ME2034

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING
7th semester
B.E, Mechanical Engineering
June 2014 Nov 2014
Prepared by
Mr. W. Aju Wilber
Assistant professor
EEE Department
12/6/2014
UNIT I NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Nuclear model of an atom-Equivalence
of mass and energy-binding- radio
activity-half life-neutron interactionscross sections
12/6/2014
Nuclear model of an atom

The Rutherford model is a model of the atom devised
by Ernest Rutherford. Rutherford directed the
famous GeigerMarsden experiment in 1909
Based on the experimental results, contained the new
features of a relatively high central charge
concentrated into a very small volume in comparison
to the rest of the atom and with this central volume
also containing the bulk of the atomic mass of the
atom. This region would be named the "nucleus" of
the atom in later years
12/6/2014
Definition of NUCLEAR ATOM

a conceptual model of the atom developed by
Ernest Rutherford in which a small positively
charged nucleus is surrounded
by planetary electrons
12/6/2014
Equivalence of mass and energy binding

Massenergy equivalence is the concept that
the mass of an object or system is a measure of
its energy content
The equivalence of energy E and mass m is reliant on
the speed of light c and is described by the famous
equation
E = mc2
This equation tells us that matter and energy are
really two forms of the same thing.
12/6/2014
E = mc2
E = total energy of a system
M = total mass of the system
C = speed of light
If an object is not moving then:
Eo = moc2
Eo is the rest energy and mo is the rest mass
12/6/2014
Mass-Energy Equivalence
The law of conservation of energy
becomes a law of mass-energy
conservation.
12/6/2014
Nuclear reactions also obey the energy

conservation laws.
The total amount of energy before the reaction
has to equal the total amount of energy after the
reaction.
Energy stored as mass must be included in order
to apply the law of conservation of energy to a
nuclear reaction.
12/6/2014
A fission reaction splits up a large nucleus into

smaller pieces.
A fission reaction typically happens when a neutron hits a nucleus with enough energy to
make the nucleus unstable.
Fission breaks the nucleus into two smaller pieces and often releases one or more extra
neutrons.
Some of the energy released by the reaction appears as gamma rays and some as kinetic
12/6/2014
energy of the smaller nuclei and the extra neutrons.
A nuclear chain reaction occurs when the fission of

one nucleus triggers fission of many other nuclei.
In a chain reaction, the first fission reaction releases two or more

neutrons. The two neutrons can hit two other nuclei and cause fission
reactions that release four neutrons. The four neutrons hit four new nuclei
and cause fission reactions that release eight neutrons. The number of
neutrons increases rapidly. The increasing number of neutrons causes
12/6/2014
10
more nuclei to have fission reactions and enormous energy is released.
Binding Energy
The mass of a nucleus is generally less than the
sum of the masses of the nucleons.
This difference is called the mass-defect. Such a
phenomenon is observed in atomic or subatomic
levels, and not with ordinary materials that we
handle, where the total mass has to be the sum
of the component masses.
The mass-defect is responsible for the binding
together of the nucleons.
The energy equivalent of the mass-defect is
called the binding-energy of the nucleus.
12/6/2014
11
illustrative picture of binding energy
when individual nucleons pack themselves together to form

a system, which we call nucleus, they liberate some energy in
the form of photons (gamma rays).
The liberated energy manifests as a reduction in the net mass
of the nucleus, as per Einsteins relation. I
t may also be said that the nucleus could be split into
nucleons by supplying external energy equal to the binding
12/6/2014
energy
12
Radioactivity
The emission of ionizing radiation or particles
caused by the spontaneous disintegration of
atomic nuclei.
Radioactive substances, or the radiation emitted
by these
12/6/2014
13
Half life
Half-life (t12) is the amount of time required for a
quantity to fall to half its value as measured at
the beginning of the time period. While the term
"half-life" can be used to describe any quantity
which follows an exponential decay, it is most
often used within the context of nuclear
physics and nuclear chemistrythat is, the time
required, probabilistically, for half of the
unstable, radioactive atoms in a sample to
undergo radioactive decay.
12/6/2014
14
12/6/2014
15
12/6/2014
16
Neutron interactions and cross section

Neutrons essentially interact only with the
atomic nucleus
Cross-sections can vary dramatically and
erratically based on complex interactions
between all the nucleons in the nucleus and the
incident neutron
Huge effort and money has been spent to
measure these cross-sections for many materials
and a wide range of neutron energies
12/6/2014
17
12/6/2014
18
12/6/2014
19
12/6/2014
20
The end
12/6/2014
21
UNIT II NUCLEAR REACTIONS

