23.

Control Terminology for Hydrostatic Transmissions

Craig Klocke
Sauer-Danfoss (US) Company

ABSTRACT
This paper examines various types of control systems for
hydrostatic transmissions as applied in mobile
machinery. Because there is a lack of standardized
terminology
and
descriptions
for
hydrostatic
transmissions within the industry, misunderstandings can
result which could cause potentially significant problems
for the OEM and/or the end user of the machine. The
introduction of more complex system solutions increases
the need to explain the control of hydrostatic
transmissions as simply as possible. The operator of a
machine propelled by a hydrostatic transmission is not
interested in the functionality of the components or the
terminology that describes them.

between benefit and cost). Decades ago, technology

limited what was possible; whereas today, it is the
customers cost/benefit ratio decision that has a high
influence on the level of technology utilized for a given
application.

Simple control types (i.e. single input signal) are

reviewed before moving on to those with secondary
functions, and then more complex control systems
enabled by electronics (specifically software and
sensors) are discussed. Explanations and examples of
Load Independent and Load Dependent controls will be
provided. This paper will also examine and compare
how the same function (e.g. displacement control) can
be achieved by different methods (i.e. mechanical or
electronic means).
The introduction of integrated electronics enables todays
vehicle design engineer to dynamically match the control
system to the vehicle function automatically with
embedded software or at the touch of a preprogrammed
button! Drive control strategies can be optimized for
different machine functions and even customized by the
end-user. The Tier 4 emissions regulations and the ever
increasing demands for lower operating costs are driving
machine designers to shift to digital control solutions that
dynamically optimize machine performance. An example
of this technology is discussed for an Automotive
Control or AC digital control system as applied on a
Telehandler or Rough Terrain Forklift machine. Applying
integrated electronics to the hydrostatic transmission
system offers the machine designer and operator
significant benefits in flexibility and performance from a
dynamically optimized propel function.

Figure 1: Closed Circuit Variable Displacement Axial

Piston Pump (Sauer-Danfoss H1P) [1]

INTRODUCTION
The evolution of control methods for hydrostatic
machines is similar to many other paths evolution has
taken. As with other subject areas, the pace of the
evolution of hydrostatic machines is a balance between
technology (what is possible) and value (the ratio

Figure 2: Closed Circuit Variable Displacement Bent

Axis Piston Motor (Sauer-Danfoss H1B) [2]

This paper discusses only closed circuit, (sometimes

incorrectly referred to as closed loop), hydrostatic
transmissions
utilizing
variable
displacement
components. The reader should understand the basic
design of closed circuit variable displacement pumps and
motors. Figure 1 shows a cross-section of a closed
circuit variable displacement axial piston pump with
swashplate,
servo
control and
integral
fixed
displacement charge pump. A cross-section of a closed
circuit variable displacement bent-axis piston motor is
shown in Figure 2. Other types of pumps and motors
(e.g. gear pumps and motors) are not discussed as they
have fixed rather than variable displacement and as such
do not provide proportional control.

DIRECT CONTROL
Direct Displacement Control (DDC) provides the means
to position the pump swashplate between maximum
displacement in one direction and maximum
displacement in the opposite direction.
This is
normally/typically accomplished by attaching a lever
directly to the swashplate trunnion. See Figure 4.

Closed circuit systems connect the pump inlet to the

motor (or load) outlet; while open circuit systems connect
the pump inlet to the reservoir. Open loop and closed
loop more accurately describe control terminology
open loop is without feedback and closed loop is with
feedback to create an error signal. Hence, a closed
circuit system can have either an open loop or a closed
loop control system. But, more about that later. . .
Hydrostatic Control Development

Figure 4: Pump Design with Direct Displacement

Control (DDC) [3]

