INTRODUCTION

SUMMARY AND ORGANIZATION

The continued refinement of advanced technologies is paramount for successful well completions when drilling in high-risk, high-cost environments
(for example, ultra-deep water). There remain significant challenges associated with extreme depths, higb temperatures, and situations where the small
differences between formation pore pressure and wellbore pressures will
unintentionally fracture a formation. Steering wells through small reservoir
zones require new, complex downhole tools. In the overall well construction
process, downhole tool selection is an important factor.
There are many downhole tools currently available in the market (some
of the tools that can be used in bottomhole assembly (BHA) are shown in
Figure 1.1). Some of these tools are unique and used for specific operations,
while other tools have multiple, generic purposes. Before selecting a downhole tool for a particular BHA or a drillstring, a basic knowledge and understanding of the fundamental theory behind the tool is essential so that you
can effectively use the tool at optimum operating conditions. Whether the
tool is simple or complex, your ultimate aim is to derive its full potential.
Also, some of these tools are used for energy conversion, and they need
meticulous planning so that the operating variables are optimized properly.
Manufacturers usually provide performance characteristics of these tools,
which you can use to accomplish the important task of evaluating their performance under downhole conditions. To ensure that the tools have a reasonable life, they must be used optimally. Some of the tools are very simple and
work on fundamental operating principles.
Many times the absence of all downhole drilling tools in one place
inhibits tbe ability to visualize the usage. Simple crossover sub to complex
tools, such as hydromechanical jars, are necessary to understand the working
principle. Often, a unique combination of downhole tools are used for which
a knowledge of the energy conversion mechanism, the limitation of the tools,
1

7' "'

CHAPTER 1

FIGURE 1.1 Rotary drilling system.

and the vulnerability of these tools is required to effectively use them in the
system. Even though the tools' performance characteristics, specifications,
and operation details often lack a detailed explanation of the underlying principle, energy conversion, and operating envelop are necessary. Frequently,
drilling engineers construe that greater importance is given to the operation
of the tools rather than the fundamental theory behind the operation. This
often prevents the tools from operating at optimum parameters. Your primary aim should be to focus on the detailed analysis of various parameters,
coupled with the tools that help to add additional dimensions to the well
planning process. You should use the performance characteristics given at
ambient conditions to redraw the operating envelope for the downhole conditions encountered in that particular well. Often, it may be ambiguous initially, but it can be corrected or fine tuned as more data are extracted from
the well as the drilling progresses.

Introduction

Within the last decade, numerous downhole drilling and cementing tools
have been introduced to the market. The phenomenal increase in the tools is
evident through new downhole technologies such as point-the-bit, push-thebit, etc. Of all the operations used in upstream petroleum operation, drilling
tools, perhaps the most complicated, provide the most reliable results. The
evolution of bits from a simple design to a highly complex, forced-balanced
expandable bit is one example.
The drilistring, the major component of the whole drilling system, is
designed to connect the bit to the surface tool and equipment and provide a
conduit for circulation of the drilling fluid. The drilistring consists of bit, bit
sub, bottomhole assembly, and drillpipes. A typical bottomhole assembly
consists of ddllcollars, different downhole tools, and heavy-weight drillpipe.
Various downhole tools such as stabilizers, reamers, positive displacement
motors, etc. are added for various purposes. These tools are added to achieve
best bit performance so that a usable and less tortuous hole is drilled. (Figure 1.2 shows some of the drilistring and BHA hookups). The bit is rotated

> Stabilizer

>- Drillcollars

- MWD Tools
^ Mud Motor

FIGURE 1.2 Bottomhole assembly.

Sub
Underreamer
Bit

CHAPTER 1

using either a rotary table with a kelly bushing or a downhole motor.

Depending on the mode of operation, the drillstring and the downhole tools
are exposed to stresses and torque. Improper design of the drillstring can
result in the failure of the drillstring components.
Bottomhole assembly with different tools is an important part of the
overall well planning process to have good bit-BHA performance. This
involves modeling and well construction design experience because the BHA
response controls the wellbore inclination and azimuth. BHA and the downhole tool selection involves the inclusion of simple to complex tools in addition to the primary drillstring components such as drillpipes, heavy-weight
drillpipes, and drillcoliars. See Figure 1.3.
Many technological advances have been made in the design of bit and
hole-opening tools. The development of various new tools has contributed
greatly to the advancement of downhole tools technology. The most recent
advance is the ream-while-drilling tools with polycrystalline diamond com-

Drill pipe

>

Drillcoliars
Stabilizer

MWD Tools

Mud Motor

Sub
Underreamer
Bit

FIGURE 1.3 Drillstring.

