Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
IN
SIGNAL ENGINEERING AND TELECOMMUNICATION
NCR, LUCKNOW DIVISION, KANPUR CENTRAL
PROJECT GUIDE:
SUBMITTED TO:
A.D.S.T.E/CNB
S.S.E TELECOMMUNICATION
KANPUR CENTRAL (NCR)
LUCKNOW DIVISION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The opportunity given to us by Indian Railways to learn and study about their signaling and
communication techniques over local area network and their state of the art devices and
telecommunication devices like modems, routers, batteries and their optical fiber network
splicing techniques will make a real difference in our engineering aptitude, knowledge and
abilities.
I would like to thank all those who helped me by giving their valuable thoughts and information
without which it would have been difficult for me to complete this project I am obliged and
honoured in expressing the deep sense of gratitude to my training instructor Mr. R.K. Shukla,
S.S.E (TELE.) of Kanpur Central for his helpful guidance and suggestion at every stage of this
report.
ii
ABSTRACT
This report takes a pedagogical stance in demonstrating how results from theoretical
computer science may be applied to yield significant insight into the behavior of the devices
computer systems engineering practice seeks to put in place, and that this is immediately
attainable with the present state of the art.
The focus for this detailed study is provided by the type of solid state signaling and
various communication systems currently being deployed throughout mainline railways. Safety
and system reliability concerns dominate in this domain. With such motivation, two issues are
tackled: the special problem of software quality assurance in these data-driven control systems,
and the broader problem of design dependability. In the former case, the analysis is directed
towards proving safety properties of the geographic data which encode the control logic for the
railway interlocking; the latter examines the fidelity of the communication protocols upon which
the distributed control system depends.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 ABOUT INDIAN RAILWAYS
14
17
22
2.5 MULTIPLEXING
24
26
29
30
31
32
CHAPTER 3 NETWORKING
3.1 LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
37
37
37
38
42
42
42
iv
43
46
47
49
5.2 ISDN
51
52
53
54
55
55
56
58
60
61
62
62
63
BIBLIOGRAPHY
65
CONCLUSION
66
1. INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1
vi
Indian Railways have their research and development wing in the form of Research,
Designs and Standard Organization (RDSO). RDSO functions as the technical advisor and
consultant to the Ministry, Zonal Railways and Production Units.
measures such as line capacity augmentation on certain critical sectors and modernization of
signaling system and increase in roller bearing equipped wagons. Indian Railways make huge
revenue and most of its profits are from the freight sector and uses these profits to augment the
loss-making passenger sector.
Here, it is important to note that computerization of freight operations --- Freight
Operations Information System (FOIS) has been achieved with the implementation of Rake
Management System.
ix
been signed between Railways and State governments of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Jharkhand,
efficiency, technical skill, commercial enterprise and resourcefulness. Today the Indian Railway
(IR) is one of the most specialized industries of the world.
sections of this railway service, the Neals Token System has been used ever since the train was
inaugurated. The train guards exchange pouches containing small brass discs with staff on the
stations en route. The train driver then puts these discs into special machines, which alert the signals
ahead of their approach. The Darjeeling toy trains, the Matheran toy train from Neral to Matheran,
the Nilgiri Blue Mountain Railway are other engineering marvels running on routes designed and
built by the British. Trains like the Deccan Queen from Bombay to Secunderabad and the Grand
Trunk Express from Delhi to Madras are some other prominent trains initiated by the British. With
the advancement in the railway system, electrifying railway lines began side by side, and it was in
1925, that the first electric train ran over a distance of 16 km from Victoria Terminus to Kurala.
be possible in India, so all spare parts including nuts and bolts for locomotives would have to be
imported from England. More trains and routes are constantly being added to the railway
network and services. The British legacy lives on in our railway system, transformed but never
forgotten. Long live the Romance of the Rails! The network of lines has grown to about 62,000
kilometers. But, the variety of Indian Railways is infinite. It still has the romantic toy trains on
narrow gauge hill sections, meter gauge beauties on other and broad gauge bonanzas as one visits
places of tourist interest courtesy Indian Railways! They are an acknowledgement of the
Railways that tourism as an industry has to be promoted and that India is full of unsurpassed
beauty. The Calcutta Metro is a fine example of highly complex engineering techniques being
adopted to lay an underground railway in the densely built-up areas of Calcutta city. It is a treat
to be seen. The Calcuttans keep it so clean and tidy that not a paper is thrown around! It only
proves the belief that a man grows worthy of his superior possessions. Calcutta is also the only
city where the Metro Railway started operating from September 27, 1995 over a length of 16.45
km. There is also a Circular Railway from Dum Dum to Princep Ghats covering 13.50 km to
provide commuter trains.