Direct

Mechanical

Electrical

Figure 3: Evolution of Control Types

As shown in Figure 3, control of hydrostatic
transmissions started with rudimentary methods (i.e.
direct control). It then evolved into simple machines
(i.e. levers and/or positioning cylinders to make a servo
control) before moving to more sophisticated devices
(i.e. electronics). Today, the evolution has progressed to
embedded electronic systems comprised of integrated
sensors and micro-processors with CAN interfaces.
First to be discussed is a simple closed circuit
hydrostatic system comprised of a variable pump and
fixed motor. The speed of the motor shaft is determined
by the following three factors:

The range of motion required for the Direct Displacement

Control lever is exactly the same as the swashplate and
is typically 15 to 18 degrees from a center or neutral
position, depending on the design of the pump. For a
15 cc/rev pump, the internal forces may require 3040 Nm of torque on the displacement lever to hold
maximum displacement in all operating conditions. For a
25 cc/rev pump, the torque requirement might be as
much as 80 Nm of torque on the displacement lever. In
addition, vibration can also be transferred from the pump
swashplate to the operator via the displacement lever.
Although force and vibration levels can be modified
somewhat by changes in porting area of the valve plate,
compromises are required. For these reasons, direct
displacement is less common for larger pump
displacements. In general, Direct Displacement Control
is not available on pumps larger than 45-50 cc/rev
displacement because of the high forces and power
levels required to quickly move the swashplate.

1. Pump speed
2. Pump displacement

SERVO CONTROL

3. Motor displacement

With larger machines, larger displacement pumps are

required. The higher level of control torque and power
levels required to use Direct Displacement Control on
larger pumps led to the development of servo systems to
position the swashplate. (Longer levers were not a
practical solution due to the increased distance required
to move from full displacement in one direction to full
displacement in the other.) Another benefit of the servo
system was the reduction in vibration transferred to the
operator and corresponding lower operator fatigue.

Pump speed is usually a fixed ratio to engine speed. For

a system comprised of a fixed displacement motor,
variable displacement pump, and fixed engine speed, the
motor shaft speed will be controlled by pump
displacement. Next, different methods will be examined
of how to control pump displacement (i.e. swashplate
position).

Servo systems consist of one or more control pistons

used to apply a force to the swashplate and a device to
regulate the pressure (i.e. force) applied to the control
piston(s). Servo pressure is typically regulated by a
proportional three-position four-way valve, although other
systems may use different designs. Typically, a low
pressure source on the pump (i.e. charge pressure) is
used to supply the servo system. Designs also may use
system pressure or other medium or high pressure
sources on the pump or machine to feed the servo
system. For simplicity, the valve that controls the
position of the servo system will be referred to as the
servo valve for the remainder of this paper.

Figure 5: Pump Design with Mechanical Input

Control (Servo Control) [4]
The means of controlling the servo system has many
variations. The first category is input signal. The input
signal or control method of the servo valve is typically
one of the following:
1. Mechanical Input
2. Hydraulic Input
3. Electrical Input
Mechanical Input: Replacing a Direct Displacement
Control pump with one having Mechanical Input for the
servo valve drastically reduces the forces (i.e. control
torque) required by the operator. A servo valve with
Mechanical Input may only require 2-5 Nm of control
torque to reach maximum pump displacement (vs 40 Nm
or even as much as 80 Nm for a Direct Displacement
Control pump depending on size). Although the servo
system (i.e. control pistons) typically must increase in
size with pump displacement, the control torque level is
generally constant for a large range of pump sizes (e.g.
25-250 cc/rev). The Mechanical Input generally provides
a position input command to the servo valve that
generates the required servo pressure to move the
swashplate to the commanded position. A typical input
signal range for Mechanical Input servo valve is
25 degrees with a threshold value of 5-10% of the
range. Mechanical Displacement Control or MDC is an
example of a common name for a control with
Mechanical Input.
Hydraulic Input: A servo valve with hydraulic input can be
designed for any signal pressure range. Typically, most
hydraulic input servo systems utilize low pressure (e.g.