nlroduction

pact (PDC) technology, which generates cutting action by shearing. Although

PDC bits have inherent advantages, bit balling is still not fully understood.
The bit is the common denominator for all downhole driiling tools.
Chapter 2 includes the optimization of various drilling parameters, such
as weight on bit, bit rotational speed, and flowrate, to satisfy the desired
objective functions of maximum rate of penetration, etc. When the flow is
split, hydraulic energy must be used optimally in achieving not only the
desired rate of penetration but also to maintain proper hole-cleaning beneath
the bit as well as at split components. Conventional hydraulic optimization
criteria, such as the maximizing concepts of bit hydraulic power, jet impact
force, impact force per square inch of tbe drilled hole, and jet velocity, must
be balanced between the split-flow components so that the desired energy
level is obtained at the respective cutting tools. After establishing the fundamentals of the bits, the bits are given an optimization treatment. A new type
of nozzle is also discussed, along with the fundamental parameter calculation for hydraulic horsepower per square inch.
Chapter 3, Tubulars, discusses loading, torque, buckling, stresses, and
fatigue. For basic understanding of tubulars see my book Drilling Engineering (Pennwell Publishers, 2007). This chapter also discusses the procedure
to facilitate the calculation and estimation of the bending stress magnification, and, using advanced models, presents a theoretical understanding of the
effects of corrosion on tubulars.
Chapter 4, Miscellaneous Downhole Tools, covers stabilizers, reamers,
key-seat wipers, hole-cleaning tools, stand-off devices, rotary subs, circulating subs, downhole blowout preventers, mechanical friction reduction tools,
and coring tools, with emphasis on the underlying theory and principles.
There are several varieties of subs intended for operations ranging from simple to complex. This book does not include an exhaustive discussion but
addresses typical subs. It provides the selection criteria and the most commonly represented tool specifications wherever possible.
Chapter 5, Downhole Motors, covers various bit-driving tools such as
positive displacement motors, turbines, and downhole motors. The downhole motors that can be used are percussion hammer, positive displacement
motor, turbine, and electric and square motors, but only positive displacement motors and turbines are presently accepted for use. Recent improvements in bit technology have facilitated vast improvements in downhole
steerable tools. At the present time, downhole motors have inherently become
a workhorse as well as a weaker drilling component. Consequently, service
companies are developing an efflcient downhole motor to break the barriers
of a weak link in the drilling system. Special emphasis is placed on the

CHAPTER 1

motor's power section. This section also describes the advantages and disadvantages of percussion, positive displacement, and turbine motors. Turbodrills are compared with positive displacement motors. Also described are
electrodrill and certain conceptual designs of miscellaneous downhole motors.
Generalized equations for cross-sectional areas of shaft, housing, volume generated, and torque for multilobe motors help identify opportunities
to improve the motor design. Tbe optimal relationship between the pitch of
the motor and the diameter of the housing is obtained to achieve a maximum
motor torque. This helps to optimally relate the vertical cross-sectional geometry with the horizontal cross section. Apart from these intrinsic parameters,
the worked out examples and theory applications incorporated give meaning
to tbe abstraction ofthe theory.
Chapter 6, Impact Tools, addresses shock tools, bumper subs, jars, and
accelerators. Even though analysis of the operating variables is complex,
simple methodology is presented to enable you to clearly understand the
operations. These tools can also be used with fishing strings apart from the
normal drillstring. The practical usefulness ofthe theory, backed by fundamental and optimal analysis, is demonstrated with numerical examples.
For wellbore deviation (hole inclination) and wellbore torsion, downhole directional tools play an important part (there are several directional
tools). Chapter 7, Deflection Tools, discusses deviation tools including bent
subs, whipstocks, double-bend assembly, kick pads, and eccentric stabilizers. The chapter also discusses the placement and angle calculations and
wellbore torsion created using these tools. It is important to recognize that
the proper placement of these tools is crucial for obtaining desired wellpath.
Fishing is an unwanted, nonproductive operation in drilling. Chapter 8
discusses some ofthe economics and costs involved with Ushing operations,
including special downhole tools related to the fishing drilling tools.
Chapter 9, Drillstem Testing Tools, covers the various tools associated
with these operations. This chapter is taken from the book Floating Drilling:
Equipment and Its Use: Practical Drilling Technology, Volume 2 by Riley
Sheffield (Gulf Publishing. 1980). These tools facilitate a more accurate
interpretation ofthe various drilling activities using downbole measured
variables. The reliability of these tools has improved tremendously, and
there are recent technical advancements for working in high-pressure and
high-temperature environments.
Chapter 10, Cementing Tools, includes the accessories and special attachments used for casing and cementing operations. Even though they are not
downhole drilling tools, casing and cementing operations go hand-in-hand