AND REACTION MATERIALS
Mechanism of nuclear fission and fusion- radio
activity- chain reactions-critical mass and
composition-nuclear fuel cycles and its
characteristics-uranium production and
purification-Zirconium, thorium, beryllium.
12/6/2014
22
Mechanism of nuclear fission and fusion
12/6/2014
23
Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion is the process by which
multiple nuclei join together to form a heavier
nucleus.
It is accompanied by the release or absorption
of energy depending on the masses of the
nuclei involved.
Iron and nickel nuclei have the largest binding
energies per nucleon of all nuclei and therefore are
the most stable.
12/6/2014
24
DEUTERIUM
FUSION
HELIUM
TRITIUM
12/6/2014
NEUTRON
25
Nuclear Fusion
The fusion of two nuclei lighter than iron or
nickel generally releases energy.
The fusion of nuclei heavier than them
absorbs energy.
12/6/2014
26
NUCLEAR FISSION
A reaction in which an atomic nucleus of a
radioactive element splits by bombardment
from an external source, with simultaneous
release of large amounts of energy, used for
electric power generation
12/6/2014
27
Nuclear Fission
Neutron induced in
U235
Fission is Exothermic
The sum of the masses of

the resulting nuclei is less
than the original mass (about 0.1%
less)
The missing mass is converted to
energy
according to E=mc2 ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING
12/6/2014
28
Neutrons may!
1 - Cause another fission by colliding with a U235 nucleus
Creates two smaller nuclides and free neutrons
The free neutrons potentially collide with nearby U235 nuclei
May cause the nuclide to split as well
Each split (fission) is
accompanied by a large
quantity of E-N-E-R-G-Y
2 - Be absorbed in other material

3 - Lost in the system
12/6/2014
If sufficient neutrons are present, we may achieve a chain reaction
29
Chain reaction
Nuclear fission releases more neutrons which
trigger more fission reactions
The number of neutron released determines the
success of a chain reaction
One of the products of nuclear fission reactions are
neutrons. But these are free to hit other nuclei of U235 nearby, causing these to fission as well as
releasing additional neutrons. As this process carries
on, a huge amount energy is released. In fact, each
generation of fission neutrons takes only a fraction of
second to be produced. This is what happens in an
uncontrolled chain reaction such as the nuclear bomb.
12/6/2014
30
12/6/2014
31
Controlling chain reactions

We can use control rods inserted into the uranium to slow the chain
reaction down. These absorber rods contain atoms of Boron or
Cadmium that can absorb the fission neutrons without undergoing a
fission reaction themselves.
These rods ensure that an average of one further fission occurs
after every nucleus that splits. So, only one of the 2-3 neutrons
produced in the fission of a nucleus will hit another U-235 nucleus.
The other(s) will be absorbed by atoms in the rods.
12/6/2014
32
Control rods
12/6/2014
33
NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE

The nuclear fuel cycle, also called nuclear
fuel chain, is the progression of nuclear
fuel through a series of differing stages.
12/6/2014
34
Stages or Steps
It consists of steps in the front end
-which are the preparation of the fuel
steps in the service period
-in which the fuel is used during reactor
operation
steps in the back end
-In which are necessary to safely manage,
contain, and either reprocess or dispose
12/6/2014
35
Stages or
Steps
12/6/2014
36
Uranium Mining and Milling
12/6/2014
37
Uranium mining
Excavation Technique
-In-situ Technique
-Open Pit
-Underground Mining
12/6/2014
Recover uranium
ore
38
ISL in situ leaching
In-situ
12/6/2014
ISL
Oxygenated ground water
with slight acid or alkaline
Leaching agent oxygen with
sodium carbonate
Ion exchange separates the
uranium
After purification and drying
the yellow cake contains 80
percentage uranium is
obtained
39
Uranium milling
The process extracting uranium from mined ore
Crushed and leached
Leaching is the process of
Leaching agent is
extracting minerals from a
solid by dissolving them in
- mostly sulfuric acid
a liquid
- alkaline can be used
These leaching agent not only extracts uranium and
also extracts some materials like vanadium,
selenium, iron, lead and arsenic.
12/6/2014
40
Yellow cake
a drum of yellow cake
Final Product of Milling Step 70 to 80 % uranium