In time of war and natural disasters, the railways play a major role. Whether it was the
earthquake of 1935 in Quetta (now in Pakistan) or more recently in Latur in Maharashtra, it is the
railways that muster their strength to carry the sick and wounded to hospitals in nearby towns
and to the people of the affected areas. In rehabilitation and reconstruction, too, their role is vital.
During the Japanese war, the Indian Railways added further laurels to their record as they
extended the railway line right up to Ledo in the extreme northeastern part of Assam and thus
enabled the Allied forces under General Stillwell to combat the Japanese menace. In fact, several
townships in Assam like Margherita and Digboi owe their origin to the endeavors of the Indian
Railways. It was the Assam Railway and Trading Company that opened up the isolated regions
of Assam with the laying of the railway lines and thus providing the lifeline to carry coal, tea,
and timber out of the area and bring other necessary commodities to Assam and the adjoining
countryside. Now, the Indian Railways system is divided into 9 zonal railways, a metro railway,
Calcutta, the production units, construction organizations, and other railway establishments.
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medium
thereby
for
electromagnetic
revolutionizing
terrestrial
xiv
CHAPTER 2
1 st Window 850 nm allows cheap LEDs to operate over reasonable distances (km)
2 nd Window 1300nm more expensive LEDs and Lasers operate over longer distances
(10s of Km). Fiber attenuation at this level is less than at 850nm
xv
Multimode optical fibers are dielectric waveguides which can have many propagation modes.
Light in these modes follows paths that can be represented by rays as shown in Figure 1-1a and 1-1b,
where regions 1, 2 and 3 are the core, cladding and coating, respectively. The cladding glass has a
refractive index, a parameter related to the dielectric constant, which is slightly lower tha n the refractive
index of the core glass.
angle will be partially reflected and partially transmitted out through the boundary towards the
cladding and coating. After many such reflections, the energy in these rays will eventually be
lost from the fibre. Region 3, the coating, is a plastic which protects the glass from abrasion.
The paths along which the rays (modes) of this step-index fibre travel differ depending on
their angle relative to the axis. As a result, the different modes in a pulse arrive at the far end of
the fibre at different times, resulting in pulse spreading, which limits the bit rate of a digital
signal that can be transmitted.
The different mode velocities can be nearly equalized by using a graded-index fibre as
shown in Figure 1-1b. Here the refractive index changes smoothly from the centre out in a way
that causes the end-to-end travel time of the different rays to be nearly equal, even though they
traverse different paths. This velocity equalization can reduce pulse spreading by a factor of 100
or more. By reducing the core diameter and the refractive index difference between the core and
the cladding only one mode (the fundamental one) will propagate and the fibre is then singlemode (Figure 1-1c). In this case there is no pulse spreading at all due to the different
propagation time of the various modes.
The cladding diameter is 125 m for all the telecommunication types of fibres. The core
diameter of the multimode fibres is 50 m, whereas that of the single-mode fibres is 8 to 10 m.
xvii
A protective coating is applied to the glass fiber as the final step in the manufacturing
process. This coating protects the glass from dust and scratches that can affect fiber strength.
This protective coating can be comprised of two layers: a soft inner layer that cushions the fiber
and allows the coating to be stripped from the glass mechanically and a harder outer layer that
protects the fiber during handling, particularly the cabling, installation, and termination
processes.
Multimode fiber was the first type of fiber to be commercialized. It has a much larger
core than single-mode fiber, allowing hundreds of modes of light to propagate through the fiber
simultaneously. Additionally, the larger core diameter of multimode fiber facilitates the use of
lower-cost optical transmitters (such as light emitting diodes [LEDs] or vertical cavity surface
emitting lasers [VCSELs]) and connectors.
Single-mode fiber, on the other hand, has a much smaller core that allows only one mode
of light at a time to propagate through the core. While it might appear that multimode fibers have
higher capacity, in fact the opposite is true. Singlemode fibers are designed to maintain spatial
and spectral integrity of each optical signal over longer distances, allowing more information to
be transmitted. Its tremendous information-carrying capacity and low intrinsic loss have made
single-mode fiber the ideal transmission medium for a multitude of applications. Single-mode
fiber is typically used for longer-distance and higher-bandwidth applications (see Figure 3).
Multimode fiber is used primarily in systems with short transmission distances (under 2 km),
such as premises communications, private data networks, and parallel optic applications.
xviii
performance
include
the
following:
fiber curl: the amount of curvature over a fixed length of fiber These
parameters are determined and controlled during the fiber-manufacturing
process. As fiber is cut and spliced according to system needs, it is important to
xix
be able to count on consistent geometry along the entire length of the fiber and
between fibers and not to rely solely on measurements made.
xx
2.2.5 Attenuation
Attenuation is the reduction of signal strength or light power over the length of the lightcarrying medium. Fiber attenuation is measured in decibels per kilometer (dB/km). Optical fiber
offers superior performance over other transmission media because it combines high bandwidth
with low attenuation. This allows signals to be transmitted over longer distances while using
fewer regenerators or amplifiers, thus reducing cost and improving signal reliability.