Introduction

with drilling operations, because they are essential for the completion operations of a drilling phase prior to the next phase of the well construction process.
Chapter 11, Coiled-Tubing Drilling Tools (CT), covers special downhole tools related to coiled-tubing drilling, which is very appropriate for
slim-hole drilling technology because it involves a continuous drillstring
permitting fast tripping in and out of the hole, as well as continuous fluid circulation. The benefits of coiled-tubing drilling (CTD) are, however, offset
by several disadvantages, such as:
Slow drillbit rate of penetration due to low weight on bit coupled with
possibly inadequate bottomhole cleaning and/or cuttings transport.
Frequent failures of downhole motors.
Increased time for trajectory corrections due to inability to rotate coiled
tubing.
Short fatigue life of CT and a relatively high cost of CT surface units.
While coiled-tubing drilling represents a small fraction of the many uses
of coiled tubing, it is still by far the most exciting and promising application
of coiled tubing, owing to the possibility of drilling in a true underbalanced
condition. There are mainly two systems that can be used in coiled-tubing
drilling: drilling by motor and jet drilling. In coiled-tubing drilling by motor,
the tubing conveys a hydraulically powered drilling motor to the target.
Pumps located at the surface furnish the power necessary to rotate the drillbit. On the other hand, jet drilling does not require a motor. Fluid (liquid or
air) is pumped against the target and erodes it away. However, jet drilling
technology has not yet evolved to the point of making it a feasible alternative, and thus, coiled tubing by motor remains the most widely used technique. The equipment required for coiled-tubing drilling operations consists
of a trailer-mounted tubing reel, a tubing injector head with guide arch,
blowout-preventer stacks for live well control, hoisting system, drill-fluid
circulating and handling system, bottomhole assemblies for drilling, surveying, and the power, hydraulic, and control systems. Figure 1.4 shows the typical equipments used in horizontal coiled-tubing drilling.
The technological advances in downhole tools have contributed significantly to overall cost reduction and successful well completion over the past
decade. As we seek to exploit deep and ultra-deep wells and in a more hostile environment, implementation and introduction of more downhole tools
and real-time monitoring will continue to play a major role in combating the
costly problems.

CHAPTER 1

Tubing i
Injector C

Tubing Powei
F^h^4eel
Suppty.

Collad Tubing
with Wirallna

i^>s^
Whipstock 1

J I

Adjustable
Handling
Sub
Sub
Orienting Chec /
Bant
Corinecl Sub
Valva / /
Sub

-^""T

""f^^^^
, /
1
Drill Collar UWO

Downhote MolO'

FIGURE 1.4 Coiled-tubing drilling system.

OVERVIEW, CONCEPTS, AND DEFINITIONS

This introductory chapter presents some of the basic terms involved in
hydraulics and solid mechanics analysis. A review of the engineering concepts helps not only to increase tbe understanding of these concepts, but also
facilitates more reliable and effective tool usage. The descriptions of various
terms are simple enough and readers are advised, if needed, to read other
books to gain more fundamental knowledge. The theory presented in the
chapters can be further expanded to include fairly complex downhole-tool
modeling for design and well planning purposes. More importantly, readers
should realize that rigorous calculations and optimizations may be needed to
analyze the system as a whole.
The scope of this book does not include a detailed discussion about the
fluid and solid mechanics involved with downhole tools. However, the purpose of the subtopics is to make available a concise and adequate summary
of the commonly used concepts and definitions. This book includes the relevant definitions and terminology so that the reader understands them while
reading about the tools in different chapters. A table of commonly used conversion factors between the unit systems is provided at the end of this book.
Readers also are advised to refer to my Drilling Engineering.

Introduction

Loading
The loading type affects the tubulars' and tools' behavior. Tubular and downhole tools undergo the following types of loading:
Static loadingshort duration. The tools or tubulars will be in equilibrium condition for the short duration with a maximum loading.
Static loadinglong duration. Tools or tubulars undergo maximum
load for an appreciably long duration.
Repeated loadingshort duration. Tools or tubulars undergo a loading or reversal stress wholly or partially many times in succession,
rapidly or slowly for a short duration.
Repeated loadinglong duration. Tools or tubulars undergo a loading
or reversal stress wholly or partially many times in succession rapidly
or slowly for a long duration.
Dynamic loading. This loading occurs when the drillstring undergoes
sudden loading due to impact, vibration, acceleration, etc. It also undergoes complex nonlinear stress levels.
Axial Moment of Inertia
The moment of inertia for a cross-sectional area is a measurement of the
capacity to resist bending: The larger the moment of inertia, the less the
capacity to bend.
Axial moment of inertia is calculated as:

I, = jy'dA

(1.1)
(1.2)
(1.3)

where d = outer diameter

dj = internal diameter
Polar Moment of Inertia
The polar area moment of inertia for a cross-sectional area is the measurement of the capacity to resist torsion: The larger the polar moment of inertia,
the less the capacity to twist.

y-

10

CHAPTER 1

= jr'dA

(1.4)

J = I, + Iy

(1-5)

For cylinder:
)

(1.6)

Therefore, polar moment of inertia and axial moment of inertia can be

related as:
J = 21

(1.7)

Bending Stiffness
Bending stiffness or flexural stiffness (El, lbf-in.^) is the product of the
Young's modulus and the moment of inertia. It measures the resistance
to bending.

Torsional Stiffness
Torsional stiffness (GJ, Ibf-in.^) is the product of modulus of rigidity and the
polar moment of inertia, and represents the resistance of a beam to twisting.
Flexural stiffness or beam stiffness and torsional stiffness are influenced by
material and structural properties of the beam. For most materials E will be
about 2.6 G.

Stress-Strain Curve
Figure 1.5 shows the stress-strain curve of ductile material under tensile
force F The proportional limit is shown up to a point where the stress (F/A)
and strain j are proportional. As the load is increased, the material will stretch
rapidly, and the value is called the yield point of the material (see Figure 1.5). After this value there is a sudden decrease in the cross-sectional
area A of the material while the strain is increasing. The curve reaches a point
at which again the cross-sectional area decreases resulting in the load F. The
maximum value of F/A is called the ultimate strength.

Modulus of Elasticity
Tensile or compressive modulus of elasticity. Young's modulus, is defined as
the ratio of unit stress to unit strain and is given as:

Introduction

Yield Stress

11

Ultimate tensile strength

Steel

N
ield Stress

"--^. Afuminum
Ultimate tensile strength

Strain e/

FIGURE 1.5 Stress-strain curve.

(1.8)
where E = modulus of elasticity, psi
a = unit stress, psi
e = unit strain, in.
Equation 1.8 can also be written with other parameters as:
(1.9)
where F
A
e

=
=
=
=

axial force, lbf

cross-sectional area, in.^
total strain or elongation, in.
original length, in.

Poisson's Ratio
Poisson's ratio is defined as the ratio ofthe lateral strain to the longitudinal
strain and is given as:

12

CHAPTER 1

\l = - ^

(1.10)

p
''long

where EI^, = lateral strain, in.

^[ong - longitudinal strain, in.
For most metals Poisson's ratio varies from K to %.
Modulus of elasticity and shear modulus are related to Poisson's ratio
as follows:
E = 2G(1 + ^)

(1.11)

Therefore, \i can be determined from experimental values of E and G.

Minimum Yield Strength
Yield strength is defined as the stress that will result in specific permanent
deformation in the material. The yield strength can be conveniently determined from the stress-strain diagram. Based on the test results minimum and
maximum yield strengths for the tubulars are specified.
Ultimate Tensile Strength
The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of a material in tension, compression, or
shear, respectively, is the maximum tensile, compressive, or shear stress resistance to fracture or rupture. It is equivalent to the maximum load that can be
applied over the cross-sectional area on which the load is applied. The term
can be modified as the ultimate tensile, compressive, or shearing strength.
Fatigue Endurance Limit
The endurance limit pertains to the property of a material and is defined as
the highest stress or range of cyclic stress that a material can be subjected
indefinitely without causing l'ailure or fracture. In other words, the maximum
stress reversal that can be subjected indefinitely many times without producing fracture. The magnitude of the endurance limit of a material is usually
determined from a fatigue test that uses a sample piece of the material.
Twist
When a rod is subjected to torque, it undergoes twist given as:
TI
e = -^
JG

(1.12)

Introduction

where 9
L
T
J
G

=
=
=
=
=

13

angle of twist (radians) (can be > 2n)

length of section, ft
torque, ft-lbf
polar moment of inertia (in.")
modulusof rigidity, psi
E

" 2(1 + \i)

E = modulus of elasticity, psi
\i = Poisson's ratio
For pipe body the polar moment of inertia is
D-Di>)

(1-13)

and for pipe joint,

)

(1-14)

If the exact length of the joint is not known, the length can be approximated
as 5% of the pipe length and the polar moment of inertia can be calculated as:
J

nisi

For drillcollars the calculation is the same as the drillpipe body:

(1-16)
where DQQ =
D[D =
DjOD =
DjiD =

body outside diameter, in.

body inside diameter, in.
tooljoint outside diameter, in.
tooljoint inside diameter, in.