12/6/2014
41
Enrichment and fabrication
12/6/2014
42
Natural Uranium
235U
12/6/2014
only fissile nuclide only

1 atom of 235U in 140 atoms of 238U
43
Enrichment
Process of increasing the amount of U-235
UF6 uranium hexafluoride is the feed
12/6/2014
44
Methods
Gaseous diffusion
Gas centrifuge
Thermal diffusion
12/6/2014
45
Gas centrifuge
Common enrichment method
High speed spinning cylindrical chamber
12/6/2014
46
12/6/2014
47
12/6/2014
48
Thermal diffusion
Uses heat transfer across thin layer of liquid or
gas
Cooling a vertical film on one side and cooling on
other surface
It produces convection current
Flows upwards on hot downwards on cool surface
Lighter molecule U235 diffuse towards warm
surface
Heavier molecule U238 towards cooler surface
12/6/2014
49
The combination of this diffusion and convection current

causes the lighter u235 molecule to concentrate on top
12/6/2014
50
Fuel fabrication
into
UF6
UO2 powder then processed
into ceramic pellet of enriched uranium
Grinding process
to get uniform
pellet size
12/6/2014
51
Pellets and Fuel Assembly
12/6/2014
52
12/6/2014
53
Fuel Rods
12/6/2014
54
Fuel Assembly
12/6/2014
55
BACK END
Storage
reactor shut down
Spent fuel
cooled aged fuel in modular
dry storage
ISFSI - Independent Spent
Fuel Storage Installation
Usually stored in water or boric acid
To protect the environment from ionizing
radiation
12/6/2014
56
Spent Fuel
12/6/2014
57
Spent
Storage pool
12/6/2014
58
12/6/2014
59
Reprocessing
Chemical operation separates useful fuel for recycling
from waste
Used fuel contains
95% of U238 but it contains
1% U235, 3% fission product which are highly
radioactive.
Hot nitric acid
dissolving metallic outer case
Reprocessing enables recycling of uranium and
plutonium into fresh fuel
12/6/2014
60
Recycling
Uranium
direct
Plutonium
MOX
MOX
mixed oxide fuel in which uranium
and plutonium combined
12/6/2014
61
Disposal
Radioactive waste is hazardous to most forms
of life and the environment
Radioactive waste has to be isolated and
confined in appropriate disposal facilities
There are no proper disposal facilities for the
used fuel
12/6/2014
62
12/6/2014
63
12/6/2014
64
12/6/2014
65
Zirconium
Zr
atomic number
used in nuclear reactors
Low
neutron
zirconium
High corrosion resistant
12/6/2014
40
Obtained
mainly from
the mineral
Zircon
Lustrous shiny, glossy

Grayish-white metal
Solid in room temp.
Highly flammable in power form
alkalis, acids, salt water .etc.
66
12/6/2014
67
12/6/2014
68
Properties
Name
Zirconium
Symbol
Atomic number
Atomic Weight
Density
Melting Point
Boiling Point
Zr
40
91.224
6.511 g/cm3
1855 C
4409 C
solid
Phase
12/6/2014
69
Occurrence
130 mg/kg
0.026 g/L
Source
within Earths crust

in sea water
zircon
Australia, Brazil, India, Malaysia, Russia and US.
Difficult to separate chemically

The annual production of Zirconium is 900,000
metric tone aprox.
12/6/2014
70
Isotopes
Natural isotopes
5 isotopes 90Zr, 91Zr, 92Zr, 94Zr, 96Zr
Stable
Artificial isotopes
28 isotopes range from 78 to 110
12/6/2014
71
a substance enclosed
under pressure and
released as a fine spray
Precautions
Inhalation
skin and lung Granulomas
Aerosols
pulmonary Granulomas
Persistent exposure
morality in rat
guinea pig and decrease of hemoglobin in dog
cells
Ingestion
causes cancer
12/6/2014
72
Applications
Nuclear energy
low absorption cross
section for thermal neutron
Materials for rockets and other flying
machines
Manufacture super conductivity device
winding
Cut into Gemstones for use in jewelry
Zirconium carbonate is used in lotions to treat
poison
12/6/2014
73
Beryllium
Rare element in earth
Be
atomic number
Beryllium
grey steel
Strong
Light weight
Used as hardening agent in alloys, like beryllium

copper
12/6/2014
74
12/6/2014
75
Properties
Highest melting point of the light metal
Elasticity is 3 times greater than steel
Low density
fastest sound conducting
speed
Excellent thermal conductivity
Nonmagnetic
12/6/2014
76
Applications
Stiffness, light weight,
defense and aerospace
High speed aircraft
Alloying agent
Missiles
Space vehicles
Be-copper
Communication satellites
Electrical spring contact