Attenuation of an optical signal varies as a function of wavelength (see Figure 9).
Attenuation is very low, as compared to other transmission media (i.e., copper, coaxial cable,
etc.), with a typical value of 0.35 dB/km at 1300 nm for standard single-mode fiber. Attenuation
at 1550 nm is even lower, with a typical value of 0.25 dB/km. This gives an optical signal,
transmitted through fiber, the ability to travel more than 100 km without regeneration or
amplification. Attenuation is caused by several different factors, but primarily scattering and
absorption. The scattering of light from molecular level irregularities in the glass structure leads
to the general shape of the attenuation curve (see Figure 9). Further attenuation is caused by light
absorbed by residual materials, such as metals or water ions, within the fiber core and inner
cladding. It is these water ions that cause the water peak region on the attenuation curve,
typically around 1383 nm. The removal of water ions is of particular interest to fiber
manufacturers as this water peak region has a broadening effect and contributes to attenuation
loss for nearby wavelengths. Some manufacturers now offer low water peak single-mode fibers,
which offer additional bandwidth and flexibility compared with standard single-mode fibers.
Light leakage due to bending, splices, connectors, or other outside forces are other factors
resulting in attenuation.
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2.2.6 Dispersion
Dispersion is the time distortion of an optical signal that results from the time o flight
differences of different components of that signal, typically resulting in pulse broadening (see
Figure 10). In digital transmission, dispersion limits the maximum data rate, the maximum
distance, or the information-carrying capacity of a single-mode fiber link. In analog
transmission, dispersion can cause a waveform to become significantly distorted and can result in
unacceptable levels of composite second-order distortion (CSO).
nature of transmission paths affected by atmospheric effects such as fog and rain. In 1791,
Chappe from France developed the semaphore for telecommunication on land. But that was also
with limited information transfer.
In 1835, Samuel Morse invented the telegraph and the era of electrical communications
started throughout the world. The use of wire cables for the transmission of Morse coded signals
was implemented in 1844. In 1872, Alexander Graham Bell proposed the photo phone with a
diaphragm giving speech transmission over a distance of 200 m. But within four years, Graham
Bell had changed the photophone into telephone using electrical current for transmission of
speech signals. In 1878, the first telephone exchange was installed at New Haven. Meanwhile,
Hertz discovered radio waves in 1887. Marconi demonstrated radio communication without
using wires in 1895. Using modulation techniques, the signals were transmitted over a long
distance using radio waves and microwaves as the carrier.
During the middle of the twentieth century, it was realized that an increase of several
orders of magnitude of bit rate distance product would be possible if optical waves were used as
the carrier.
In the old optical communication system, the bit rate distance product is only about 1
(bit/s)-km due to enormous transmission loss (105 to 107 dB/km). The information carrying
capacity of telegraphy is about hundred times lesser than a telephony. Even though the highspeed coaxial systems were evaluated during 1975, they had smaller repeater spacing.
Microwaves are used in modern communication systems with the increased bit rate distance
product. However, a coherent optical carrier like laser will have more information carrying
capacity. So the communication engineers were interested in optical communication using lasers
in an effective manner from 1960 onwards. A new era in optical communication started after the
invention of laser in 1960 by Maiman. The light waves from the laser, a coherent source of light
waves having high intensity, high monochromaticity and high directionality with less
divergence, are used as carrier waves capable of carrying large amount of information compared
with radio waves and microwaves. Subsequently H M Patel, an Indian electrical engineer
designed and fabricated a CO2 laser.
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xxiv
Table 2 shows the different generations of optical fiber communication. In generation I, mostly
GaAs based LEDs and laser diodes having emission wavelength 0.8 micrometer were used from
1974 to 1978, graded index multimode fibers were used. From 1978 onwards, only single mode
fibers are used for long distance communication. During the second generation the operating
wavelength is shifted to 1.3 micrometer to overcome loss and dispersion. Further InGaAsP
hetero-junction laser diodes are used as optical sources. In the third generation the operating
wavelength is further shifted to 1.55 micrometer m and the dispersion-shifted fibers are used.
Further single mode direct detection is adopted. In the fourth generation erbium doped optical
(fiber) amplifiers are fabricated and the whole transmission and reception are performed only in
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the optical domain. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is introduced to increase the bit
rate. In the proposed next generation (V generation), soliton based lossless and dispersion less
optical fiber communication will become a reality. At that time, the data rate may increase
beyond 1000 Tb/s.
xxvi
5. Small size and weight: Fiber optic cables are developed with small radii, and they are flexible,
compact and lightweight. The fiber cables can be bent or twisted without damage. Further, the
optical fiber cables are superior to the copper cables in terms of storage, handling, installation
and transportation, maintaining comparable strength and durability.
xxvii
xxviii
2.5 MULTIPLEXING
The purpose of multiplexing is to share the bandwidth of a single transmission channel among
several users. Two multiplexing methods are commonly used in fiber optics:
1. Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
2. Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)
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xxx
Fiber optic sources must operate in the low-loss transmission windows of glass fiber.
