.AccumulationofArgument.Theclimax
oforatoryisreachedbyarapidsuccession
ofwavesofsoundandvividpictures.The
audienceisdelightedbythechanging
scenespresentedtotheirimagination.
Theirearistickledbytherhythmofthe
language.Theenthusiasmrises.Aseries
offactsisbroughtforwardallpointingina
commondirection.Theendappearsin
viewbeforeitisreached.Thecrowd
anticipatetheconclusionandthelast
wordsfallamidathunderofassent.

IV.Analogy.Theaffectionofthemindfor
argumentbyanalogymayaffordafertile

themetothecynicalphilosopher.The
ambitionofhumanbeingstoextendtheir
knowledgefavoursthebeliefthatthe
unknownisonlyanextensionofthe
known:thattheabstractandtheconcrete
areruledbysimilarprinciples:thatthe
finiteandtheinfinitearehomogeneous.
Anaptanalogyconnectsorappearsto
connectthesedistantspheres.Itappeals
totheeverydayknowledgeofthehearer
andinviteshimtodecidetheproblemsthat
havebaffledhispowersofreasonbythe
standardofthenurseryandtheheart.
Argumentbyanalogyleadstoconviction
ratherthantoproof,andhasoftenledto
glaringerror.

Inspiteoftheargumentsofthecynicthe
influenceexercisedoverthehumanmind
byaptanalogiesisandhasalwaysbeen
immense.Whethertheytranslatean
establishedtruthintosimplelanguageor
whethertheyadventurouslyaspireto
revealtheunknown,theyareamongthe
mostformidableweaponsofthe
rhetorician.Theeffectuponthemost
cultivatedaudienceiselectrical.

V.They(Frontierwars)arebutthesurfthat
markstheedgeandadvanceofthewaveof
civilisation.

(LordSalisbury.Guildhall.)
referenceDate?

OurruleinIndiais,asitwere,asheetof
oilspreadoverandkeepingfreefrom
stormsavastandprofoundoceanof
humanity.

(LordRandolphChurchill.)
reference?

Astrongnationmaynomorebe
confidingofitslibertiesthanapure
womanofherhonour.

ReprintedbyPermissionofMr.WinstonS.Churchill


(BishopofDerry.AlbertHall,1892)

....whose(Wilke'scompanions)morals
wereinnomoredangerofbeing
corruptedbyaloosebookthananegro
ofbeingtannedbyawarmsun.

(LordMacaulay.EssayontheEarlof
Chatham.)

Itisimpossibletoimagineanyformof
argumentthatcouldkeepthefieldin
thefaceoftheseorsimilaranalogies.
Onesuchwillmakeaspeechormara
measure.

VI.Atendencytowildextravaganceof
languagetoextravagancesowildthat
reasonrecoilsisevidentinmost
perorations.Theemotionsofthe
speakerandthelistenersarealike
arousedandsomeexpressionmustbe
foundthatwillrepresentalltheyare
feeling.Thisusuallyembodiesinan
extremeformtheprinciplestheyare
supporting.ThusMrPittwishingto
eulogisethefreedompossessedby
Englishmen:

'Thepoorestmanmayinhiscottagebid
defiancetoalltheforcesoftheCrown.
Itmaybefrail;itsroofmayshake:the
windmayblowthroughit;thestorms
mayenter,therainmayenterbutthe
KingofEnglandcannotenter!Allhis
forcesdarenotcrossthethresholdof
theruinedtenement.

(EarlofChatham.SpeechontheExcise
Bill.)

orMrBryananxioustodisplaythe
superiorityofasilveroveragold
standard:

Youshallnotpressacrownofthorns
uponthebrowoflabourorcrucify
humanityonacrossofgold.

(MrBryan.Speech.1896.)

Theeffectofsuchextravagancesona
politicalstruggleistremendous.They
becomethewatchwordsofpartiesand
thecreedsofnationalities.Butupon
theaudiencetheeffectistoreduce
pressureaswhenasafetyvalveis
opened.Theirfeelingsaremorethan
adequatelyexpressed.Their
enthusiasmhasboiledover.Theorator
whowishedtoincitehisaudiencetoa
deedofviolencewouldfollowhis
accumulativeargument,hisrhythmical
periods,hisvividwordpictures,bya
moderateandreasonableconclusion.
Thecoolingdrinkwillbewithheldfrom
thethirstyman.Thesafetyvalveswill
bescreweddownandthepeoplewillgo
outintothenighttofindtheexpression
oftheirfeelingsforthemselves.Buta
fortunatecircumstanceprotectssociety
fromthisdanger.Themanwhocan
inspirethecrowdbywords,isaswe
havealreadyobserved,undertheir
influencehimself.Norcanheresistthe
desiretoexpresshisopinionsinan
extremeformortocarryhisargument
totheculmination.Butforthiscunning
counterpoiserhetoricwouldlongsince
havebeenadjudgedacrime.

Weconceivethatbythisanalysiswe
havedisplayedtheprincipalelementof
Englishoratory.Sodetailedand
disconnectedanexaminationofthe

ReprintedbyPermissionofMr.WinstonS.Churchill

structurefavourstheimpressionthat
rhetoricistoberegardedasanartificial
science,whichmaybeacquiredbyany
whopossessthephysicalqualifications.
Experienceshowsthatthisconclusion
wouldbeincorrect.Throughoutthe
countryaremenwhospeakwelland
fluently,whodevoteopportunity,talent
andperseverancetoimprovingtheir
speakingandyetneverdeservetobe
calledorators.Thesubtleartof
combiningthevariouselementsthat
separatelymeannothingand
collectivelymeansomuchinan
harmoniousproportionisknowntoa

veryfew.Norcaniteverbeimparted
bythemtoothers.Natureguardsher
secretswellandstopsthemouthsof
thoseinwhomsheconfides.Butasthe
Chemistdoesnotdespairofultimately
bridgingthechasmbetweenthe
organicandtheinorganicandof
creatingthelivingmicrocosmfromits
primordialelements,sothestudentof
rhetoricmayindulgethehopethat
Naturewillfinallyyieldtoobservation
andperseverance,thekeytothehearts
ofmen.

ReprintedbyPermissionofMr.WinstonS.Churchill