Telescope
beryllium mirrors
12/6/2014
77
Radiation applications
Nuclear applications
Compounds application
12/6/2014
78
Thorium
Th
atomic number
90
Source
thorite and thorianite
India, US, Australia, Canada, Brazil, Malaysia,
south africa
Atomic number : 90
Discovered
: 1828
Melting point : 1,755 C
Boiling point
: 4,787 C
12/6/2014
79
12/6/2014
80
12/6/2014
81
Precautions
Cancer
Lung diseases
Skin problem
12/6/2014
82
END
12/6/2014
83
Unit 3
Reprocessing
Nuclear fuel cycle spent fuel
characteristics role of solvent
extraction in reprocessing solvent
extraction equipment
12/6/2014
84
Nuclear reprocessing
Separates any unstable elements from fission
products and other materiel used in nuclear
reactors fuels
Uranium
Plutonium
Thorium , etc,.
Fission products (waste)
Other materials
12/6/2014
85
Spent nuclear fuel characteristics

Used fuel
Contains used waste materials and other
materials
Waste material
Fission product
Other material
Uranium
Plutonium
12/6/2014
86
Spent fuel
12/6/2014
87
Nuclear reprocessing methods

1. PUREX Plutonium and Uranium Recovery
EXtraction
2. UREX URanium EXtraction
3. TRUEX TRansuranic EXtraction
4. MOX Mixed Oxide
5. PYRO Pyrometallurgical processing
6. FLOUREX
12/6/2014
88
PUREX
PUREX Plutonium and Uranium Recovery
EXtraction
Used to reprocess spent fuel only U and Pu
Irradiated fuel dissolved in nitric acid
Further by filtering, scrubbing, partitioning
and stripping process the U and Pu is
separated from the fission material
Results in a pure stream of plutonium
12/6/2014
89
UREX
UREX URanium EXtraction
Used in high level nuclear waste reprocessing
It process 99.9 % of Uranium and 95 % of Technetium
are separated
AHA - Acetohydroxamic acid is used in scrubbing
section
AHA reduces the content of plutonium and Neptunium
Hence the clear form of uranium is obtained
Results in pure uranium stream
The plutonium remains mixed with the fission products
and minor actinides
12/6/2014
90
TRUEX
TRUEX TRansuranic EXtraction
Designed to remove transplutonium metals
from waste
It uses second extraction agent
N-octyl ( phenyl) N
N- diisobutyl afbamoylmethylphosphine oxide in
combination with tributylphosphate (CMPO)
PUREX process can be turned into TRUEX

process using the second agent
12/6/2014
91
MOX
MOX Mixed Oxide
Combination or bended form of uranium and
plutonium
MOX fuel is an alternative to low enriched
uranium fuel used in light water reactors
MOX is done in France and England
Lesser extent in Russia, India, Japan, China
To develop fast breeder reactors and reprocessing
12/6/2014
92
PYRO Pyrometallurgical processing

chemical elements with atomic numbers from 89 to 103
Separating Actinides elements within the actinides
family
Spent fuel
heated
Mixed with molten salt

An electrical
current is applied
Actinides condense on the cathode
12/6/2014
Non actinides waste

ME
2034 NUCLEAR
remains
inENGINEERING
the salt
93
Advantages
Does not use water
Since water is problematic in nuclear chemistry
It tends to serve as moderator

Accelerate nuclear reactions
Easily contaminated
Not easily cleaned up
It tends to evaporate and takes away Tritium with it
Separates all actinides

More efficient and compact than PUREX
12/6/2014
94
FLUOREX
It is a hybrid process involving

Fluoride volatility
Solvent extraction
Cost effective reprocessing of spent fuel

Separates Uranium in simple process
FLUOREX process is developed where fluoride
volatility process is used to purify Uranium
Extremely pure U and MOX fuels are recovered in
FLUOREX
It is also coast effective
12/6/2014
95
Nuclear fuel cycle or chain