LEDs are typically used at the 850-nm and 1310-nm transmission wavelengths, whereas lasers
are primarily used at 1310 nm and 1550 nm.
LEDs are typically used in lower-data-rate, shorter-distance multimode systems because of their
inherent bandwidth limitations and lower output power. They are used in applications in which
data rates are in the hundreds of megahertz as opposed to GHz data rates associated with lasers.
Two basic structures for LEDs are used in fiber optic systems: surface-emitting and edge
emitting
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In surface-emitting LEDs the radiation emanates from the surface. An example of this is
the Burris diode as shown in Figure 8-21. LEDs typically have large numerical apertures, which
makes light coupling into single-mode fiber difficult due to the fibers small N.A. and core
diameter. For this reason LEDs are most often used with multimode fiber. LEDs are used in
lower-data-rate, shorter-distance multimode systems because of their inherent bandwidth
limitations and lower output power. The output spectrum of a typical LED is about 40 nm, which
limits its performance because of severe chromatic dispersion. LEDs operate in a more linear
fashion than do laser diodes. This makes them more suitable for analog modulation. Figure 8-22
shows a graph of typical output power versus drive current for LEDs and laser diodes. Notice
that the LED has a more linear output power, which makes it more suitable for analog
modulation. Often these devices are pigtailed, having a fiber attached during the manufacturing
process. Some LEDs are available with connector-ready housings that allow a connectorized
fiber to be directly attached. They are also relatively inexpensive. Typical applications are local
area networks, closed-circuit TV, and transmitting information in areas where EMI may be a
problem.
Laser
diodes
(LD)
are
used
in
spectral width, it can provide high-bandwidth communication over long distances. The LDs
smaller N.A. also allows it to be more effectively coupled with single-mode fiber. The difficulty
with LDs is that they are inherently nonlinear, which makes analog transmission more difficult.
They are also very sensitive to fluctuations in temperature and drive current, which causes their
output wavelength to drift. In applications such as wavelength division multiplexing in which
several wavelengths are being transmitted down the same fiber, the stability of the source
becomes critical. This usually requires complex circuitry and feedback mechanisms to detect and
correct for drifts in wavelength. The benefits, however, of high-speed transmission using LDs
typically outweigh the drawbacks and added expense.
Laser diodes can be divided into two generic types depending on the method of confinement of
the lasing mode in the lateral direction.
Gain-guided laser diodes work by controlling the width of the drive-current distribution;
this limits the area in which lasing action can occur. Because of different confinement
mechanisms in the lateral and vertical directions, the emitted wavefront from these
devices has a different curvature in the two perpendicular directions. This astigmatism in
the output beam is one of the unique properties of laser-diode sources. Gain-guided
injection laser diodes usually emit multiple longitudinal modes and sometimes multiple
transverse modes. The optical spectrum of these devices ranges up to about 2 nm in
width, thereby limiting their coherence length.
Index-guided laser diodes use refractive index steps to confine the lasing mode in both
the transverse and vertical directions. Index guiding also generally leads to both single
transverse mode and single longitudinal-mode behavior. Typical linewidths are on the
order of 0.01 nm. Index-guided lasers tend to have less difference between the two
perpendicular divergence angles than do gain-guided lasers.
Single-frequency
laser
diodes
are
another
(Figure). With introduction of a corrugated structure into the cavity of the laser, only light of a
very specific wavelength is diffracted and allowed to oscillate. This yields output wavelengths
that are extremely narrowa characteristic required for DWDM systems in which many closely
spaced wavelengths are transmitted through the same fiber. Distributed-feedback lasers have
been developed to emit light at fiber optic communication wavelengths between 1300 nm and
1550 nm.
The most commonly used photo detectors are the PIN and avalanche photodiodes (APD).
The material composition of the device determines the wavelength sensitivity. In general, silicon
devices are used for detection in the visible portion of the spectrum; InGaAs crystal are used in
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the near-infrared portion of the spectrum between 1000 nm and 1700 nm, and germanium PIN
and APDs are used between 800 nm and 1500 nm.
Reconfigurable
add/drop
multiplexers
the
network
bandwidth
to
be
xxxv
At the lowest, physical layer, the network is mainly static, point-to-point links.
