Introduction

The oxides across the elements in period 3 consist of metal and non-metal. When
going across period 3, the melting point and boiling point of the oxides will vary based on
the chemical bonding and the structure of the oxides. The trend in the structure of the
oxides is from the metallic oxides containing giant structures of ions on the left of the
period, then a giant covalent oxide (silicon dioxide) in the middle to molecular oxides on
the right. As for electricity conductivity, none of these oxides have any mobile electron in
their solid state, therefore they are unable to conduct electricity. However, the ionic oxides
are able to conduct electricity in their molten state and undergo electrolysis as the
movement of the ions towards the electrodes and discharge of the ions when they got
there. The acid-base behavior of the oxides can be determined with various reactions.
Generally, the metal oxides will be strongly basic and will have a gradual decrease in pH
when going across the period from left to right, via an amphoteric oxide (aluminium oxide)
in the middle, until it reaches the non-metal oxides with strongly acidic property. Some
simple tests and observations were carried out to find out the differences between the
different types of oxides and to account for these differences.
Materials
Sodium Peroxide, Magnesium Oxide, Phosphorus(V) Oxide, Silicon(IV) Oxide, Sodium
Sulphite, Conc. Sulphuric Acid, Universal Indicator, Distilled Water
Apparatus
Test Tubes, Thermometer, Test Tube Stopper, Glass Rod, Test Tube Rack, Measuring
Cylinder, Liquid Dropper, L-Tube
Procedures
(A) Appearance
The oxide samples were examined and the following properties were noted in a larger
table 9.1
(a) Whether it is a solid, liquid, or gaseous
(b) Its colour (If any)
(B) On mixing with water
Five test tubes were set up side by side. 5 mL of distilled water was poured into each
test tube. A thermometer was placed in the first test tube. The temperature was noted.
Half a spatula-tip of sodium peroxide was then added and stirred carefully with a glass rod.
The following observations were noted,
-

The temperature
Whether the solid has dissolved
Any other observations. Example, were there any gaseous evolved at any time?

The pH of the solution was tested using a universal indicator.

The steps above starting from Half a spatula-tip of sodium. were repeated by
replacing sodium peroxide, in turns, with magnesium oxide, silicon(IV) oxide and
phosphorus(V) oxide.
(C) Preparation of SO2 gas.
A little concentrated sulphuric acid were added to half a spatula-tip of sodium
sulphite in a test tube. The sulphur dioxide was then quickly bubbled through the water in
the fifth test tube. The pH indicated was noted using a universal indicator.

Results
Discussion
Structure and Bonding, Melting Point and Boiling Point
The physical properties of the oxides vary across Period 3 elements. Going across
period 3, Sodium peroxide, magnesium oxide and aluminium oxide will have a giant ionic
structure containing metal ions and oxide ions. Their bonding consist of ionic bond as
the metal(Na, Mg, Al) with low ionization energy loses their electron and becoming
positively charged, coming together with the non-metal (O) with high electron affinity
where it gains electron becoming negatively charged to form a strong electrostatic
attraction between each other. The positively charged ions and negatively charged ions
will come attract each other by the strong electrostatic force, forming ionic bonds between
the ions. Due to the strong electrostatic attraction between the positive and negative ions
in the compound, a lot of heat energy is needed to break the bonds. Therefore they will
have a very high melting point and boiling point, and they will exist as solid at room
temperature.
In Sodium Peroxide, the sodium atom has an electron arrangement of [Ne] 3s 1 and
the oxygen atom will have an electron arrangement of [He] 2s 2 2p4. The sodium atom will
donate an electron to form sodium ion Na+. The oxygen atom will accept the electron and
forming oxygen ion O-. The oxygen atoms in a peroxide will have an oxidation state of
-1(Goldbook.iupac.org, 2014). Therefore the ionic bond is formed by the transfer of
electrons from one atom to another. In Magnesium Oxide, the magnesium atom with the
electron arrangement of [Ne] 3s2 will donate 2 electrons to the oxide atom, forming
Magnesium ion Mg2+ and Oxygen ion O2-. The ions will attract each other to form
Magnesium Oxide, MgO. In Aluminium Oxide, two aluminium atom with an electron
arrangement of [Ne] 3s2 3p1 will donate 3 electrons from each aluminium atoms to three
oxygen atoms, forming two aluminium ions Al3+ and 3 oxygen ions O2-. The ions thereby
attract each other forming Aluminium Oxide Al 2O3.