charge pressure) as the signal pressure source and the

supply pressure to the servo valve. Hydraulic Input servo
systems provide the flexibility of adding additional logic
and/or control valves in series or parallel with the
operator input. Designs utilizing system pressure to
supply the servo system are more common on motors
and very large pumps. The advantage of system
pressure input is the reduction in control piston size to
generate the same force as with a low pressure source.
The Hydraulic Input provides a pressure input to the
servo valve that generates the required servo pressure
to move the swashplate to the commanded position. A
typical input signal range for Hydraulic Input servo valves
would be 10 bar with a threshold value of 1-2 bar.
Hydraulic Displacement Control or HDC is one common
name for a control with Hydraulic Input.
Electrical Input: A servo system with electrical input can
be designed for almost any type of input signal.
Historically, these have been either low current DC or
high current PWM with 12 or 24 volt supply. The
Electrical Input provides current to a solenoid that is
converted to a force acting on the pilot valve or spool of
the servo valve. This force caused the pilot valve or
spool to generate servo pressure to position the
swashplate to the desired position. A typical input signal
range for Electric Input servo valves would be 100 mA
for low current DC and 1 to 2 A max current for 12 volt
PWM.
Designs for 24 volt are also common and
generally require half the current of a comparable 12 volt
system. Threshold values are generally 10-15% of the
input range for low current DC and 30-50% for high
current PWM. Electrical Displacement Control or EDC is
one common name for a control with Electrical Input.
Although less common, CAN-based designs are
becoming more popular.

TYPE OF CONTROL
The machine operator is primarily interested in
controlling machine function i.e. for a hydrostatic propel
drive this would be the speed and/or torque applied to
the drive wheels. Generally, the hydrostatic pump
control is commanding swashplate position and
consequently output flow of the pump. Pump controls
can be divided into two categories either Load
Dependent or Load Independent. Machine function
cannot be understood (or explained) until the operation
of each of the relevant components is understood. The
first step is to understand the function of each
component so that the resulting system function can be
described.
The second category of controlling a pump servo system
is the output (i.e. what is controlled by the input signal).
The output controlled by the servo valve is typically either
load dependent or load independent.
Load dependent controls provide a pump swashplate
position that, with a fixed input signal, can change with
operating conditions (i.e. load). These load conditions
include input speed, system pressure and temperature.

Load dependent controls are typically described by one

of the following names:
1. Non-Feedback or Non-Feedback Proportional
2. Proportional
3. Soft control
The dependency on system pressure and input speed
can be changed by design parameters. See Figure 6 for
a typical example of system pressure load dependency
for a Non-Feedback Proportional Control with electrical
input (i.e. NFPE).

even for a constant pump swashplate position, the

output flow will not be exactly constant for all load
conditions due to volumetric efficiency. In a perfect
component (i.e. no losses) the output flow would be the
product of speed and pump displacement, but in an
actual machine, the losses that change with operating
conditions or load (e.g. input speed, system pressure
and temperature) will change the flow. Figure 7 shows
the load independent characteristics for an electrical
input servo control (e.g. EDC Electrical Displacement
Control). In addition to the basic or primary control
function (i.e. load dependent or load independent),
secondary functions can be added. These secondary
functions typically provide an over-ride or limiting
feature. These functions may either be integrated into
the control or incorporated into the hydrostatic
transmission circuit. Examples of these secondary
functions include system pressure limiting and control
over-ride. A control over-ride, when activated, will override the normal input command with a command for the
swashplate to move to the neutral position (i.e. zero
displacement).

CHOICE OF CONTROL TYPE

Figure 6: Load Dependent Control NFPE [5]

Load Independent controls provide a constant pump
swashplate position (i.e. displacement control) that, with
a fixed input signal, does not change with operating
conditions (i.e. load). Displacement control is achieved
by providing feedback of swashplate or servo piston
position back to the servo valve via force or position. The
servo valve will adjust the spool position, which changes
servo pressure, to move the swashplate to the
commanded position. It is important to note that

What is the best type of control? It depends not only on

the application, but also on the preference/experience of
the operator or machine designer. If the machine
operator desires a smooth start-up under various load
conditions, then a Load Dependent Control is a good
choice. Applications that require precise vehicle velocity
under various load conditions should use a Load
Independent control. In the past, this choice was made
by the machine designer and it was fixed until the next
design iteration. The operator was forced to use the
control type chosen by the machine designer, regardless
of the machine function, operating conditions or operator
preference. However, digital control systems now allow
the operator and machine designer to have either type of
control at their fingertips.
As described earlier, in Direct Control the operators
input signal (i.e. lever position) determines the
displacement of the pump hence the term Direct
Displacement Control.
Servo pressure control is
achieved by providing feedback of the servo pressure to
the input spool.