Effective Weight Calculations

Effective weight per unit length can be calculated using the relation: Weight
per foot in drilling mud is the weight per foot in air minus the weight per
foot of the displaced drilling mud.
= w,

X (Dp)' + 0.05 x ( D ^ , ) ' ]

(1.18)

14

CHAPTER 1

Ai =-[0.95 X (iDp)' + 0.05 x (iDj,)']

(1.19)

Without tooljoints:

WB

= w, -)- PiA^ - p A .

In the above equation unit weight of the steel can be given as:
w, = P A

(1-20)

Substituting in Eq. 1.17,

WB = P A + P A - poK

(1-21)

Further cross-sectional areas of the steel or pipe can be given as:

A, = A, - A

(1.22)

Substituting this equation and rearranging the effective weight can be written as:
Ai(pi-Po)

(1.23)

When the inside and outside fluid densities are the same:

j
where

1-

Dp =
Dj, =
EDp =
IDj =
A =
A =
As =
po =

^] = wj 1 - ^ J

is the buoyancy factor

outside diameter of component body

outside diameter of tooljoint
Inside diameter of component body
insider diameter of tooljoint
external area of the component
internal area of the component
cross-sectional area of the steel
annular mud weight at component depth in the wellbore

(1.24)

Introduction

15

PI = internal mud weight at component depth inside the component

p, = density of the steel

Natural Frequency
This is the frequency of a mechanical system at which the system will vibrate
or oscillate freely and is given as:
f n = ^ = : ^ j - hertz
2n
27C V m

(1.25)

It can also be written as:

Cm
where cOn
m
k
C

=
=
=
=

undampedangular frequency of oscillation, rad/sec

mass of the system, lb
stiffness of the spring, Ibf/in.
static compliance of the system, inverse of spring stiffness,
in./lbf

Root Mean Square Displacement, Stress, Amplitude

Forcing function, which induces vibrational responses in the drillstring, is a
stochastic process. Because the drillstring vibration is a random process, calculating a detailed time history response is very difficult and complicated.
So calculation of root mean square (rms) values of responses, such as displacement, stress, phase angle, and amplitude, help to identify the impact of
wear, fatigue, and fretting wear."^

Mud Gradient
Pressure inside the wellbore is expressed in terms of gradient and is expressed
in psi/ft of depth. In oilfield units:
pg = 0.052 X p psi/ft

(1.26)

where p^, = mud weight in ppg

0.052 = ^
(,.27)
144 in.
Hydrostatic pressure, P^, at any measured depth in the wellbore can be
calculated as:

16

CHAPTER 1

Ph = Pg X DivD^Psi

(1-28)

where DTVD = corresponding true vertical depth at the measure depth in ft

Equivalent Mud Weight

The pressure in the wellbore or formation can be expressed in terms of equivalent mud weight (EMW). It is the density that would exert a static pressure
at the consideration depth. A convenient way to compare the pressures at any
depth is

0.052 X D.,d

(1.29)

If the well is deviated a from the vertical, the EMW is given as:
EMW

=
^
0.052 xDj, cosa

(1.30)

where D^ = measure depth

Equivalent Circulating Density

When the fluid is circulated, the frictional pressure loss increases the bottomhole pressure, and the equivalent mud weight is expressed in terms of
equivalent circulating density (ECD). Equivalent circulating density results
from the addition of the equivalent mud weight caused due to the annulus
pressure loss to the original mud weight. This pressure has an effect similar
to an increase in mud weight. ECD is dependent upon the flowrate, density
ofthe fluid rheology, and annular geometry.
Thus, ECD is
ECD = p, +

0.052 X D

(1.31)

,,,
In deviated wells vertical depth should be used and the equation for multiple
sections is:

(1.32)

ECD =
0.052

Introduction

17

EXAMPLE 1.1
Calculate the ECD for the following data:
Inclination of the well = 30
Measured depth = 5,000 ft
Calculated true vertical depth based on minimum curvature
method = 4,330 ft
Annular pressure loss gradient = 0.03 psi/ft
Mud weight = 9.2 ppg
Total annular pressure loss = 0.03 x 5,000 = 150 psi
Pf = 0.036 (psi/ft) X 4,500 (ft) = 162 (psi)
'^'^^ = '' ^ 0.052'x4,330 =

