Unit 1: Introduction to Sound I

1. What are the primary factors affecting the speed of sound in air?
Absolute temperature
Molecular Mass of the gas
2. Briefly define each of the following wave characteristics, and give an
appropriate unit of measure:
a. Amplitude
Maximum sound pressure (Pascals)
b. Velocity
Distance/Time (metres/second)
c. Frequency
Number of vibrations per second (Hertz)
d. Wavelength
Distance between any two corresponding points (metres)
e. Phase
Where the graph begins on the x-axis ( degrees or seconds)
3. Briefly distinguish between dBSIL, dBPWL, & dBSPL.
dBSIL Sound Intesity Level is the flow of energy through a units
area

10 log 10

where I actual is the actual sound power density level (in W m -2)
where I ref is the reference sound power level (10 -12 W m-2)
dBPWL(SWL) Sound Power Level is the total power radiated in all
directions by a source

10 log 10

I actual
I ref

W actual
W ref

where W actual is the actual sound power density level (in W)

where W ref is the reference sound power level (10 -12 W)
dBSPL Sound Pressure Level is a way of measuring and describing
the amplitude of a sound wave at a particular point

20 log 10

P actual
P ref

where P actual is the actual sound power density level (in Pa)
where P ref is the reference sound power level (20 X 10 -6 Pa = 20
Pa)
Unit 2: Introduction to Sound II
1. What is the result of combining two identical sine waves with a relative
phase difference of 180 degrees?
0
2. With regard to the behaviour of waves, briefly define each of the following
terms:
a. Superposition
Waves may pass through each other transparently
b. Diffraction
Waves may bend around objects

c. Refraction
Waves may change direction due to changing velocity
d. Absorption
Wave energy may be converted to vibration or lost to friction
e. Reflection
Sound is reflected when it hits a physical object
o Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
o Type 1: Striking an immovable object/hard boundary
o Type 2: Bounded to unbounded
f. Diffusion
Waves may scatter into multiple lower energy trajectories
3. How does the addition of correlated sounds differ from the addition of
uncorrelated sounds?
Correlated sound sources:
o Simply add pressures waves together
Uncorrelated sound sources:
o Add the squares of the pressure waves together and then
square root the result
Use this equation to find the pressure values when given dB values
to work out total dB:
2

P =10

SPL
10

P ref 2

Where Pref2 would be equal to 4 X 10-10

4. Why are sounds softer further away from their source?
The energy in the sound wave is spread more and more thinly as
the wavefront expands.
5. What is meant by 'acoustic impedance'?
Ratio of acoustic pressure to flow (in vs out) almost like resistance
6. What is meant by dBA and dBC, and when is each appropriate to use?
dBA - A-weighting is applied to instrument-measured sound levels in
effort to account for the relative loudness perceived by the human
ear, as the ear is less sensitive to low audio frequencies (CURVE)
Use for workplace.
dbC C-weighting follows the frequency sensitivity of the human
ear at very hi+gh noise levels (FLATTER CURVE) Use for house
parties, where bass is cranked up.
7. What is the effect of mounting a loudspeaker in the corner of a room up
against the ceiling?
Output is 9 dB more than if mounted in free space
8. Are four trombones twice as loud as two trombones? Explain your answer.
Are twenty clarinets twice as loud as two clarinets? Explain your answer.
No, 4 trombones are not nearly twice as loud as 2 trombones. The
same goes for the 20 clarinets vs 2 clarinets
o The doubling of instruments results in an addition of
approximately 3dB for each doubling
o The further away the sound is, by the doubling of metres, loss
of approximately 6dB for each doubling