DIGITAL CONTROL

Figure 7: Load Independent Control EDC [6]

Digital Control or Electronics is an enabler for more

sophisticated control systems.
With the use of
electronics, control types can be changed at the touch of
a button or automatically without operator input. A basic
control type can be over-ridden or merged with another
using sensors and electronics. The obvious benefit is
increased machine performance (even with un-skilled
operators). Sensors can detect changes in operating
conditions providing information to the electronic control
system which results in optimized performance and
function of the system, more quickly and more accurately
than the best-skilled operator could control the machine.

One example of this merger of control types is

demonstrated by adding a swashplate angle sensor to a
load dependent control. This allows the pump to operate

shown in Figure 9. It is obvious that a large reduction in

hysteresis was achieved with the digital control. A load
independent control with electrical input was tested
under the same conditions and the results are shown in
Figure 10 for comparison. With this digital control
system, the machine designer does not have to decide
which control type to apply. But rather the software
decides (based upon operating conditions) which control
type to utilize. These results demonstrate the ability to
optimize machine performance and function for all
operating conditions!

Figure 8- Hysteresis & Linearity of Load Dependent

Control

Figure 9- Hysteresis & Linearity of Load Dependent

Control with Closed Loop Swashplate Position

Figure 10- Hysteresis & Linearity of Load Independent

Control
as either a load dependent (basic function) or load
independent (via the sensor and closed loop digital
control system) control type. Hysteresis data at 0 bar
system pressure is shown in Figure 8 for a basic load
dependent control with electrical input (e. g. NFPE). A
system comprised of the NFPE control, swashplate
angle sensor, and a digital controller was designed and
TM
built. PLUS+1 electronic hardware and software was
used to provide a digital closed loop control of
swashplate angle. Sample test results of this system are

Figure 11- Closed Circuit Axial Piston Pump with

Integrated Sensors & Embedded Digital
Controller (Sauer-Danfoss H1P) [7]
The next step in control evolution was taken by
integrating the digital controller and swashplate angle
sensor into the pump (see Figure 11). This system
contains a Load Dependent control with speed,
swashplate angle, and pressure sensors. This flexible
system with an embedded digital controller can be
configured to provide Load Dependent or Load
Independent control as well as secondary functions. The
pressure sensors provide the information to perform
electronic pressure limiting function with a fixed setpoint
or a variable setpoint based upon operating conditions
(e.g. temperature, engine speed, etc.). It can also
provide Automotive Control function (Load Dependent
Control with input signal proportional to pump speed) or
non-Automotive Control (Load Dependent Control with
input signal directly from the operator via Human
Machine Interface or HMI).

MOTOR CONTROL
Motor controls have the same general descriptions and
classifications as pump controls. In general, variable
displacement motors may have Load Dependent or Load
Independent Controls with mechanical, hydraulic or
electrical input signals. An additional variant for motors
is the option of two-position control (sometimes
incorrectly labeled two-speed). Motors generally have