''"''^^

Plastic Viscosity, Yield Point, and Zero Gel Strength

(PV, YP, and Zero Gel)
Plastic viscosity, yield point, and zero-second gel can be calculated from the
Fann reading using the relationships:
PV = e - 6300

(1.33)

YP = 26300 - Ofioo

(1.34)

To = 63

(1.35)

Alternatively, the dial readings can be reverse calculated by using PV,

YP, and zero gel as below:
0300 = PV -h YP

(1.36)

Gx, = 2PV + YP

(1.37)

where S^oo = F^"" dial reading at 600 rpm

6300 = Fann dial reading at 300 rpm
83 = Fann dial reading at 3 rpm
Shear Stress and Shear Rate
Shear stress and shear rate can be calculated using the following relationships:

T, =(0.01065)eHj

18

CHAPTER 1

= (l-065)e-i^l

(1.40)

= (1.7O3)NI

(1.39)

' lsec j

1
where N = dial speed in (
Vsec

Rheological Models
The rheological (flow) properties of the fluid that are used in the downhole
drilling tools are important for successful operation as well as to ascertain
the optimum performance. Fluid can be characterized using the following
rheological models that are commonly used in drilling:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Power law
Binghm plastic
Herschel-Bulkley (yield power law)
Casson
Robertson stiff
Generalized Herschel-Bulkley

Equations for some models and the pressure loss equations and criterion
for those models are presented in the following section.
POWER LAW. Rheological equation for the power-law model can be given as:
T = K/

(1.41)

where y = shear rate (1/sec)

T = shear stress (lb/ft^)
Row behavior index can be given as:
(c

(1.42a)
and for modified power law it can be given as:
n = 3.

YP + PV J

(1.42b)

Introduction

19

where PV = plastic viscosity

YP = yield point
Consistency index, K in

is given as:
ft^sec"

K=

5106300

(1.43a)

(511")

Consistency index, K for modified power law is given as:

YP-H2PV
(l00)(l,022")
Average fluid velocity in pipe (ft/sec):

where D = pipe inside diameter, ft

Q = fluid flowrate, ftVsec
Average fluid velocity in annulus, ft/sec:

where Dp = pipe outside diameter, ft

DH = annulus diameter, ft
Geometry factor for annulus:

i(2n
2n

r'

(1.46)

Geometry factor for pipe:

-^
4n

8"-

(1.47)

20

CHAPTER 1

Reynolds number for pipe:

Reynolds number for the annulus:

Critical Reynolds number for pipe:

Laminar boundary = 3,470 - l,370n
Turbulent boundary = 4,270 - l,370n
Critical Reynolds number for annulus:
Laminar boundary = 3,470 - l,370n
Turbulent boundary = 4,270 - l,370n
Friction factor for pipe:
Laminar:
(1-49)

F =
Transition:
^^log(n)^3^
50

(1.50)

7
Laminar Reynold's number is given as:
RL = 3,470-l,370n

(1-52)

TAI-M

(1.53)

Introduction

21

Turbulent:
_ log(n)-F3.93

(1.54)

50
^_1.75-log(n)

(1.55)

7
'

(1.56)

Rp"

Friction factor for annulus:

Laminar:

E=

24

(1.57)

RA

Transition:
_ log(n) + 3.93
^~

(1.58)

50

_ 1.75-log(n)
b=
7

(1.59)

RL = 3,470 - l,370n

(1.52)

'

[RJ'[

800

2A

(1.60)

Turbulent:
log(n) + 3.93
a=
b=
F. =

(1.61)

50
1.75-log(n)
7

(1.62)
(1.63)

22

CHAPTER 1

Pressure loss in pipe:

(1.64)

where L = pipe or annulus section length, ft

p = fluid density, lbm/ft^
Pressure loss in annulus, lb/ft^:
(1.65)
gc

BINGHAM PLASTIC MODEL In this model the deformation of the fiuid occurs
after a minimum value of shear stress is exceeded. The rheological equation
for the Bingham plastic model is given as:
T = Ty + Ky

(1.66)

Apparent viscosity for annulus:

= PV + 6 2 . 6 7 5 ( Y P ) ( D H - D

(1.67)

Apparent viscosity for pipe:

62.675(YP)

(1.68)

Modified Reynolds number for annulus:

(1.69)

Modified Reynolds number for pipe:

Rp = l,895.28(p)

(1-70)

Introduction

23

Pressure loss in annulus:

IfR,> 2,000, then:

(1.71)

P, =

If laminar flow, then:

.OOO85(PV)Q

(1.72)