9. A single Vuvuzela is measured as producing a sound pressure level of 92

dBSPL at some arbitrary point in front of the player. Considering that 2010
stadiums hold between 50,000 and 100,000 spectators, what would be the
cumulative SPL produced if every one of 100,000 spectators were to blow
at the same time? How about if only an eighth of all 100,000 spectators
were to be playing simultaneously? To simplify you may assume that all
Vuvuzelas are being played from the same seat (disregard attenuation
over distance).
100000, closest 2 power is 131072(217)
o Therefore approximate cumulative SPL will be 92 + 3(17) =
143dBSPL
Eighth of 100000 = 12500, closest 2 power is 16384(2 14)
o Therefore approximate cumulative SPL will be 92 + 3(14) =
134dBSPL
USE LOGS FOR MORE ACCURACY!
Unit 3: Introduction to Sound III
1. Give examples (in Hertz) of each of the following:
a. A bass frequency
Below 60Hz
b. A mid frequency
Between 60Hz and 8kHz (8000Hz)
c. A high frequency
Greater than 8kHZ (8000Hz)
d. A frequency commonly used for tuning orchestral instruments
440Hz (A above middle C)
e. The frequency of middle C
261Hz
2. How would you describe the range of frequencies between 90 Hertz and
250 Hertz?
Midrange frequency
3. What is Fouriers Theorem, and what does it mean for music?
It allows one to break a complex wave into many simple waves
It provides a means of translating between the time and frequency
domains
It allows one to determine which frequencies are present in a given
sound (Fundamental can be used to determine pitch)
4. Briefly explain why spectral analysis is inevitably a trade-off between
frequency and time resolution.
Filters:
o Low-pass
- Passes frequencies below the cut-off
o High-pass
- Passes frequencies above the cut-off
o Band-pass - Passes frequencies between two cut-offs
o Band-reject - Passes frequencies that are not between two
cut-offs
5. What is the essential difference between white noise and pink noise?
White noise is equal energy per frequency and pink noise is equal
energy per octave

Unit 4: Introduction to Hearing I

1. Draw a labelled sketch detailing the most important physiological features
of the human ear.

2. Briefly explain how acoustic pressure waves in the air are converted into
nerve impulses in the brain.
Movement of perilymph induces localised response in basilar
membrane
Organ of Corti responds to bending of hair cells by firing nerve
impulses
Vibration of the tympanic membrane is transferred via the ossicles
to the oval window
3. Briefly explain the function of each of the following in the ear:
a. Tympanic membrane
Converts acoustic pressure variations from the outside world into
mechanical vibrations in the middle ear
b. Pinna
Sound localization (together with the concha)
c. Cochlea
Converts mechanical vibrations into nerve firings to be processed to
the brain
d. Semicircular canals
Help you keep your balance by sloshing liquid around the hairs in
the canal
e. Ossicles

 They act as a mechanical impedance converter

4. Describe the perceptual changes that typically occur when a pure tone
fixed in frequency is heard with another pure tone of the same level that is
slowly varied in frequency from being in unison with the first tone to being
a perfect fifth above it
Two tones with a rough, dissonant quality are perceived
o Pitches are approximately 50-100% of a critical bandwidth
apart
Single, unwavering tone is perceived
o Pitches are the same
Two completely separate tones are perceived, with no appreciable
dissonance
o Pitches are more than a critical bandwidth apart
Single tone with a rough, dissonant quality is perceived
o Pitches are approximately 5-50% of a critical bandwidth
apart.
Single, wavering (beating) tone is perceived
o Pitches are different but within 15Hz of one another
Unit 5: Introduction to Hearing II
1. Discuss the range and sensitivity of human hearing, including the changes
expected as we age.
Average: 20 20000Hz
By the age of 20, change to: 20 16000Hz
Continues to reduce drastically as we age
This is referred to as presbyacusis
Sensitivity: 10-5Pa to 64Pa (threshold of hearing to threshold of pain)
2. What is the theoretical frequency response for human hearing?
20 20000Hz
3. Briefly explain the principle of Equal Loudness Contours, as stated by
Fletcher and Munson, amongst others.
An equal-loudness contour is a measure of sound pressure (dB SPL),
over the frequency spectrum, for which a listener perceives a
constant loudness when presented with pure steady tones. The unit
of measurement for loudness levels is the phon, and is arrived at by
reference to equal-loudness contours.
4. Explain the irregular shape of the Fletcher-Munson curves in terms of the
physiology of the ear.
Humps and bumps on the curve are due to the resonances of the
outer ear
The frequency response of the ear is not flat, thus the strange
shape of the graph
5. In the study of acoustic phenomena, what are weighting curves, and
how might they be abused?
Weighting curves are used to measure the loudness of sounds by
applying a curve over the sounds wave. However, because of the
shape of the curves, it often cant measure the perceived loudness
of very loud bass.