1. Front end
2. Service period
3. Back end
Two types of fuel cycle
Open fuel cycle (once - through fuel cycle)
Closed fuel cycle
12/6/2014
96
once - through fuel cycle

Fuel is used once
sent to storage with out
processing
Method favored by six countries
US
Canada
Sweden
Finland
Spain
South Africa
12/6/2014
97
once - through fuel cycle

Enrichment
Ore processing
Fuel
production
Fuel used for

disposal
Uranium mine
12/6/2014
Starts
Power reactor
Ends
98
Plutonium Cycle
PU (+ U)
Enrichment
Ore processing
Fuel
production
Power reactor
Fuel used for

disposal
Uranium mine
Starts
12/6/2014
Reprocessing
Ends
99
Several countries are using this process

offered by BNFL
COGEMA
Reprocessed uranium and plutonium are

fabricated as MOX fuel
12/6/2014
100
Minor Actinides Recycling

Actinides
chemical elements with atomic numbers from 89 to 103
All actinides are radioactive, paramagnetic
Minor Actinides
Neptunium
Americium
Curium
Berkelium
Californium
Einsteinium
12/6/2014
Fermium
Major Actinides
U-92, Pu-94, ect..
101
Minor Actinides Recycling
12/6/2014
102
With a careful reactor design all the actinides

in the fuel can be consumed
12/6/2014
103
Extraction
Liquid liquid extraction
Is a mass transfer operation
Liquid solution
the feed
Liquid solvent
to extract
Extract
The desired
extracted
solute
12/6/2014
Liquid liquid
Raffinate
The residual feed
solution contains
little solute
(impurities)104
Solvent requirements
Feed
Raffinate
Extract
12/6/2014
Solvent
stageENGINEERING
extractor
MESingle
2034 NUCLEAR
105
F = Feed
R = Raffinate
S = Solvent
E = Extract
12/6/2014
Quantity in rate , mass
106
Extraction in increased number of stages
F1 Xf
X1
1
Y1
12/6/2014
X2
2
Y2
Xn
3
Y3
S Ys
107
Commercial Extractors
1. Mixer Settlers
o
o
o
Series of static mixer with settling stages

Mostly used in metal industry
Looks like vessel where feed and solvent are mixed and
settled
2. Centrifugal devices
o
o
High speed rotary machine

Mostly used in pharmaceutical or cosmetic industry
3. Column contractors
o
o
o
12/6/2014
Mostly used in chemical industry

Static or agitated
Examples are, static column, spray column, packed and
agitated column, rotating disc . Etc.
108
Mixer - Settler
Mixing
The physical properties and viscosity determines
the amount of mixing
a very small drop of a liquid
Less mixing causes large droplets and decreases
interfacial area when two material are brought to contact, so the space
where they made contact is called interfacial area,
It is usually considered in heat transfer calculation
This reduces mass transfer and efficiency

Higher agitation more mixing, makes difficult to settle
droplets
12/6/2014
109
Settling
Depends on the fluid properties and the amount of
mixing
Settling in agitated batch vessels is carried out by
stopping it.
Emulsions are formed due to agitation, in such cases it
takes extended period to settle
Emulsion can also form through inherent chemical
compounds
Some times coagulants are added to prevent emulsion
12/6/2014
Coagulation process which

suspends particles blood clot
110
Mixer - Settler
12/6/2014
Extraction equipment
usedENGINEERING
in nuclear pre-processing
ME 2034 NUCLEAR
111
Mixer - Settler
12/6/2014
Uranium extractor
mixer
settler extractor
ME 2034 NUCLEAR
ENGINEERING
112
Mixer - Settler
recycling
Settler tank
--light liquid--
12/6/2014
Uranium extractor
mixer
settler extractor
ME 2034 NUCLEAR
ENGINEERING
113
Each stage consist of at least a mixer and a

settler
The liquid are pumped from one stage to the
next, but occasionally gravity flow can be
arranged if sufficient headroom is available
Light liquid flows by air lift and recycling of
settled lift liquid to the mixer is accomplished
by overflow
12/6/2014
114
Advantages and disadvantage