Pressure loss in pipe:

If Rp> 2,000, then:

(1.73)
If laminar flow, then:
.00085(PV)Q

(1.74)

Critical velocity and flow in annulus:

2,000 + PVj + R, JPV,^ + I.066(YP,
(1.75)

where PV. =
YP. =

PV lb X sec
47,880.3 ft'
YP lbf
100100ft'

24

CHAPTER 1

Qca = V ^ ^

(1.76)

(DH-DP)'

Critical velocity and flow in pipe:

(2,000-l-PVj
Vr-tj

ca

PV;-.l.O66(YP0(jg
(1.77)

~ ~

gc

Q.a = V . [ ^ y

(1.77a)

ROBERTSON AND STIFF MODEL It is a three-parameter model^^^ to describe the

fluid with yield value and is given as:
T = a(Y + c)"; t > To = ac''

(1.78)

The parameters a and b are similar to the power law consistency index and
fluid exponent, respectively, where as c is given as:
_

f min max ~

T'Y
^1

,A

nQ\

( min

I max

where Ymin = low shear rate

Ymax maximum shear rate
Y = shear rate corresponding to the geometric mean of the shear
stress
CASSDN MODEL It is a two-parameter model*^* to describe the fluid, and the
relationship is

.i^

(1-80)

where ^IQ = Newtonian viscosity

To = yield stress
The coefficients Ty and |io can be evaluated from the Fann data by least
squares linearization of the square roots of the X and Y values.
GENERALIZED HERSCHEL BULKLEY MODEL. This model*'' encompasses the conventional Newtonian, Bingham plastic, Casson, and Herschel Bulkley models.

25

Introduction

Table 1.1 illustrates the relationship of this model with other models. The
model is in parameter form and is given in dimensionless form as follows:
(1.81)

-I-

where y = viscometric shear rate, s '

\i= finite high shear limiting viscosity, Pa-s
T = viscometric shear stress, variable. Pa
To = zero shear stress. Pa
Xfgf = reference fluid shear stress, = 47.88 Pa = 1 lb,/ ft^
m = shear stress exponent
n = shear rate exponent
The generalized Herschel-Bulkley mode! provides the flexibility of
accommodating other models as shown in the table.
Equivalent shear is given as:''*'
(1.82)

X, =

where t,,, = 47.88 Pa (= 1 lbf/ft")

Ye = effective fluid shear rate, directly relating to frictional pressure
loss, s '
TABLE 1.1 " Rheological Models and Parameter Comparison
Parameters

Model
Newtonian
Bingham Plastic
Power Law

Herschel-Bulkley

Casson
Generalized Herschel-Bulkley

^1 = ^

PV

YP

n'

to

to

0.5

0.5

t,,

K'

/ n

26

CHAPTER 1

Flow regime is calculated based on the Reynolds number and is

(1.83)
Tie

where p = fluid density

Df, = hole/casing diameter
Dp = outside diameter of the pipe
Vy = annular velocity
Tie - equivalent viscosity
Equivalent viscosity is TI^ = - ^

(1-84)

where Ti^ = effective viscosity, the ratio of effective shear stress to effective
shear rate
Hydraulic Diameter/Equivalent Diameter
These calculations are useful in several applications, and there are different
definitions and calculation methods. Some of these are presented below. The
equivalent diameter concept helps to use regular pipe flow equations for
other geometries by converting it to equivalent diameter.
The most commonly used definition is the ratio of four times the crosssectional area to the wetted perimeter.
^
Dbyd =

4 X cross-sectional area
^

(1.85)

wetted penmeter
For a rectangular duct of width, W. and height, H, the hydraulic diameter is
2WH
Another criterion to obtain the equivalent diameter given by Lamb is
? -- D^

2_

(\ Qn\

Another simple and convenient form of expression to calculate the equivalent diameter is obtained by comparing the Lamb's equation and the slot
flow approximation for annulus and is

Introduction

27

(1.88)
This equation when compared with tbe Lamb's equation will yield same
results when the ratio Dp/D^, is bigger than 0.3.
The fourth expression is empirical and based on different wells and is
given as:*'*

D =-

D - D -

(1.89)
In

D!

The fifth expression for the equivalent diameter given by Jones and Leung(6)
is
D
Dhy

(1-90)

where D, is

D, =

'"4
The sixth expression is called the Exlog technique and is for power law
fiuids. It applies the correction to the hydraulic diameter calculated using the
first expression and can be expressed as:'
(1-91)

G
where the geometrical parameter G, is given by:
1+
G=

Z
n(4-Z)

where n = power law index

28

CHAPTER 1
^1

Z = 1 - 1-

Ik]

(1.92)

where

Y = 0.37"

(1.93)

Equation of State
Equation of perfect state for density is
p=
where P
M
Z
R
T

PM
ZRT
=
=
=
=
=

(1.94)

pressure
molecular weight
compressibility factor
universal gas constant
temperature

Acoustic Speed
This is the speed at which sound propagates through a medium and is
. Y Yr*^ '

y'^-^f

where R = universal gas constant

T = temperature
Y = ratio of heat capacities and is Yr = ^

Gage and Absolute Pressures

fressure expressed as the difference between the fluid pressure and that of
the surrounding atmosphere is relative to ambient or atmosphere. Absolute
pressure of a fluid is expressed relative to that of vacuum and is given as:
p
p
^abs
*^atin/anibiem

. P
' *^gage

/ I Q:\
V '-"^^

Relationship between gage and absolute pressures are shown in Figure 1.6.

Introduction

Gauge
Pressure
M} solute
Pressure

Atmospheric
Pressure
Zero Pressure

FIGURE 1.6 Absolute gage and almospheric pressures.

NOMENCLATURE
BHA
CT
CTD
DST
D
D,.
Dhj,j
D
Dp
ECD
EMW
Fp
Fg
G
Gp
Gy
H
K
L
m
M

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

bottomhole assembly
coiled-tubing drilling
coiled-tubing drilling
drillstem testing
pipe inside diameter
equivalent diameter
hydraulic diameter
annulus diameter
pipe outside diameter
equivalent circulating density
equivalent mud weight
friction factor for pipe
friction factor for annulus
geometry factor
geometry factor for pipe
geometry factor for annulus
height
consistency index
pipe or annulus section length, ft
shear stress exponent
molecular weight

29

30

CHAPTER 1

n = power law index, shear rate exponent

P = pressure
p _ pipe or annulus pressure loss, Ib-sec/ft^
PV3 = apparent viscosity for annulus
PVap = apparent viscosity for pipe, cp
PV^ = apparent viscosity, lb-sec/ft^
Kb. = absolute pressure
Paira/ambient " atmospheric or ambient pressure
Pgage = gage pressure
Q = fluid flowrate, ftVsec
Qca = critical flow rate in annulus, ftVsec
Qcp = critical flowrate in pipe, ft/sec
R = universal gas constant
RA = Reynolds number for annulus
RL = Reynolds number at laminar flow boundary
Rp = Reynolds number for pipe
T = temperature
Vp = average fluid velocity for pipe, ft/sec
V. = average fluid velocity for annulus, ft/sec
Vca = critical velocity in annulus, ft/sec
Vcp = critical velocity in pipe, ft/sec
W = width,in.
YP = yield point, lb/100 ft^
7
compressibility factor
P = fluid density, lb/ft^
,j,
= lateral strain, in.
Clong = longitudinal strain, in.
Tie = equivalent viscosity
T = shear stress, Ib/ft^
to = zero shear stress, lb/ft\ Pa
X^f = reference fluid shear stress, = 47.88 Pa = 1 lbf/
tc = effective shear stress Ib/ft^
y = shear rate (1/sec)
y = viscometric shear rate, s"'
\i-~ = finite high shear limiting viscosity, Pa-s
y = effective shear rate (I/sec)
_

Y, = ratio of heat capacities, 1 -

Introduction

31

REFERENCES
1. Samuel, R., Schottle, G., and Gupta, D.B., "Critical Speed Analysis
Estimation and Avoidance: A Case History," SPE 110803, IADC-India
Conference, October 2006.
2. Robertson, R.E. and Stiff, H.A., "An Improved Rheological Model for
Relating Shear Stress to Shear Rate in Drilling Fluids and Cement
Slurries," Trans AIME, Soc. Pe. Eng. J., 261, 31-37, 1976.
3. Mazumdar, J., Biofluid Mechanics, World Scientific, Singapore, 1992.
4. Becker, XE., Morgan, R.G., Chin, W.C., and Griffith, J.E., "Improved
Rheology Model and Hydraulics Analysis for Tomorrow's Wellbore
Fluid Applications," SPE 82415, SPE Production and Operations
Symposium, March 23-25, 2003.
5. Crittendon, R.C., "Mechanics of Design and Interpretation of Hydraulic
Fracture Treatments," SPE 1106-G.
6. Jones, O.C. and Leung, J.C.M., "An Improvement in the Calculation of
Turbulent Friction in Smooth Concentric Annuli," ASME Journal of
Fluids Engineering, December 1981.