6. What was intended by providing a loudness button on a hi-fi or car audio

system, and how was the implementation of this feature flawed?
The loudness button is meant to compensate for the equal loudness
contours when listening at low levels, but is typically engaged at
high volumes by uninformed consumers, resulting in dangerously
loud bass and treble.
7. Explain how, in South Africa, some employers may be contravening the
law by subjecting their employees to loud music.
A-weighting is applied to determine loudness, but prioritises a 4kHz
range. If music falls outside that range, it can be pumped up really
high without any legal action
8. Briefly, how should one interpret the legal limits relating to noise exposure
in the Occupational Health and Safety Act (1993)?
80dBSPL (or 85dBSPL(A)) over 8 hrs
+ 3 dB for every halving of time
Use the more accurate C-weighting curve
9. Give an approximate SPL figure for each of the following environments:
a. Quiet suburban home
35dBSPL
b. A noisy dance club
120dBSPL
10.What are the most common symptoms of damaged hearing?
Audiometric notch at 4 kHz is symptomatic of noiseinduced hearing
loss, as opposed to presbyacusis.
Ear pain
Ringing in the ear
Pus or fluid leaking from the ear
Vertigo (especially if a result of diseases such as acoustic neuroma)
11.Complete the following: the difference, in decibels, between the softest
and loudest sounds a system can produce is called the ___________________
of the system.
Range
12.Briefly explain the primary mechanisms whereby humans distinguish the
direction from which a sound originates.
Interaural Time Difference Which ear hears the sound first
Interaural Intensity Difference Which ear hears the sound louder
13.Distinguish between delay stereo, intensity stereo, and binaural stereo.
Delay stereo
o Recording made with two microphones placed parallel, a
small distance apart
Intensity stereo
o Recording made with two microphones placed together but at
an angle to each other
Binaural stereo
o Recording made with two microphones placed either side of a
dummy head
Unit 6: Notes & Harmony I

1. Briefly explain why some naturally occurring sounds have a recognizable

pitch, while others dont.
Pitches are sounds consisting mostly of frequencies that have a
common factor. Not every naturally occurring sound has frequencies
with common factors
2. Briefly define the term timbre with reference to the natural harmonic
series.
If the pattern of vibration on the basilar membrane varies when
comparing different sounds, for example from a violin and a
clarinet, then the sounds are perceived as having a different
timbre
3. Give the letter name (pitch) of the seventh harmonic above the
fundamental D.
D
4. A perfectly cylindrical pipe, when blown, sounds the pitch G. If a quarter of
this pipe is cut off, what pitch will the remaining section of pipe sound
when blown?
D?
Unit 7: Notes & Harmony II
1. Howard mentions three mechanisms which have been considered at some
time to account for the Place Theory of pitch perception, namely lowest
frequency present, smallest linear gap and highest common factor. Briefly
explain how each of these has been disqualified, and which one best
accounts for human pitch perception.
Lowest frequency present:
o Locating the fundamental frequency
o Dismissed by experimentation with spectra lacking a
fundamental
Smallest linear gap:
o Finding the smallest frequency different between adjacent
harmonics
o Does not account for odd-harmonic only spectra
Highest common factor:
o Finding the HCF of components present
o Fails to account for Schoutens virtual pitch
o THIS ONE BEST ACCOUNTS FOR HUMAN PITCH PERCEPTION
2. Which aspects of human pitch perception are not accounted for by the
Place Theory of pitch perception?
The fine degree of accuracy of human hearing
Perception of sounds whose frequency components are not resolved
by the place mechanism
The pitch perceived for some sounds which have continuous (nonharmonic) spectra
Pitch perception of sounds with fundamentals less than 50Hz
Resolution of harmonics above 7th
3. The words pitch and frequency are widely held to mean the same thing,
though they actually refer to different things. Explain the difference