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xxxvii
Fusion Splicing
Mechanical Splicing
Figure Fusion
Splicing
Fusion Splicer
xxxviii
In fusion splicing the ends of the fibres are aligned either manually using micromanipulators and a microscope system for viewing the splice, or automatically either using
cameras or by measuring the light transmitted through the splice and adjusting the positions of
the fibres to optimise the transmission The ends of the fibres are then melted together using a gas
flame or more commonly an electric arc. Near perfect splices can be obtained with losses as low
as 0.02 dB (best mechanical splice 0.2 dB)
One of the systems in top of the range fusion splicers is called a Profile Alignment
System (PAS). This system uses a TV camera to view the splice before it is fused. The image is
sent to a microcomputer inside the splicer which is programmed to recognise when the cores of
the two fibres form a continuous straight line. An adjustment is made to bring the fibres form a
continuous straight line. An adjustment is made to bring the fibres into alignment in that plane.
The camera then moves to a new position to view the splice in an orthogonal plane. The same
process aligns the fibres in this plane too. The camera then goes back to the original view and
starts to make fine adjustments in that plane. It goes to the second plane and makes fine
adjustments in that plane too. This goes on until the alignment is as close as possible. At this
point the arc is fired and the heat form the arc melts the fibres together locally.
fibres have been entered into the splice they are adjusted to give the optimum transmission of
light. At this point they are clamped in position and the whole assembly is exposed to ultra-violet
light which cures the cement.
High Reliability
Repeatable
Permanent
Flexible
Simple
COST
Clean Fibre
Strip Fibre
xl
Clean Fibre
Cleave Fibre
Fuse Fiber
When preparing the work area make sure you have the following items:
Fusion Splicer
Precision Cleaver
Cinbin
Miller Strippers
Splice Protectors
xli
3. NETWORKING
CHAPTER 3
created in the late 1970s and used to create high speed links between several large central computers
at one site. Of many competing systems created at this time, Ethernet and ARCNET were the most
popular.
The growth of CP/M and then DOS based personal computer meant that a single site began to
have dozens or even hundreds of computers. The initial attraction of networking these was generally
to share disk space and laser printers, which were both very expensive at the time. There was much
enthusiasm for the concept and for several years from about 1983 onward computer industry pandits
would regularly declare the coming year to be the year of the LAN
The model was developed by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) in
1984. It is now considered the primary Architectural model for inter-computer
communications.
The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from application
programmes (such as spreadsheets) through a network medium (such as wire) to another
application programme located on another network.
xliii
The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information between computers
over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems.
LAYER 7: APPLICATION
The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to the user.
It differs from the other layers in that it does not provide services to any other OSI layer,
but rather, only to applications outside the OSI model.
Examples of such applications are spreadsheet programs, word processing programs, and
bank terminal programs.
xliv
LAYER 6: PRESENTATION
The presentation layer ensures that the information that the application layer of one
system sends out is readable by the application layer of another system.
If necessary, the presentation layer translates between multiple data formats by using a
common format.
LAYER 5: SESSION
The session layer defines how to start, control and end conversations (called sessions)
between applications.
This includes the control and management of multiple bi-directional messages using
dialogue control.
It also synchronizes dialogue between two hosts' presentation layers and manages their
data exchange.
LAYER 4: TRANSPORT
The transport layer regulates information flow to ensure end-to-end connectivity between
host applications reliably and accurately.
The transport layer segments data from the sending host's system and reassembles the
data into a data stream on the receiving host's system.
The boundary between the transport layer and the session layer can be thought of as the
boundary between application protocols and data-flow protocols. Whereas the
xlv
application, presentation, and session layers are concerned with application issues, the
lower four layers are concerned with data transport issues.
Layer 4 protocols include TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User
Datagram Protocol).
LAYER 3: NETWORK
Defines how routing works and how routes are learned so that the packets can be
delivered.
The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller packets to
accommodate different media.
The data link layer provides access to the networking media and physical transmission
across the media and this enables the data to locate its intended destination on a network.
The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical link by using the
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses.
The data link layer uses the MAC address to define a hardware or data link address in
order for multiple stations to share the same medium and still uniquely identify each
other.
Concerned with network topology, network access, error notification, ordered delivery of
frames, and flow control.
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LAYER 1: PHYSICAL
The physical layer deals with the physical characteristics of the transmission medium.
Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates,
maximum transmission distances, physical connectors, and other similar attributes are
defined by physical layer specifications.
A network lookup service, the Domain Name System (DNS), provides the ability to map
hostnames to an IP address. This allows humans to easily remember a name and not a series of
numbers. DNS allows multiple addresses and names to point to one Internet resource. Another
xlvii
reason for DNS is to allow, for example, a web site to be hosted on multiple servers (each with
its own IP address) provides for rudimentary load balancing.