According to Table 9.2, the melting and boiling point of sodium peroxide is
significantly lower than magnesium oxide and aluminium oxide. Firstly, this is due to the
strength of an ionic bond is proportional to the charge on the ions (Coulombs
Law). Magnesium ion has a +2 charge in Magnesium Oxide but Sodium ion only has a +1
charge in Sodium Peroxide Therefore, a higher charged ionic compound will have stronger
bonds which will require more heat to break down the bonds. Secondly, there is double
bond presence in the Aluminium Oxide when compared to Sodium Peroxide which only
has single bond. Double bonds will require more heat energy to break the bonds as they
have higher bond energy.
Next, as we go across the period, there isnt enough electronegativity difference
between silicon and oxygen to form ionic bond. Silicon Dioxide will form covalent bonds
and have a giant covalent structure. The melting point and boiling point for Silicon Dioxide
will be very high because the giant covalent structure requires large amount of energy in
order to break the covalent bonds between the atoms in the molecules. The Lewis
structure for Silicon Dioxide is as below:
..
..
: Si :: O :: Si :
Phosphorus Pentoxide, Sulphur Dioxide and Chlorine(I) Oxide consist of non-metal
and oxygen atom. They will form covalent bonds between the non-metal and oxygen
atoms, and they will have a simple molecular structure which is held strongly with
intermolecular Van Der Waals forces. Van der Waals forces are relatively weak compared to
chemical bonds. Because of the Van Der Waals force that is holding one molecule to its
neighbor molecule, they will have lower melting and boiling points when compared to the
ionic bonded oxides like Magnesium Oxide. Many of them will exist as liquid of gaseous
state at room temperature.
Phosphorus has an electron arrangement of [Ne] 3s 2 3p3. It will use all five of the
valence electron to form bonds with oxygen atom, having 3 electrons forming single bonds
with 3 oxygen atom and the remaining 2 electrons forming a double bond with 1 oxygen
atom. The structure of P4O10 is as below.

Sulphur has an electron arrangement of [Ne] 3s 2 3p4. Because of the empty d orbital
in sulphur, it will allow sulphur to have more than 8 electron in its valence shell, bypassing
the octet rule configuration. Sulphur will form 2 double bonds with 2 oxygen atoms, the
Lewis structure for Sulphur Dioxide is shown below.
..
..
..
:O : : S : : O:

Chlorine has an electron arrangement of [Ne] 3s 2 3p5. Two Chlorine atom will just
simply form covalent bond with an oxygen atom by sharing one of their valence electron
with one of the valence electron from oxygen.
Overall, we are able to see that the change in structure and bonding of the period 3
oxides. Going across period 3, the structure of the oxides changed from Giant Ionic
Structure to Giant Covalent Structure and then to the Simple Molecular Structure. The type
of bonding changes from Ionic bonds to Covalent bonds. If we were to relate the trend in
the change of structure and bonding that takes place across the period, it would be almost
the same in terms of bonding changes except for sodium, magnesium and aluminium.
They will have a metallic bonding instead of ionic bond since there is no formation of ions
and transfer of electrons. Their structure would also be metallic structure instead of giant
ionic structure. For the rest of the elements in period 3, they are most likely having the
same trend as the oxides across period 3.
Electrical Conductivity
Next, the electrical conductivity of the oxides in their liquid state will also vary
across the period. Sodium Peroxide, Magnesium Oxide and Aluminium Oxide will be able
to conduct electricity in their molten/liquid state as they will have mobile ions to
undergo electrolysis. Silicon Dioxide, Phosphorus Pentoxide, Sulphur Dioxide and
Chlorine(I) Oxide will not be able to conduct electricity as they do not have mobile
electrons in their solid or molten state.
Action in water
The oxides of Period 3 will have different reaction as they are dissolved in water. Sodium
Peroxide reacts vigorously in water. Sodium peroxide is normally used as a bleaching
agent. Here, it reacts with ice-cold water to form hydrogen peroxide, H2O2.
Na2O2(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2O2(aq)
This is a violent exothermic reaction which will cause the H2O2 to break down to further
water and oxygen gas, causing the glowing splint to burst into flames.
Magnesium Oxide will react with water to form Magnesium Hydroxide which exhibits only
slight solubility in water.

MgO(s) + H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(s)

This reaction is highly exothermic.
Aluminium Oxide is insoluble in water. The ions in the compound are held too strongly in
the solid lattice to react with the water.
because of the difficulty of breaking up the giant
covalent structure. But when we were conducting the experiment, we noticed the solution
turned cloudy when Silicon Oxide is added into water. According to an internet
resource(Lenntech.com, 2014), we found that Silicon Oxide is relatively water insoluble,
therefore reacting with water by the equation given below
Silicon Oxide is usually insoluble in water

SiO2(s) + 2 H2O(l) <-> H4SiO4(s)

This balance contains silicic acid, a weak acid that also forms during silicon mineral hydrolysis (Lenntech.com,
2014). This might explain the observation in Table 9.1 when Silicon Oxide is added to water and the solution
turns cloudy.