Advantages
Efficient
Flexible
Offers wide range of capacities
Short shutdown
Disadvantage
large in size
Time
Cause solvent dehydration as a result of radiolysis and
hydrolysis
Maintenance
12/6/2014
115
Pulsed columns
It is a solvent extractor
There is no individual extraction stages
They are continuous working
Modes of operation
First operation
Organic continuous mode
Second operation
Aqueous continuous mode
NUCLEAR ENGINEERING
Both are continuousME 2034
working
mode
12/6/2014
116
Operating principle
Solvent
light phase
Circulates bottom to top of a cylindrical tube
With a Aqueous
heavy phase
Disperses - Spreads in droplets
Immiscible with solvent
not forming a homogeneous mixture when mixed
Aqueous
continuou
s mode
12/6/2014
To generate and maintain this emulsion

the liquid are moved front and back
along the tube
expand and contract
Dispersing the organic phase in the aqueous phase
A pulsating motion is given on the light liquid by a flexible Diaphragm
117
Pulsed column
12/6/2014
118
The pulsating motion forces light and heavy liquids

alternatively through Perforation hole which is 1mm
in diameter
Advantages
No need of maintenance
Geometrically safe, even for high flow rates
Low sensitivity to interfacial crud
Drawbacks
Height
Limited flexibility
12/6/2014
119
Centrifugal Extractor
Advantages
Compactness
Low in time
Minimizes solvent degradation
Offers wide range of capacities
Safe to use
They also reach equilibrium very quickly
12/6/2014
120
Disadvantages
Very sensitive to process disturbances
Sensitive to the presence of crud or particles
Particle may settle and cause clogging
blocking
12/6/2014
121
UNIT - IV
Nuclear Reactors
Nuclear reactors, types of fast breeding reactordesign and construction of fast breeding reactorsheat transfer techniques in nuclear reactorsreactor shielding. Fusion reactors
12/6/2014
122
Nuclear reactor
Is similar to furnace of a steam power plant or combustion
chamber of a gas turbine
In this heat is produced due to nuclear fission chain reaction
The nuclear reactor consist of
12/6/2014
Reactor core
Moderator
Control rods
Cooling system
Reactor Vessel
Biological shielding
123
Reactor core
12/6/2014
124
12/6/2014
Prototype
type fast breeder reactor
125
Fast breeder reactor
12/6/2014
126
12/6/2014
ME 2034 NUCLEAR
Liquid metal
fastENGINEERING
breeder reactor
127
Gas cooled reactor
12/6/2014
128
Lead cooled fast breeder
12/6/2014
129
Pool layout sodium

cooled fast Reactor
12/6/2014
130
12/6/2014
Compact layout sodium

cooled fast breeder
131
12/6/2014
Super critical water reactor
132
Molten Salt Reactor
12/6/2014
133
12/6/2014
Molten salt reactor with multi-reheat

helium Brayton cycle
134
12/6/2014
Very high
temperature reactor
135
Heat transfer issue

for SCWR concept
12/6/2014
136
Boiling water Reactor
12/6/2014
137
CANDU
Reactor
12/6/2014
138
12/6/2014
139
UNIT V SAFETY AND DISPOSAL

Safety and disposal: Nuclear plant safety-safety
systems-changes and consequences of accidentcriteria for safety-nuclear waste-types of waste
and its disposal-radiation hazards and their
12/6/2014
prevention-weapons
proliferation.
140
DISPOSAL
Radioactive waste is hazardous to most forms
of life and the environment
Radioactive waste has to be isolated and
confined in appropriate disposal facilities
There are no proper disposal facilities for the
used fuel
12/6/2014
141
Nuclear Waste
Recently nuclear power has entered many discussions as world
energy needs rise and oil reserves diminish.
Most opponents of nuclear power point to two main arguments:

meltdowns and nuclear waste.
Nuclear waste is any form of byproduct or end product that
releases radioactivity.
How to safely dispose of nuclear waste is pivotal for the
continued operation of nuclear power plants, safety of people
living around dump sites, and prevention of proliferation of
nuclear materials to non-nuclear states.
12/6/2014
142
Low Level Waste

LLW
Low level waste is any waste that could be

from a high activity area.
90% volume of waste
It does not necessarily carry any
radioactivity.
Split into four catagories: A, B, C, and GTCC.
12/6/2014
143
Intermediate Level Waste

ILW
Intermediate level waste requires shielding

when being handled.
7% volume of waste
Dependent on the amount of activity it can
be buried in shallow repositories.
Not recognized in the United States.
12/6/2014
144
High Level Waste

HLW
High level waste has a large amount of

radioactive activity and is thermally hot.
3% volume of waste
95% of radioactivity
Current levels of HLW are increasing about
12,000 metric tons per year.
Most HLW consists of Pu-238, 239, 240,
241, 242, Np-237, U-236
12/6/2014
145
Front End Waste