Direct Displacement Control available only for smaller

displacements (i.e. <50 cc/rev). Motors generally do not
have Mechanical Input. Consequently, the majority of
variable motors have servo valves with Hydraulic or
Electric Input. As with pumps, electric input signals for
motors are typically either low current DC or high current
PWM with 12 or 24 V supply.
LOAD DEPENDENT: Motors with Load Dependent
control are generally pressure dependent and commonly
labeled pressure compensated or PC. Fixed and
variable setpoints versions are available. Neither version
is directly controlled by the machine operator. They
react automatically to the system pressure in the
hydrostatic circuit and adjust motor displacement
accordingly. When the system pressure is above the
setpoint, motor displacement is increased, thus resulting
in slower speed and greater torque. When the system
pressure is below the setpoint, motor displacement is
reduced resulting in faster speed and lower torque.
Hence, the default or startup position for a motor with
PC control is minimum displacement. Internal system
pressure provides the signal (and typically also the
supply pressure) for the servo valve. Both versions have
the option of a defeat valve or over-ride (e.g. Pressure
Compensated with Over-Ride = PCOR). With the OverRide activated, the motor is commanded to maximum
displacement regardless of system pressure.
LOAD INDEPENDENT These controls are generally
proportional or two-position and commonly labeled
displacement control. Load Independent controls for
motors are very similar in function to those for Pumps.
Secondary functions such as Pressure Compensator
over-ride are available in fixed or proportional versions.
Electrical Displacement Control and Electric Proportional
Control are two common names for a Load Independent
control with Electrical Input. Load Independent controls
are well suited for applications that require precise speed
control such as dual-path machines like crawlers.

THE COMPLETE PUMP/MOTOR SYSTEM

In general, all combinations of Load Dependent and
Load Independent control types for pumps and motors
are possible. Dual path systems and circuits that use
one pump with multiple motors generally do not mix
control types among the individual motors.
If the machine has an engine speed dependent control
strategy, then a Load Dependent pump control is usually
required. The motor control may be either Load
Dependent or Load Independent. The Load Dependent
motor control will automatically adjust displacement to
match engine power to load. The Load Independent
motor control can function similar to a gearbox or as an
automatic ratio system with a Pressure Compensator
over-ride function.
Machines that use an engine speed independent control
generally do not use a Load Dependent pump control.
Although the Load Independent pump control provides

precise speed control of the machine, a horsepower

management or anti-stall system may be needed to
prevent the engine from being overloaded. The Load
Independent pump may be used with either Load
Dependent or Load Independent motor control. The
Load Independent motor control can function similar to a
gearbox or be used in a phased system providing
smooth speed control through the entire operating range.
It can also provide an automatic ratio system with a
Pressure Compensator over-ride function.
A Telehandler is a machine that operates in different
work modes. Rapid reversing and quick speed changes
are required for some work modes and others demand
smooth starting and stopping. A digital control system
provides the flexibility of operating the electronic pump
and motor controls as Load Independent or Load
Dependent allowing the operator, or the control system,
to select the best control type based on the conditions. A
subset of Load Dependent control is an Automotive
Control or AC. The AC is dependent upon both engine
speed and load. The HMI for AC typically includes a foot
pedal controlling engine speed and an FNR controlling
direction of machine travel.
To illustrate why an operator would choose a particular
control type, the behavior of a Telehandler with AC
accelerating from zero speed to maximum travel speed
is given below. The operator first selects forward from
an F-N-R lever controlling travel direction and depresses
a foot pedal controlling engine speed. Depressing the
pedal proportionally increases the engine speed from low
idle towards high idle. When the AC senses that engine
speed has crossed a predefined threshold, it triggers a
pump current command per the Engine Speed Drive
map (i.e. Engine speed vs Pump current).
The
Automotive Control knows which direction the pump
swashplate should be actuated (if at all) by the position
of the F-N-R lever. The pump current is converted to
servo pressure in the pump servo valve. The servo
pressure applies a force to the control piston causing the
pump swashplate to move towards maximum
displacement. The actual pump swashplate position is a
result of a balance of the forces acting upon it. For
example, if the machine encounters a high load that
increases system pressure, pump displacement is
reduced as a result of the force balance.
The output flow of the pump is converted to wheel
rotation by the motor. A Load Dependent (i.e. Pressure
Compensated) motor control starts at minimum
displacement and automatically increases motor
displacement when the system pressure exceeds the
setpoint value and then reduces displacement when
pressure drops below the setpoint. For aggressive
machine acceleration (or when heavily loaded), the
system pressure will probably exceed the Pressure
Compensator setpoint and motor displacement will be
adjusted during machine acceleration.