3.8.1 MODEM:
3.8.2 SERVER:
A computer or device is a network that manages network resources. For example, a file
server is a computer and storage device dedicated to storing files. Any user on the network can
store files on the server. A print server is a computer that manages one or more printers, and a
network server is a computer that manages network traffic. A database server is a computer
system that processes database queries. Servers are often dedicated, meaning that they perform
no other tasks besides their server tasks. On multiprocessing operating systems, however, a
single computer can execute several programs at once. A server in this case could refer to the
program that is managing resources rather than the entire computer.
3.8.3 UTP:
Short for unshielded twisted pair, a popular type of cable that consists of two unshielded
wires twisted around each other. Due to its low cost, UTP cabling is used extensively for localarea networks (LANs) and telephone connections. UTP cabling does not offer as high bandwidth
or as good protection from interference as coaxial or fiber optic cables, but it is less expensive
and easier to work with.
xlviii
3.8.4 REPEATERS:
A repeater is a physical layer device used to interconnect the media segments of an
extended network. A repeater essentially enables a series of cable segments to be treated as a
single cable. Repeaters receive signals from one network segment and amplify, retime, and
retransmit those signals to another network segment. These actions prevent signal deterioration
caused by long cable lengths and large numbers of connected devices. Repeaters are incapable of
performing complex filtering and other traffic processing. In addition, all electrical signals,
including electrical disturbances and other errors, are repeated and amplified.
3.8.5 BRIDGES:
Bridges connect two LAN segments of similar or dissimilar types, such as Ethernet and
Token Ring. This allows two Ethernet segments to behave like a single Ethernet allowing any
xlix
pair of computers on the extended Ethernet to communicate. Bridges are transparent therefore
computers dont know whether a bridge separates them.
3.8.6 ROUTER:
A router is a device that forwards data packets along networks, and determines which
way to send each data packet based on its current understanding of the state of its connected
networks. Routers are typically connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or
WANs or a LAN and its Internet Service Providers (ISPs) network. Routers are located at
gateways, the places where two or more networks connect.
Routers filter out network traffic by specific protocol rather than by packet address.
Routers also divide networks logically instead of physically. An IP router can divide a network
into various subnets so that only traffic destined for particular IP addresses can pass between
segments. Network speed often decreases due to this type of intelligent forwarding. Such
filtering takes more time than that exercised in a switch or bridge, which only looks at the
Ethernet address. However, in more complex networks, overall efficiency is improved by using
routers.
A LAN extender is a remote-access multilayer switch that connects to a host router. LAN
extenders forward traffic from all the standard network layer protocols (such as IP, IPX, and
AppleTalk) and filter traffic based on the MAC address or network layer protocol type. LAN
extenders scale well because the host router filters out unwanted broadcasts and multicasts.
However, LAN extenders are not capable of segmenting traffic or creating security firewalls.
CHAPTER 4
Solid State Interlocking is a data-driven signal control system designed for use
throughout the British railway system. SSI is a replacement for electromechanical interlocking
which are based on highly reliable relay technology---and has been designed with a view to
modularity, improved flexibility in serving the needs of a diversity of rail traffic, and greater
economy. The hugely complex relay circuitry found in many modern signalling installations is
expensive to install, difficult to modify, and requires extensive housing---but the same
functionality can be achieved with a relatively small number of interconnected solid state
elements as long as they are individually sufficiently reliable. SSI has been designed to be
compatible with current signaling practice and principles of interlocking design, and to maintain
the operator's perception of the behavior and appearance of the control system.
has
gradually
li
improved, the tendency has therefore been for control to become progressively centralized with
fewer signal control canters individually responsible for larger portions of the network. In the
last decade Solid State Interlocking has introduced computer controlled signaling, but the task of
designing a safe interlocking remains essentially unchanged.
At the signal control centre a control panel displays the current distribution of trains in
the network, the current status of {signals}, and sometimes that of point switches (points) and
other signaling equipment. The railway layout is depicted schematically on the panel.
Figure: Signals (Si) on the control panel appear on the left to the direction of travel, each signal
has a lamp indicator, and each main signal has a button. Switches (points, Pi) show the normal
position, and there is usually a points key on the panel so one can throw the points `manually'.
Lamps illuminate those track sections (Ti) over which routes are locked (white), and those in which there are trains
(red).
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When the controlling computer receives a panel route request it evaluates the availability
conditions specified for the route. These conditions are given in a database by Geographic Data
which the control program evaluates in its on-going dialogue with the network. If the availability
conditions are met the system responds by highlighting the track sections along the selected route
on the display (otherwise the request is simply discarded). At this point the route is said to be
locked: no conflicting route should be locked concurrently, and a property of the interlocking we
should certainly verify is that no conflicting route can be locked concurrently.
Once a route is locked the interlocking will automatically set the route. Firstly, this
involves calling the points along the route into correct alignment. Secondly, the route must be
proved---this includes checking that points are correctly aligned, that the filaments in the signal
lamps are drawing current, and that signals controlling conflicting routes are on (i.e., red).