between these two terms, giving examples of how pitch perception might
be influenced by factors other than just frequency.
Pitch is our perception of a sound and frequency is the physical
ocillations involved in producing and maintaining that note. Higher
pitches correspond to higher frequencies.
Unit 8: Notes & Harmony III
1. How is the harmonic series typically used to explain the evolution of
western harmony?
The evolution of Western Harmony (in what harmonies are
acceptable) follows the pattern of ascending the harmonic series
o Octave
o Fifth
o Fourth
o Major Third
o Minor Third
o Minor Third (Dimished Fifth?)
o Major second (Dominant Seventh?
o Major third
o Major third (Augmented Fifth?)
2. Describe the most important features of the graph of perceived
consonance and dissonance produced by Plomp & Levelt.
When the frequencies are equal (unison) the tones are judged to be
perfectly consonant.
When their frequency difference is greater than one critical
bandwidth, they are judged consonant.
For frequency differences of between 5 and 50% of the critical
bandwidth the interval is dissonant.
Maximum dissonance occurs when the frequency difference is a
quarter of a critical bandwidth.
3. Explain the acoustic phenomenon of beats, commonly heard as
instruments are being tuned. What is actually happening to cause this
behaviour?
A vibration is basically oscillation between two frequencies (F1 and
F2). When F1 is equal to F2, a single note is heard. As soon as F2 is
moved higher or lower than F1 a sound with clearly undulating
amplitude variations known as beats is heard
Unit 9: Notes & Harmony IV
1. What is the Pythagorean comma?
The ratio of twelve Pythagorean fifths to seven octaves.
2. What is the syntonic comma?
The ratio of a Pythagorean major third against a Just major third.
3. Briefly explain the term cent, as coined by Alexander J. Ellis.

The equal tempered semitone is subdivided into cents, where one

cent
is one hundredth of an equal tempered semitone

4. Briefly explain the fundamental innovation underlying mean-tone

temperament.
The mean-tone scale consists of just major thirds (5:4), equal-sized
whole tones, and fifths which are tuned slightly flatter than the pure
fifth
5. Give two names associated with the development of mean-tone
temperament.
Zarlino
Francis Salinas
6. Give one example of a wolf-tone.
E and F# on the cello
7. What would be the frequency of the note that lies a Pythagorean fifth
below 1.2 KHz?
800Hz
8. Express the modern equal temperament semitone as a ratio or fraction.

9. Mention one advantage and one disadvantage to the use of equal

temperament.
Advantage: All keys are equally useable
Disadvantage: No interval is in-tune in relation to the intervals
between adjacent members of the natural harmonic series.
Therefore none is perfectly consonant.

10.Complete the following table for a just diatonic scale built on C:

Name

Ratio

1/1

9/8

5/4

4/3

3/2

5/3

15/8

2/1

Natural

24

27

30

32

36

40

45

48

Cents

204

386

498

702

884

1088

1200

Note

Step

Name

Ratio

9/8

10/9

16/15

9/8

10/9

9/8

16/15

Cents

204

182

112

204

182

204

112

11.Complete the following table for a Pythagorean diatonic scale built on C:

Note

Ratio

1/1

9/8

81/64

4/3

3/2

27/16

243/128

2/1

Step

9/8

9/8

9/8

256/243

256/243

9/8

9/8