Phosphorus Pentoxide reacts very vigorously with water and can be used as a powerful
dehydrating agent. Various acids are formed depending upon the amount of water used
but, in excess water, phosphoric (V) acid is formed. (Creative-chemistry.org.uk, 2014)
P4O10(s) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO4(aq)
Sulphur Dioxide reacts with water to produce Sulphuric(IV) Acid.
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
Chlorine(I) Oxide reacts with water to some extent to give Chloric(I) Acid, HOCl- also
known as hypochlorous acid.
Cl2O + H2O <-> 2HOCl
Solubility In Hexene
The solubility of the oxides in hexane is also means that the solubility of the oxides in
organic solvent. At the molecular level, solubility is controlled by intermolecular forces.
That rule is like dissolves like and it is based on the polarity of the systems. For example,
polar molecules dissolve in polar solvents (e.g. water, alcohols) and non-polar molecules in
non-polar solvents (e.g. the hydrocarbon hexane) (chem.ucalgary.ca, 2014). Therefore in
this case, only non-polar substance will be able to dissolve in organic solvent (hexane). In
order to investigate whether the compounds are polar or nonpolar, we will have to look at
the electronegativity of the elements against oxygen. Below is a list of the
electronegativity of the elements.
Na = 0.93, Mg = 1.31, Al = 1.61, Si = 1.90, P = 2.19, S = 2.58, Cl = 3.16, O = 3.44

According to many textbooks, a non-polar bond is formed with the difference in

electronegativity of <0.5. A polar bond is ranged from 0.5 - 1.7, and an ionic bond is
formed when the electronegativity difference is >1.7. (Chemteam.info, 2014). By
calculating the differences in electronegativity between the elements and oxygen, we
found that Sodium Peroxide, Magnesium Oxide, Aluminium Oxide and Silicon Dioxide are
insoluble in hexane because of their electronegativity difference is larger than 1.7. As for
Phosphorus Pentoxide and Sulphur dioxide, they would be slightly soluble in hexane, and
last but not least, Chlorine(I) Oxide would be very soluble in hexane.
Acid/base nature, pH
The trend in acid-base behavior of period 3 oxides is being summarized as below.
Their acidity increases from left to right, ranging from strongly basic oxides on the left to
strongly acidic ones on the right, with an amphoteric oxide (aluminum oxide) in the
middle. An amphoteric oxide is one which shows both acidic and basic properties.
Sodium peroxide, Magnesium Oxide and are strong basic oxides because they contain the
oxide ion, O2- which has a high tendency to combine with hydrogen ions H + from the water
molecule to form hydroxide ions, OH-. The reaction between oxide ion and water is as
below.
Bla bla bla put your equation here.
The 2- charge oxygen ion attacks and forms a bond with a partially positive hydrogen
atom of the water molecule. The subsequent breaking of the O-H bond produced two
hydroxide ions. For example magnesium oxide,
MgO(s) + H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(s) Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
This process is a sequence from the metal oxide, to the metal hydroxide which dissociates
into aqueous hydroxide and metal ions. Therefore Magnesium Oxide is a basic anhydride.
It produces the magnesium hydroxide in aqueous solution. (Dr. M Pilkington, 2014)
The non-metal oxides (Silicon Dioxide, Phosphorus Pentoxide, Sulphur Dioxide and
Dichlorine Monoxide) react with water to produce what we known as oxo-acids, or oxyacids
(An oxyacid is an acid that contains an oxygen atom bonded to a hydrogen atom and at
least one other element).
Bla bla bla put in your equation here as well
The partially negative oxygen atom of the water molecule will attack the partially positive
non-metal atom. At the same time the oxygen of the non-metal oxide is attracted to one of
the hydrogen atoms from the water. The breaking of the O-H bond of the water molecule
produces an oxoacid which will split into the corresponding aqueous anion and hydronium
ions.

For example, Phosphorus Pentoxide, P4O10 reacts with water to give 4 moles of
Phosphoric Acid H3PO4,that in turn dissociates into dihydrogen phosphate ion and
hydronium ion.
H3PO4(aq) + H2O(l) <---> H2PO4-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
However, this theory is unable to explain why Silicon Dioxide has a slight acidic property,
because Silicon Dioxide is almost insoluble in water (explained above in Silicon Dioxides
action of water ). Therefore we reacted Silicon Dioxide with a base, which is sodium
hydroxide solution, but it must be hot and concentrated. A colourless solution of sodium
silicate will be formed.
SiO2 (s)+ 2NaOH(aq) -> Na2SiO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Aluminium Oxide is amphoteric. It will have reactions with both base and acid.
In this reaction, aluminium oxide is showing the basic side of its amphoteric nature.

In this reaction, aluminium oxide is showing the basic side of its amphoteric nature.
Aluminium oxide reacts with hot, concentrated sodium hydroxide solution to give a
colourless solution of sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate.

Throughout the entire experiment, precaution steps are taken to ensure our safety while
conducting the experiment. One of the precaution steps taken was to wear gloves and
safety googles when handling corrosive chemicals like Phosphorus Pentoxide. Next up,
some chemicals like Sulphur Dioxide have a choking smell, we were extra cautious to not
breath in too much of the Sulphur Dioxide gas while preparing the it from sodium sulphite
and conc hydrochloric acid.

Conclusion