Finally, the entrance signal can be switched off when the route is clear of other traffic---a driver
approaching the signal will see it change from red to some less restrictive aspect (green, yellow,
etc.), and an indicator on the control panel will be illuminated to notify the operators.
The operation of Solid State Interlocking is organized around the concept of a polling
cycle. During this period the controlling computer will exchange messages with each piece of
signaling equipment to which it is attached. An outgoing command telegram will drive the trackside equipment to the desired state, and an incoming data telegram will report the current state of
the device. Signaling equipment is interfaced with the SSI communications system through
track-side functional modules. A points module will report whether the switch is detected
normal or detected reverse depending on which, if either, of the electrical contacts in the switch
is closed. A signal module will report the status of the lamp proving circuit in the signal: if no
current is flowing through the lamp filaments the lamp proving input in the data telegram will
warn the signal operators about the faulty signal.
Other than conveying status information about points and signals, track-side functional
modules report the current positions of trains. These are inferred from track circuit inputs to the
modules. Track circuits are identified with track sections which are electrically insulated from
one another. If the low voltage applied across the rails can be detected, this indicates there is no
train in the section; a train entering the section will short the circuit causing the voltage to drop
and the track section will be recorded as occupied at the control centre. Track circuits are simple,
fail-safe devices, and one of the primary safety features of the railway.
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CHAPTER 5
Railway has its own communication system including microwave stations and automatic
electronic exchanges.
C-DOT Exchange
Second one has the capacity of 1200 lines and is based on OKI technology. It is a
collaboration product of TATA Telecom and Crompton Greaves.
Third one has a capacity of 60 lines. It is a MKT (Multi Key Telephone) exchange. It
provides ISDN facility to Railway.
-condition is required.
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5.2 ISDN
Integrated Services for Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication standards for
simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services over the
traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network. It was first defined in 1988 in the
CCITT red book.[1] Prior to ISDN, the telephone system was viewed as a way to transport voice,
with some special services available for data. The key feature of ISDN is that it integrates speech
and data on the same lines, adding features that were not available in the classic telephone
system. There are several kinds of access interfaces to ISDN defined as Basic Rate Interface
(BRI), Primary Rate Interface (PRI), Narrowband ISDN (N-ISDN), and Broadband ISDN (BISDN).
In a videoconference, ISDN provides simultaneous voice, video, and text transmission between
individual desktop videoconferencing systems and group (room) videoconferencing systems.
ISDN elements.
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Bearer channels
Signaling channel
X.25
Frame Relay
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Telephone sets give an off-hook condition at all times from the answer or origination of a
call to its completion. The only exception to this is during dial pulsing of rotary or pulse dialing
phones.
Dial pulses consist of momentary opens in the loop; dial pulses should meet the following
standards:
Pulse rate: 10 pulses/second +/- 10%
Pulse shape: 58% to 64% break (open)
Inter-digital time: 600 milliseconds minimum
NOTE: Two pulses indicate the digit "2", three pulses indicate the digit "3", and so on up to ten
pulses indicating the digit "0".
Audible tones are used in the telephone system to indicate the progress or disposition of a call.
Precise dial tone consists of Current day "precise" tones consist of a summation of two low
distortion sine waves. Earlier tones included below consisted of a higher frequency amplitude
modulated by a lower frequency.
1. Dial tone (Real Audio) / Dial tone (WAV): Precise dial tone consists of 350 and 440 Hz @
-13 dBm0 per tone, at telephone exchange (continuous). Earlier modulated dial tone consisted
of 600 Hz amplitude modulated by 120 Hz. For Touch-Tone compatibility reasons this was
replaced with precise dial tone on many electro-mechanical exchanges when they were converted
for Touch-Tone calling.
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2. Busy tone: "Precise" busy signal (Real Audio) / "Precise" busy signal (WAV): 480 and
620 Hz @ -24 dBm0 per tone, at telephone exchange, interrupted at 60 interruptions per
minute (0.5 sec. on, 0.5 sec. off).
3. Reorder (Real Audio) / Reorder (WAV): (today's standard for "all trunks busy") 480 and
620 Hz interrupted at 120 interruptions per minute.
4. Ringback: "Precise" Ring-Back Tone (Real Audio) / "Precise" Ring-Back Tone (WAV): 440
and 480 Hz @ -19 dBm0 per tone, at telephone exchange (2 seconds on, 4 seconds off).
Compare this with 420/40 Hz Modulated Ring-Back Tone (Real Audio) / Modulated Ring-Back
5. Call waiting (Real Audio) / Call waiting (WAV): 440 Hz @ -13 dBm0, at telephone
exchange (0.3 sec. on every 10 seconds)
Mbit/s (E1)
2.048 Mbit/s
8.448 Mbit/s
34.368 Mbit/s
139.264 Mbit/s
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Overheads: CRC
2 Mbit/s service signals are multiplexed to 140 Mbit/s for transmission over optical fiber
or radio.
