ASSIGNMENT-2

ADVANCED MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES

Submitted by: Gurwinder Singh

Submitted to: Er. Rakesh Kumar

SURFACE INTEGRITY
Surface texture alone does not completely describe a surface. There may be metallurgical
or other changes in the material immediately beneath the surface that can have a significant
effect on its mechanical properties. Surface integrity is the study and control of this subsurface
layer and any changes in it because of processing that may influence the performance of the
finished part or product. This subsurface layer was previously referred to as the altered layer
when its structure differs from the substrate, as in Figure 5.12.
The possible alterations and injuries to the subsurface layer that can occur in manufacturing are
listed in Table 5.2. The surface changes are caused by the application of various forms of energy
during processingmechanical, thermal, chemical, and electrical.
Mechanical energy is the most common form used in manufacturing; it is applied against the
work material in operations such as metal forming (e.g., forging, extrusion), press working, and
machining. Although its primary function in these processes is to change the geometry of the
workpart, mechanical energy can also cause residual stresses, work hardening, and cracks

in the surface layers. Table 5.3 indicates the various types of surface and subsurface alterations
that are attributable to the different forms of energy applied in manufacturing. Most of the
alterations in the table refer to metals, for which surface integrity has been most intensively
studied.

Fluidity
The reciprocal of viscosity is fluiditythe ease with which a fluid flows. Although flow is a
defining characteristic of fluids, the tendency to flow varies for different fluids. Viscosity is the
property that determines fluid flow. Roughly, viscosity can be defined as the resistance to flow
that is characteristic of a fluid. It is a measure of the internal friction that arises when velocity
gradients are present in the fluidthe more viscous the fluid is, the higher the internal friction
and the greater the resistance to flow.
Viscosity is defined more precisely with respect to the setup in Figure 3.17, in which two parallel
plates are separated by a distance d. One of the plates is stationary while the other is moving at a
velocity v, and the space between the plates is occupied by a fluid. Orienting these parameters
relative to an axis system, d is in the y-axis direction and v is in the x-axis direction. The motion
of the upper plate is resisted by force F that results from the shear viscous action of the fluid.
This force can be reduced to a shear stress by dividing F by the plate area A.

F
A

where t shear stress, N/m2 or Pa (lb/in2).

The viscosity of a fluid can be defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear rate during flow, where
shear stress is the frictional force exerted by the fluid per unit area, and shear rate is the velocity
gradient perpendicular to the flow direction.

Limitations of conventional manufacturing processes

Conventional machining can be defined as a process using mechanical (motion) energy.
Conventional machining usually involves changing the shape of a workpiece using an implement
made of a harder material.
1. Conventional manufacturing processes have very high tool cost.
2. High design change cost in conventional manufacturing processes.
3. Complex contours are very difficult to machine in conventional manufacturing processes.
4. There is a lot of time wasted on fitting the tool in a machine in conventional machines.
5. Both faces of the workpiece cannot be machined simultaneously.
6. The part produced is using conventional manufacturing processes contains burrs.
7. Hard and brittle materials are difficult to machined.
8. Conventional manufacturing processes is a complex process from design point of view.

9. Using conventional methods to machine hard metals and alloys means increased demand of
time and energy and therefore increases in costs; in some cases conventional machining may not
be feasible.
10. Conventional machining also costs in terms of tool wear and in loss of quality in the product
owing to induced residual stresses during manufacture.
11. In Conventional manufacturing processes there is low production rate.
12. In Conventional manufacturing processes there is large amount of scrap

DIMENSIONAL ACCURACY

Dimensional accuracy is achieved when the final product falls within the tolerance bands
for each dimension specified on the drawings. dimensional accuracy = making it the right size.
They are looking for accurate work, making things to meet tolerances.
Generally the form accuracy of machined parts suffers from the following disturbing factors,
which cause oversize, Coincity, and out of roundness.

Side wear of the tool

Abrasive wear
Inaccurate feed of the tool holder
Form error of the tool
Unsteady and uneven supply of abrasive slurry around the oscillating tool

Overcut. The process accuracy is measured through the overcut (over-size) produced
during drilling of holes. The hole oversize measures the difference between the hole diameter,
measured at the top surface, and the tool diameter. The side gap between the tool and the
machined hole is necessary to enable the abrasives to flow to the machining zone under the
oscillating tool. Hence the grain size of the abrasives represents the main factor, which affects
the overcut produced. The overcut is considered to be about two to four times greater than the
mean grain size when machining glass and tungsten carbide. It is about three times greater than
the mean grain size of 84C (mesh numbers 280-600). However, the magnitude of the overcut

depends on many other process variables including the type of workpiece material and the
method of tool feed. In general USM accuracy levels are limited to 0.05 mm.

Coincity. The overcut is usually greater at the entry side than at the exit one due to the
cumulative abrasion effect of the fresh and sharp grain particles. As a result of such an effect, a
hole Coincity of approximately 0.2 arises when drilling a 20-mm-diameter hole to a depth of 10
mm in graphite. The Coincity can be reduced by

Direct injection of the abrasive slurry into the machining zone

The use of tools having negatively tapering walls
The use of high static pressure that produces finer abrasives, which in turn reduces the

amount of tool wear and the resulting Coincity

The use of wear-resistant tool materials
The use of an undersized tool in the first cut and a final tool of the required size, which
will cut faster and reduce the Coincity

Out of roundness. The out of roundness arises by the lateral vibrations of the tool. Such
vibrations may arise due to the out of perpendicularity of the tool face and the tool centerline and
when the acoustic parts of the machine are misaligned. Typical roundness errors are about 40 to
140 gm and 20 to 60 gin, respectively, for glass and graphite materials.

RESIDUAL STRESSES
Residual stresses are stresses that remain in a solid material after the original cause of
the stresses has been removed. Residual stress may be desirable or undesirable. For example,
laser peening imparts deep beneficial compressive residual stresses into metal components such
as turbine engine fan blades, and it is used in toughened glass to allow for large, thin, crack- and
scratch-resistant glass displays on smartphones. However, unintended residual stress in a
designed structure may cause it to fail prematurely.

Residual stresses can occur through a variety of mechanisms including inelastic (plastic)
deformations, temperature gradients (during thermal cycle) or structural changes (phase
transformation). Heat from welding may cause localized expansion, which is taken up during

welding by either the molten metal or the placement of parts being welded. When the finished
weldment cools, some areas cool and contract more than others, leaving residual stresses.
Another

example

occurs

during semiconductor

fabrication and microsystem

fabrication when thin film materials with different thermal and crystalline properties are
deposited sequentially under different process conditions. The stress variation through a stack of
thin film materials can be very complex and can vary between compressive and tensile stresses
from layer to layer.