SUMMARY & CONCLUSIONS

This paper examined the various types of control
systems for hydrostatic transmissions as applied in
mobile machinery. Standard terminology for control
types (i.e. Load Dependent and Load Independent) was
introduced and examples of typical performance data
provided. Controls were further defined by classifying
their Input Signal (i.e. Mechanical, Hydraulic or
Electrical).
Secondary control functions such as
pressure limiter and control over-ride are utilized in many
machines where hydrostatic transmissions fulfill the role
of propel.
The introduction of electronics (i.e. sensors and digital
control) for hydrostatic transmissions provides the
opportunity to design more complex system solutions.
These new systems are actually built up from the basic
control types and/or functions introduced and described
at the beginning of this paper.
In many cases,
mechanical devices and control functions are being
replaced by electronic solutions. Test data was provided
comparing hysteresis for a mechanical Load
Independent Control with that of an electronic solution.
The electronic Load Independent Control system is
comprised of a Load Dependent Control, swashplate
angle sensor, and digital controller. The electronic
solution provides improved hysteresis as well as the
flexibility of either Load Independent or Load Dependent
functionality.
In fact, hydrostatic transmission
components are available with integrated sensors and an
embedded digital controller that provide a very high
degree of flexibility in control function. These electronic
systems with sensors and digital controller are enabling
todays machine designer (and the operator) to adjust
control function and machine performance on-the-fly to
optimum levels. This is needed more than ever due to
the tightening Tier 4 regulations and demand for lower
operating costs with increasing fuel prices.

REFERENCES
1) Sauer-Danfoss Literature, 520L0958,
October 2010, page 8.
2) Sauer-Danfoss Literature, 11037153,
Sep 2010, page 6.
3) Sauer-Danfoss Literature, 520L0635,
October 2010, page 41, 58.
4) Sauer-Danfoss Literature, 520L0603,
August 2010, page 29.
5) Sauer-Danfoss Literature 11063344,
Jul 2010, page 14.
6) Sauer-Danfoss Literature 11063344,
Jul 2010, page 10.
7) Sauer-Danfoss Literature 11071849,
Oct 2010, cover page.

based at the Ames, Iowa location. He has held various

technical & leadership roles during his 30 year career at
Sauer-Danfoss. His professional career started at John
Deere Ottumwa Works. Klocke holds two patents and
graduated from Iowa State University with a degree in
Agricultural Engineering. Klocke may be contacted at
cklocke@sauer-danfoss.com.

DEFINITIONS, ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS

closed circuit - hydrostatic systems where the pump inlet
is connected to the motor (or load) outlet
closed loop - a control system with feedback (used to
create an error signal)
DC Direct Current
DDC Direct Displacement Control
EDC Electrical Displacement Control
FNR Forward, Neutral, Reverse
HDC Hydraulic Displacement Control
HMI - human machine interface
hydrostatic system transmission system consisting of
hydraulic pump(s), hydraulic motor(s) and ancillary
components (e.g. valves, filter, hose, etc.) using
hydraulic fluid to transfer energy from a power
source (i.e. engine) to drive a load (i.e. propel a
machine)
MDC Mechanical Displacement Control
Neutral swashplate position for pump displacement of
zero
NFPE Non Feedback Proportional Electric

Rev BA,
Rev CE,
Rev EJ,
Rev FF,

open circuit - hydrostatic systems where the pump inlet is

connected to the reservoir
open loop a control system without feedback (no error
signal)
PLUS+1 product family of digital controllers and HMI
devices

Rev CA,
PWM Pulse Width Modulated
Rev CA,
Rev BB,

CONTACT
Craig Klocke is currently Leader of the Global Propel
Systems Technology Team for Sauer-Danfoss and

servo valve - a valve that controls the position of the

servo system (i.e. swashplate) proportional to an
input signal