16 x 2 DME
4 x 3 DME
1 x 4 DME
In SDH the multiplexed channels are in fixed locations relative to the framing byte.
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Demultiplexing is achieved by gating out the required bytes from the digital stream.
This allows a single channel to be dropped from the datastream without demultiplexing
intermediate rates as is required in PDH.
Each rate is an exact multiple of the lower rate therefore the hierarchy is synchronous
Example: four independent and mutually unsynchronized 2.048 Mbit/s signals (tributaries) are
multiplexed into a single 8.448 Mbit/s signal using positive/zero/negative justification (bit
stuffing) according to ITU-T Rec. G.745.
Further multiplexing is accomplished in a similar way:
When 64 independent and unsynchronized 2.048 Mbit/s tributaries are multiplexed into
one 139.264 Mbit/s signal, a total of 4 + 16 + 64 = 84 multiplex circuits are needed.
When a 139.264 Mbit/s signal is demultiplexed into 2.048 Mbit/s signals, a total of 84
clock synchronization circuits and demultiplex circuits are needed.
When a single 2.048 Mbit/s signal is demultiplexed from a 139.264 Mbit/s signal, three
clock synchronization and demultiplex circuits are needed.
Symmetric: Within this class, the data rate transmitted in both directions (downstream
and upstream) is the same. This is a typical requirement of business customers.
Asymmetric: In this case, there is asymmetry between the data rates in the downstream
and upstream directions, with the downstream data rate typically higher than the
upstream (usually appropriate for applications such as Web browsing). This division is
quite crude however, and, to confuse matters, some of the various technologies are
capable of both asymmetric and symmetric operation. To further complicate things, many
DSL systems are capable of multi-rate operation, which adds a further dimension of
variability.
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FIGURE: Block diagram of generic DSL reference model. It should be noted that DSL is an overlay on the
existing switched telephone network.
An additional point to note is that symmetric DSLs generally use baseband modulation
such as pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), where the bandwidth of the transmitted signal
extends all the way down to 0 Hz (notwithstanding the effect of any coupling transformers or
other filtering), whereas the asymmetric technologies generally use passband modulation, which
avoids the lowest frequencies that would be used by voiceband services such as analog
telephony. This is generally because the residential users who would typically make use of
asymmetric DSLs still need to be able to make use of lifeline POTS, even when the DSL
service is unavailable (for example, due to a power failure in the customer premises). Provision
of lifeline POTS service is generally less of an issue for business users, who might typically
carry all of their business voice traffic on the DSL link anyway.
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6. PUBLIC AMENITIES
CHAPTER 6
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This project involves the integration of five major regional reservation centers. It therefore
enables better coordination to improve the reservation process. The major regional centers with
all the information for their regions coordinate for better planning and control. This is a complex
but comprehensive system which provides for better functioning of the reservation process. IT
enables this scale of coordination and such systems rely heavily on a strong IT backbone. Leased
lines are predominantly used to connect this system.
This system demonstrates high levels of performance. It takes less than one second for a local
transaction and three seconds for a networked one. It is capable of providing reservations for 22
hours per day.
The large volumes of passenger traffic that the Indian Railways handles makes the PRS a
quintessential part of the Railways IT infrastructure.
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from any station provided with a UTS counter. On the day of journey, the ticket can be
cancelled from station from which the journey was to commence.
Indian Railway is constantly looking for new ideas to simplify and streamline procedures
for the convenience of passengers. In this endeavor they have introduced several path
breaking technologies on the Railway system over the years.
Can be integrated with any type of database. Playback data retrieved from database
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Text to Speech
Call Transfer to other extensions, optionally announcing the Caller ID, allowing the
recipient to accept or decline the call
Full logging of callers' details and all the selections made during the call
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chapter 11, Introduction to DSL Technology, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Wikipedia
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CONCLUSION
Indian Railways, as an organization is a very vast center of telecommunication in itself.
Today the telecommunicating world is getting its roots, grabbing the new era more firmly. We
think that our training was an success and we think that Indian Railways was an excellent
training institute for inquisitive emerging engineers. In Indian Railways, training is given to
engineering aspirant desiring to secure future in the dynamic world of Telecommunication.
The main achievements of the training at Indian Railways are that we got familiar with
the latest technologies and principles of networking. The main achievement could be said to get
knowledge about recent technologies of LAN. We got experience as to how to organize the
things. After the completion of the training we consider ourselves capable of facing any other
challenge of that type. The training at Indian Railways cultivated the zeal of inquisitiveness and
the excitement to know more than more about this field in limited duration.
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