.

..

..

..

..

Z+Z/{0}+Z is isomorphic to Z
as Z is an integral domain, {0}+Z is a prime ideal but not
maximal.

similarly, Z+Z/Z+{0} is isomorphic to Z

all homomorphism from Z x Z to Z

(1,0) -> 0, 1,0,1

(0,1) -> 0, 0,1,1
(n,m)=n(1,0)+m(0,1)

..

I = (3,x)

a0 + a1x + a2x2 +. [ a0 ]3
kernel = (3,x)

maximal ideal of Z3 = <0> as Z3 is a field

maximal ideal of Z4 = <2> as 4=22
required maximal ideals are : <0> + Z4 , Z3 + <2>

Zn is a cyclic group of order n.

G/Z is cyclic G is Abelian Z = G
..

If

1 has additive order n, then the characteristic of R is n.

Also char(Z Zm) = lcm (0, m) = 0.

2. characteristic of the ring Z4 4Z = lcm (4, 0)

char Z4 = 4,

Char 4Z = 0.

..

Z3[x]/A = {a + bx + A | a, b belong to Z3}; A = < x2 +1 >

a + bx +

A a + bi

O( (1,0)) | O(1,0) = p;

O( (1,0))= 1 or p;

every element of Zp has an order 1 or p.

O (0) =1 ; O(1) = p; O(2) = p as p is prime

(1,0) can be any element of Zp, hence has p choices.

D12 has order 2 x 12=24

a12 = e; b2 = e; o(a)=12
D12 and S4 are not isomorphic.
.
GHHG
..

S3 = { e, a, a2, b, ab, a2b }

where a = (123) and b = (12); a3 = e, b2 = e; aba = b.

all
a generator must be mapped to a generator.
Phi (1) must be a generator = 1, 5, 7, 11.
4 isomorphisms.
.

,..

.
Let |G| = 15. If G has only one subgroup of order 3 and only one
of order 5, prove
that G is cyclic. Generalize to |G| = pq, where p and q are prime.
ans:
If |H| = 3, H = {e, a, a2}; since 3 is prime, H is cyclic and each
element has an order 3 (except e).

Number of elements of order 3 = 2 (i.e. a and a 2).

No other element can have order 3, otherwise there would be two
subgroups of order 3.
Similarly, subgroup of order 5 has 4 elements of order 5.
There is 1 identity element.
15 (2 + 4 + 1) = 8 elements have order 15.
|G| = 15, there are elements with order 15; therefore G is cyclic.
..
Suppose |G| = pq, where p and q are prime, and G has only
one subgroup of order p, and one of order q.
Every element of G has order 1, p, q, or pq.
If H is the one subgroup of order p, then H has p 1 elements of
order p.
If K is the one subgroup of order q, then K has q 1 elements of
order q.
These, together with the identity, account for
1 + (p 1) + (q 1) = p + q 1 elements.
p + q 1 < pq.
Therefore, there is at least one element of G which is not in H or
K.
If such an element had order p or q, it would generate a second
such subgroup. Therefore this element must have order pq, and
so G is cyclic.

1 element of order 1
p-1 elements of order p
q-1 elements of order 1
pq > p + q + 1 = 1 + (p-1) + (q-1).

..

let g(x) be an element of I, such that g(x) has the minimum degree.
to show than I = <g(x)>
since g(x) I
let f(x) I. Then, by the division algorithm, we may write
f(x) = g(x)q(x) + r(x), where r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) < deg g(x).
r(x) 0 case is not possible.

hence r(x) = 0; f(x) <g(x)>

..

aj is a generator iff gcd(n, j) = 1.

if k /n, then < an/k > is a subgroup of order k.

.

if k divides n, then < n/k > is a subgroup of Zn of order k.

if d/n, number of elements of order d is PHI (d)

.

o ( a )=m.
c < a><b >

c < a> c=ak c m=a km=e o ( c )o (a)

in a cyclic group, only one unique subgroup of a given order exists .

.
..

..

can be easily showed that is one-one, onto and homomorphism.

|(a,b)| = lcm (|a|,|b|)

in D6, a6 = e. there is an element of order 6.
in A4 , non-identity permutation (123) or (432) i.e a 3 cycle.
or (12)(34)
order of any element is either 1, 3, 2.
there is no element in A4 of order 6.

if d/n, then o(d) = n/d o(10) = 40/10 = 4 in Z1o.

..

..

..

..

define : < k > Zn

s.t
(km) = [m]n
or

any element of <k>/<kn> is : mk + <kn> = m (k + <kn>)

hence <k>/<kn> = < k + <kn> >.

..

let x ker
x mod m = 0 mod m m|x. also n|x
m|x and n|x. hence lcm (m,n)|x x < lcm (m,n) >

|(1,0)| divides |(1,0)|=p;

|(1,0)| can be 1 or p.
every element in Zp has order p or 1. and (1,0) Zp.
(1,0) can be any element of Zp have p choices.
(0,1) can have p choices.
there are p2 homomorphisms.

D 6 has an element of order 6, but A 4 doesnot have any element of order 6

.

..

clearly is isomorphism

..

..

I = < 2, x >
Z[x]/< 2, x > is isomorphic to Z2

Z3[x] is an integral domain but not a field. Z3 is a field, but Z3[x] is not a field.
.

p(x) ker; < p(x) > is contained in ker.

..