Front end waste consists mostly of LLW and
ILW.
The primary front end waste is depleted
uranium and radium.
DU has several uses due to its high density
(19,050 kg/m3).
Mix with uranium to form reactor fuel
12/6/2014
146
Service Period Waste

Consists of mostly ILW.
Mostly waste produced at the plant during
normal operation.
Spent fuel rods are the most dangerous
waste produced during the service period.
12/6/2014
147
Launch it into Space

Near infinite storage
space
Completely removes
waste from biosphere
Technical risks and
problems
Political
entanglements
12/6/2014
148
Importance of Nuclear Waste Management

Nuclear power carbon free energy source
Currently limited by economics, safety, and
technology
Clear limiting factor, lack of permanent disposal
Growth of nuclear capacity will require development
of permanent disposal options
Critical considerations
Safety
Security
12/6/2014
149
Nuclear Waste
Composed of radionuclides
Low, Medium, and High-level waste
High-level waste produced in nuclear reactors
Consists of
Fission products (short-half lives)
Actinides (long-half lives)
Of note: 99Tc, 129I, 239Pu, 240Pu, 235U, 238U

12/6/2014
150
Health Risks
Somatic Effects
Cancer
Genetic Effects
Hereditary Genetic Damage
Teratogenic Effects
Birth defects
Prenatal death
12/6/2014
151
Important characteristics of
Radiation
Wavelength
Frequency
Intensity
Velocity
Straight line propagation
Spectrum
Inverse square law
12/6/2014
152
Ultraviolet radiation hazards

Common sources: sun, UV lamps (black lights),
welders arc
Some devices may emit only a small amount of
visible light while emitting intense UV radiation
Especially dangerous to the eyes since they do not
dilate readily in response to UV -- retinal burns
Photosensitization to UV can occur from certain
dermal chemicals and oral drugs (e.g. antibiotics)
12/6/2014
153
Types of UV Radiation
Type
Wavelength
Effect
UV-A
315-400 nm
Little effect
UV-B
280-315 nm
Skin cancer
possible
UV-C
100-280 nm
Cornea damage
Black light Region
12/6/2014
154
Ionizing Radiation Characteristics
12/6/2014
Mass
Charge
Stopped by
Alpha
+2
4 cm air
Beta
-1
X-ray
6-300 cm
air
Lowered
10% by
15-30 cm
tissue
Gamma
0
50 cm
tissue
155
Human radiation dose-effect data

DOSE (rems)
PROBABLE EFFECT
0-25
25-100
100-200
No noticeable effect
Slight blood changes
Vomiting, fatigue (recovery
in weeks)
Vomiting, severe blood
changes, hemmorhage
(recovery in 1-12 mo.)
Survival unlikely
200-600
600-1000
12/6/2014
156
Ionizing radiation
General precautions
Confine radioactive chemicals to small areas
which are posted
Cover bench tops with plastic-backed absorbent
material
Use trays to catch spills
Wear gloves to protect hands and lab coat to
catch splatters
Dispose of contaminated clothes appropriately
12/6/2014
157
Radiation monitoring devices

Film badges after the fact measurement,
developed weekly or monthly
Geiger counter best for high energy beta,
gamma
Scintillation counter used for wipe
surveys
12/6/2014
158
End
12/6/2014
159

ME2034

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

ME2034

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

UNIT I NUCLEAR PHYSICS

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

Nuclear model of an atom

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

Definition of NUCLEAR ATOM

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

Equivalence of mass and energy binding

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

Nuclear reactions also obey the energy

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

A fission reaction splits up a large nucleus into

A nuclear chain reaction occurs when the fission of

In a chain reaction, the first fission reaction releases two or more

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

illustrative picture of binding energy

when individual nucleons pack themselves together to form

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

Neutron interactions and cross section

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

UNIT II NUCLEAR REACTIONS

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

Mechanism of nuclear fission and fusion

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

The sum of the masses of

2 - Be absorbed in other material

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

If sufficient neutrons are present, we may achieve a chain reaction

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

Controlling chain reactions

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

Uranium Mining and Milling

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ISL in situ leaching

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

a drum of yellow cake

Final Product of Milling Step 70 to 80 % uranium

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

Enrichment and fabrication

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

only fissile nuclide only

ME 2034 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING