ELECTRICITY THEFT CONTROL USING

MICROCONTROLLER
A
PRACTICAL PROJECT REPORT
SUBMITTED
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
Bachelor of Technology
In Department of Electrical Engineering

Submitted to:
Mr. Rahul Kumar
(Asst. Lect. EE. Dept.)

Submitted By:
Harshit Gangwal
12ESBEE017

Department of Electrical Engineering

Sri Balaji Technical Campus, Jaipur

Rajasthan Technical University, Kota
November- 2015

ABSTRACT
Science and technology with all its miraculous advancements has fascinated human life to a
great extent that imagining a world without these innovations is hardly possible. While
technology is on the raising slope, we should also note the increasing immoral activities. With
a technical view, Power Theft is a non-ignorable crime that is highly prevalent, and at the
same time it directly affects the economy of a nation. Data collected over A House, which
proves the necessity of this project. Detecting and eradicating such crimes with the assistance
of the developing scientific field is the Need of the Hour. With these views was this paper
conceived and designed. Our paper provides a complete and comprehensive tool to prevent
power theft which is very simple to understand and easy to implement (Accepted by
Electricity Board officials). It includes four sections transmitting, receiving, counter
display and processing sections
.

CONTENTS
Abstract

List of Figure ii
Chapter 1

Electricity Theft

1-15

1.1 Problem 1
1.2 Defining Electricity Theft 2
1.3 Power Theft

1.4 Governance & Electricity Theft 7

1.5 Consequence of theft

1.6 What Can be Done?

1.7 Reducing Power Theft

Chapter 2

Embedded System

2.1 Introduction

16

2.2 Characteristics

17

2.3 User Interface

18

2.4 Tools Required

18

Chapter 3

16-23

Theory and Working Model 24-38

3.1 Project Idea

24

3.2 Circuit Diagram 24

3.3 Working

25

3.4 Coding of Transmitter

3.5 Relays

35

3.6 Power Supply

Conclusion

39

References

40

37

34

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure

TITLE

Page No.

Figure 3.1

Block diagram 16

Figure 3.2

Encoder HT 12E

Figure 3.3

Address and Data of Micro Controller 27

Figure 3.4

Transmission Timing for the HT12E

Figure 4.1

433 MHz Transmitter 29

Figure 4.2

433 MHz RF Receiver 30

Figure 4.3

HT12D Controller

31

Figure 4.4

HT12D Pin Diagram

32

Figure 4.5

PIC16F73 Block Diagram

Figure 4.6

Working of relay

Figure 5.1

Unregulated power supply

38

Figure 5.2

Regulated power supply

38

Figure 5.3

ic-7809 as a regulator 38

26

33

36

28

Chapter 1
ELECTRICITY THEFT

1.1 PROBLEM
An electric power system can never be 100% secure from theft. In many systems the amount
of theft is small (12%) in terms of the electricity generated. But, the financial loss is high
due to the large amount of electricity distributed. Nesbit (2000) noted that, In the US, the
consensus seems to be that theft costs between 0.5% and 3.5% of annual gross revenues in
the US. That seems like a small amountuntil you consider that US electricity revenues were
in the $280 billion range in 1998.Therefore, between $1 and $10 billion worth of electricity
was stolen. Some power systems may forfeit more than 15% of power generated to various
types of theft. Transparency International (1999) report explains the situation in Bangladesh.
In fiscal 199899 Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) generated 14,150 MkWh
of electricity, purchased another 450 MkWh from private sources, but billed for only 11,462
MkWh, giving a system loss of 22%.This was better than Dacca Electric Supply Authority
(DESA) 40% but poorer than Rural Electrification Board (REB) 17%.The weighted average
system loss in the power sector as a whole is estimated at 35%, which includes 21% technical
loss.
The balance 14% y was due to pilferage, theft and unauthorized use. The financial losses are
critical to many electric power organizations. Lost earnings can result in lack of profits,
shortage of funds for investment in power system capacity and improvement, and a necessity
to expand generating capacity to cope with the power losses. Some power systems in worst
affected countries are near bankrupt. Corruption increases and becomes entrenched as favors
can be bought from power sector employees in the form of inaccurate billing and allowing
illegal connections. Political leaders intervene to ensure that cronies and supporters are not
prosecuted.
In 1998, the situation deteriorated in Pakistan to the extent that, The government took action
and employed 35,000 army men to recover Water and Power Development Authority
(WAPDA) dues and curb the theft. They have been conducting house-to-house raids with the
staff of WAPDA, checking for any tampering of power meters. In the last year the army has
found 100,993 instances of power theft, recovered Rs.2.4 billion in fines and penalties and
arrested 1188 people. Embarrassingly, many of the thefts were discovered in the houses,
farms and mills of the ruling party legislators, 13 of whom were WAPDA officials Even the
Minister for Population y resigned from her cabinet post on power theft charges (Rizvi,

2000). Electricity theft is a complex phenomenon with many facets. In this article, electricity
theft is defined and various types of theft are described. The international scope and trends of
theft will be examined. How theft can become institutionalized as part of the political,
economic and managerial culture of governance will be noted. Lastly, some methods of
dealing with the problem of electricity theft are examined.

1.2 DEFINING ELECTRICITY THEFT

Four kinds of theft are prevalent in all power systems. The extent of the theft will depend
upon a variety of factorsfrom cultural to how the power utility is managed.
1.2.1

Fraud

Fraud is when the consumer deliberately tries to deceive the utility. A common practice is to
tamper with the meter so that a lower reading of power use is shown than is the case. This can
be a risky procedure for an amateur, and many cases of electrocution have been reported. In
Malaysia, professionals have approached residents and managers of businesses offering to
fix the meter for a moderate fee (New Straits Times, 1999).During 2 months of raids in
Malaysia on suspected areas 587 (86%) out of 684 inspected were confirmed to have
tampered with their meters or stolen electricity (The Star, 1998).The losses can be substantial
when fraud is by large organizations. In Aurangabad, India, The 22 proprietors of Jalnas
seven mini-steel plants accused of massive power theft detected in Mondays raids by the
Maharashtra State Electricity Board (MSEB) are absconding following the rejection of their
plea for anticipatory bail by the Sessions Court by The MSEB has conclusive proof of the Rs
20 crore (Rs 200 million) power theft y (including) extremely sophisticated equipment the
steel plants used to doctor their electricity metersy (Indian Express, 1998.
1.2.2

Stealing Electricity

Electricity theft can be arranged by rigging a line from the power source to where it is needed
bypassing a meter. In South Asian countries this practice is quite common in poor residential
areas where those wanting electricity may not have lines allocated and may not be able to pay
if they were connected called the Kunda system in Pakistan, this practice is often accepted
by power managers as a fact of life in poor communities. In Soweto, South Africa 6 tons of
spider web cable used for such connections was recovered in 6 months by the electrical
authority in raids (Campbell, 1999).

In Mexico, The millions of illegal customers, who steal electricity with wires known
as diablitos, or little devils, have pushed an overburdened electrical grid over the edge. By
thousands of homes and businesses have been hit with power outages that electric company
officials blame largely on pirates. Published reports say the thefts result in the loss of as much
as $475 million revenues annually (Sullivan, 2002). The illegal lines are easy to detect as they
are often above ground and highly visible. However, one finds reports of staff being assaulted
and needing police security to carry out the removal of the lines. Corrupt staff from the
electricity organization may take bribes to allow the practice to continue .On a larger scale,
businesses may bribe power organization staff to rig direct lines to their buildings or offices
and the power does not go through a meter. The bribes can be much less than the cost of the
power. Money also can be given to inspectors to keep them from finding and/or reporting the
theft.
1.2.3

Billing Irregularities

Billing irregularities can occur from several sources. Some power organizations may not be
very effective in measuring the amount of electricity used and unintentionally can give a
higher or lower figure than the accurate one. The unintentional irregularities may even out
over time. However, it is also very easy in some systems to arrange for much lower bills to
be given than for the power actually used. Employees may be bribed to record the meter at a
lower number than is shown. The consumer pays the lower bill and the meter-reader earns
unofficial salary.
In another type of billing irregularity, office staff can move the decimal point to the left on the
bill so that a person or company pays $47.48 instead of $474.80. Consumers may know that
some power organization staff are on-the-take for providing these services. Employees
may keep payments. A scheme in operation in Malaysia in the late 1990s diverted $1.59
million to private accounts before detection (BRDC, 2000).The staff can easily earn from this
type of corruption, as it is not easy to detect. Corrupt practices may become institutionalized
to the extent that employees regard the illicit payments as part of the job.
1.2.4

Unpaid Bills

Some persons and organizations do not pay what they owe for electricity. Residential or
business consumers may have left the city or an enterprise has gone bankrupt. In South Africa
a culture of non-payment is evident (Mkhwanazi, 1999).
In Armenia, Nonpayment levels of 8090% are typical in the residential sector. T&D losses
are over 40% (Tacis, 1998).The practice is widespread, some systems have chronic non-

payersthe very rich and politically powerful who know that their electricity will not be cut
regardless of whether they pay or not.
In India, farmers in some states regard electricity as a free service from government, and
some political leaders and parties curry favor by promoting this practice and prevent the State
Electricity Boards from collecting. Another chronic non-payment group can be government
departments and agencies. The Pakistan Army discovered that some of the largest amounts
owed to WAPDA were from government agenciesincluding the Army itself. The Karachi
Electric Supply Corporation Director reported in 2000 that only 52 percent of the 1.67
million customers were paying their bills (News International, 2000). In Indonesia in 2000,
the military owed Rp.23 billion (US$3.1 million) to Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN). This
was a large part of the companys total unpaid claims of about Rp.157 billion (Jakarta Post,
21 March 2000).Some analysts may not regard non-payment by as theft. However, when it
becomes institutionalized and people and organizations expect that they can get away with it,
unpaid bills should fall into the theft category. Non-payment is a problem not confined to
poor countries.
Lundin (2001) has explained the growing problem in the USA. In all countries, as electricity
increases in price, some people have trouble paying their ARTICLE IN PRESS T.B. Smith /
Energy Policy 32 (2004) 20672076 2069 bills regularly. This may encourage them to find
ways of reducing their bills, such as tampering with the meter. In a more conventional
definition of electricity theft the category of Unpaid Bills may not appear. However, in some
power systems the extent of the problem and its impact has serious consequences. Data on
non-payment is not available easily that can be used for a comparative analysis for the
purposes of this paper. The analysis in this paper deals primarily with theft in terms of billing
irregularities, fraud and stolen electricity
1.2.5

Measuring Electricity Theft

Electricity theft can be estimated, but not measured exactly. The most accurate estimate of
theft is by conducting a thorough analysis of the power system.
The revenue protection section of the Arizona Public Service Company (APS) carried out a
recent study that is unique (Culwell,2001).The APS provides electric power to the Phoenix
metropolitan region and 11 of Arizonas countiescovering 40,000 miles2 with 868,000
customers.
The APS wanted a research project that would go beyond the usual studies that target meter
tampering. They wanted to know the extent of meter tampering and the financial loss in such
a way as to be able to extend the research to the whole of the APS system with a 95%

confidence. The study involved selecting randomly 550 meters out of the 868,000, ensuring
that they were spread among the urban and rural users (35% rural) and residential and
industrial (12%) users. Each meter was thoroughly inspected disconnected, opened, tested,
and 52 items of information recorded about the meter. For determining theft the beyond a
reasonable doubt criterion was used. Suspected theft required evidence that was clear and
convincing. The research study was implemented beginning on 3 April 2000 and was
completed by 30 June the same year.
The findings include:

Definite meter tampering rate0.72%.

Probable meter tampering rate1.00%.

Actual loss in dollars$330,148.

The data was extrapolated to the APS system to estimate that nearly 15,000 meters had been
tampered with and show that the tampering losses per year were estimated to be $7,967,279
that was 0.518% of revenue loss for the APS. The APS study noted that the estimated loss
($5.1 million) was much higher among commercial accounts than the residential consumers.
The standard method of measuring power theft is by analysis of transmission and distribution
losses (T&D losses).
The method takes the difference between the amount of electricity generated (minus system
use and gratis) in relationship to the amount metered and sold. If an accurate calculation is
made of technical line losses, theft may compose a large part of the unaccounted amount
the non-technical line losses in the distribution network. Very efficient power systems have
less than 6% T&D lossestheft may be 12%.Less efficient systems may have 912% T&D
loss and inefficient systems have line losses of over 15%.
The Malaysian Tenaga system has T&D losses of 11% that includes theft losses estimated at
4%.Bangladesh estimates are T&D losses of 35% with 14% as theft. In Budapest, Elmu
estimates that half of its 13% losses are due to theft (East European Energy Report,
1999).Indonesias PLN estimated theft in power distribution in Jakarta at 7% in 1994 and
3.77% in 1996 (Priatna, 1999).Thus, a system operating with 22% T&D losses could lead
analysts to estimate that around 1015% are due technical T&D losses. The remaining 7
12% of the electricity disappeared, probably due to theft of various types. This is a blunt
method for estimating theft and does not include non-payment.

1.3 POWER THEFT

A comparative and historical perspective Information is available on T&D losses for

many countries from the World Bank. However, World Bank data on T&D losses for
some countries is inaccurate and misleading as 0 T&D losses are recorded, or the
figure given is less than 1%.This is impossible because some electricity always is lost
during transmission and distribution. It is neither realistic nor feasible to assess T&D
losses in all countries given the limitations in the data. For this study, a sample of 102
countries was chosen. The basic data for the countries is from the World Banks
Development Indicators (2003).
The main criteria for selection are:

Available data on T&D losses for 1980 and 2000 to enable an historical perspective.

Reasonable confidence in the accuracy of the data and that system use was not included.

Countries selected have a good record in the collection of data in other social, economic
and power sector variables.

The confirmation of the country data by a second source such as the US EIA, reports on
energy development, and statistics bureaus and electricity organizations in the selected
countries.

The lowest T&D losses (less than 6%) are in countries known for efficiency in management
such as Finland, Germany, Japan, Republic of Korea, Netherlands, Singapore, Belgium,
Austria, France and Switzerland. The power organizations are managed to ensure the
deterrence, detection and prosecution of people and organizations engaged in electricity theft.
While there is a low percentage of theft, the economic losses can be high due to the large
amount of electricity generated. High losses (over 30%) are in countries such as Albania,
Haiti, Myanmar, Kyrgyz Republic, Nigeria, and Bangladesh. Common features are poverty
and that each country has experienced political, economic and social turmoil.

In tumultuous times government organizations cease to function efficiently, become prone to

corrupt practices, investment is not made in system management, and the consumers take
advantage of the system Variations in T&D losses within each country may be large. In the
Philippines the T&D losses were estimated to be 17% in 1997.However, assessment of
regional variations shows that six of 15 regions had losses below 17%.One region has over
27% loss and five were between 20% and 27%.The Meralco region (Manila) reported losses
of 12.4%, well below the rural areas (National Economic Development Authority, 1998,
Table 5.4). India has overall T&D losses of over 26%, but the losses vary in the 22 states.
Losses of nearly 50% are experienced in Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir, and Orissa. Even
Maharashtra, with the best record, has nearly 15% losses.

1.4 GOVERNENCE AND ELECTRICITY THEFT

Understanding governance has emerged as an important element in explaining patterns of
social, economic and political development Kaufmann et al., 1999).Electricity theft is related
to a broader culture of governance or mal-governance. The World Bank Institutes
Governance, Regulation and Finance Unit have compiled useful data. Attempting to measure
governance, Kaufmann and associates developed six measures to assess the various
dimensions of governance. Multiple indicators were used to measure each dimension for 175
countries. The dimensions are:

Voice and accountability:

Aspects of the political process, civil liberties and political rights. Political instability and
violence: The likelihood that the government may be overthrown by violent means.

Government effectiveness:

The quality of public service provision and the bureaucracy, competence of civil servants and
the independence of the civil service from political pressure. Regulatory burden: Incidence of
market un-friendly policies such as price controls, and perceptions of burdens imposed by
excessive regulation.

Rule of law:

Abiding by the rules of society, effectiveness of the judiciary, and enforceability of contacts.

Graft and corruption:

The exercise of public power for personal gain, bribery, impact of corruption on business.
In the Indian, Pakistan and Bangladesh cases, the overwhelming evidence is that corrupt
practices are widespread in the electricity sector. The Lucknow Electrical Services Authority
General Manager conceded that, Out of 110 million unit of electricity supplied to the
residents of Lucknow, at least 33% are pilfered and resulting in losses worth Rs 100 crores
(Rs 1 billion) every year. He also admitted that most of the pilferage took place in connivance
with power employees (Tripathi, 2000).

1.5 THE CONSEQUENCES OF ELECTRICITY THEFT

From a business perspective, electricity theft results in economic losses to the utility. Some
may argue that large utilities providing essential services give poor service, over-charge,
make too much money anyway, and, therefore, some theft will not break the company or
drastically affect its operations and profitability. Others looking at the same situation would
argue that theft is a crime and should not be allowed.
An International Utilities Revenue Protection Association has been established to
promote the detection and prevention of power theftmainly for the financial security of
power utility companies. The consequences of theft in the worst case systems are important to
the viability of the services provided.
The combined losses (including non-payment of bills) in some systems have severe impacts
resulting in utilities operating at a loss and must continually increase electricity charges.
Locked into a culture of inefficiency and corruption, the electricity utilities have difficulty
delivering reliable service. Even in reasonably efficient power systems, such as Malaysias
Tenaga, power theft accounts for losses of RM$500 million ($132 million) annually (Malay
Mail, 1999).For large systems a 1% theft loss can be substantial.
With sales of over $13 billion, 1% of theft for the Korea Electric Power Corporation is over
$130 million. Lovei and McKechnie (2000) make a case that power theft impacts upon the
poor by perpetuating a system that benefits the wealthy and powerful. Power systems may
also promote Grand Theft by awarding lucrative contracts and monopolies that lead the
enrichment of favored individuals. Indias power system is an illustration of a worst-case
situation. In constant turmoil, State Electricity Boards (SEBs) have a high theft level and
consumers do not pay their bills.

The SEBs seldom have profits and are heavily subsidized for their losses (Smith, 1993).Only
three SEBs made a profit in 1996/97 and the combined commercial losses were over 71
billion Rupees (about $1.6 billion). The SEBs cannot pay their bills for power purchased
from the central government or IPPs nor for plant equipment and the railways for coal
delivery. The whole system has been on the verge of financial collapse ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 3 Governance indicators and T&D losses Governance dimension Correlation T&D
losses Level of significance Voice and accountability. IPPs, especially foreign owned ones,
are reluctant to enter the power field for fear that SEBs will not be able to pay them for power
supplied.

1.6 WHAT CAN BE DONE?

Electricity theft can never totally be eradicated in any power system. In the very efficient
systems of Japan, Western Europe and North America effort has been devoted to the
technological and managerial methods necessary to reduce theft to levels tolerable. Many of
these systems operate in a governance culture that promotes organizational efficiency and
theft law enforcement. This does not mean that electricity consumers necessarily love their
power company, but few will try to steal electricity.
Power system strategies for dealing with theft vary. Some organizations pay little attention to
theft problems, perhaps hoping theft will disappear and not become a public issue. Other
power systems treat electricity theft as highest priority. The first-step in electricity theft
reduction is to become knowledgeable about the theft problem. Few detailed studies of power
theft exist and the work of the Prayas Energy Group (2002) in India provides many insights.
Unless the nature and extent of power theft is known in great detail, any attempts to deal
effectively with the problem are prone to fragmented and limited action that have little overall success. Therefore, power systems, whether national or regional, should be encouraged to
initiate a detailed power theft analysis.
The analysis must go beyond conventional engineering and managerial frameworks and
understand and explain why theft occurs and what factors perpetuate theft.The information
derived is essential to design an appropriate strategy for dealing with theft

1.7REDUCING POWER THEFT

Three methods of reducing power theft are identified here:
1.7.1 Technical/engineering Methods

Electric power is not a new technology and innovations taking place enable very efficient
systems to be installed and maintained. Many power systems devote inadequate resources
and effort to transmission and distribution systems and do not use the latest technologies.
The investment necessary to reduce losses includes upgrading power lines,
transformers, information technology monitoring systems, and installing and maintenance of
modern metering systems that are at the interface of the organization and the consumers of
the electricity. Significant technological advancement in metering has occurred.
Since much theft is from meter tampering, it is important to replace old, easy to tamper-with
meters. New high-tech sealed meters that cannot be altered in any way and can be read
automatically are costly, but can reduce theft when required of moderate to heavy power
users (see Arruda, 2000; Iyer, 2000; Rajan, 1998). Szilvagyi (1999) makes a strong case that
the investment in high technology metering requires a sound and complex infrastructure in
place to make the system work effectively.
1.7.2 Managerial Method
Electric power organizations are very large entities that operate as bureaucracies even though
many are private sector organizations. Combining strong technical improvements with an
intelligent and active anti-theft program may result significant improvements (see
Ahmedabad Electricity Co.Ltd., 2000). Inspection and monitoring power users at regular
intervals is essential to reducing theft (Gower, 2000).In Brazil, CEMIG had losses of $12
million.By spending $2.1 million on tests and inspection, $6.2 million was recovered
(Arruda, 2000).
The focus should be on areas or facilities that have the greatest potential amount of electricity
theft in terms of electricity use.Studies have shown that the wealthy steal power for
residential use, factories, and businesses (BRDC, 2000).More people may be stealing power
in urban slum areas, but the amount of power is small by comparison.
Yet inspection often targets the poor of the community. Singapores former Prime Minister
Lee Kuan Yew commented that corruption was a fact of life and in Singapore it should not
become a way of life. The same comment could apply to electricity theft. Theft may be
prevalent in all power systems to varying degrees as a fact of life. Clearly, some power
systems appear to be operating where electricity theft has become a way of life.

Corruption is one of the most difficult problem areas for electricity organizations because
power theft occurs with the connivance of employees of the power organization. Increased
investigation and surveillance may provide opportunity for more corruption (Anuradha,
2000).Employees may even extort money from electricity consumers not to disclose theft.
It is important to detect and prosecute corrupt power sector employeesthis includes, if
necessary, the ones at the very top of the organization. Employees should be paid adequately
so that they will not have to resort to bribes in order to support a family. ARTICLE IN
PRESS T.B. Smith / Energy Policy 32 (2004) 20672076 2073
The organizational factor in the power industry is important. Power utilities are very large,
complex organizations. By the number of employees it can be a countrys largest
organization. EGAT and the two distribution agencies in Thailand have over 60,000
employees, Indonesias PLN has over 50,000.Tenaga in Malaysia has 23,000 and WAPDA in
Pakistan has over 100,000.Nearly one million work in Indias state electricity boards.
Most of the tasks are routine and in many organizations a bureaucratic culture is promoted
whether private or public enterprise. Electricity utility employees must interface extensively
with the consumers of electricityin residences, factories and offices
This allows street level decision making to take place (Lipsky, 1980; Hudson, 1993).
Employees can exercise discretion by not reporting infringements or may alter bills.Since the
typical power sector organization must operate at the consumer level, employees are scattered
throughout the far corners of the country, making control and coordination from the central
office difficult.
When the product delivered is a scarce and essential commodity, as is electric power
in South Asian countries, employees can exercise considerable discretion. Routine allocation
found in some power systems becomes discretionary in others. For example, who will get
connected to power? When will the connection be made? Where and when will power
blackouts take place? How much should the user pay for power? These discretionary
decisions can be for sale by the employees.
The organizations management and employees thrive on power scarcity and there is little
incentive to increase supply or to operate a more efficient or effective service. The legal
aspects of power theft have received attention in some countries. Outdated laws treat theft as
a common crime. Several countries recently have adopted laws governing power theft and
treat it as a special crime.

The Andhra Pradesh amendments to the Indian Electricity Act (1910) contains punishments
from 6 months to 5 years imprisonment, fines of between 5000 to 50,000 Rupees, and
depriving the thief of electric power for up to 6 years. In Malaysia half-page ads newspapers
warn consumers of the illegality of power theft with fines of up to RM 100,000 and
imprisonment of up to 5 years. The new laws make the punishment for theft much easier to
implement and the fines and penalties imposed a deterrent to future theft. The problem of
arrears or non-payment is a difficult one. Electricity is an essential commodity and a no pay,
no electricity policy may not be politically acceptable in some countries. Disconnection also
can be dangerous as a World Bank (1999) study noted, In Albania, consumers with guns y
threatened to shoot the utility officials who attempted to disconnect defaulting customers.
The scope of this problem can be so serious that the financial viability of the organization is
jeopardized. Contracting the bill collection to a private agency may promote some
effectiveness in revenue collection.
Alternative methods and places for bill payment may also help. Some power systems have
promoted prepaid cards as a method to ensure payment. However, changing a culture of nonpayment has no easy solutions (Barnes, 2000; Landin, 2001).In some cases those owing the
most money are government agencies, and collecting can confront legal and political hurdles.
1.7.3 System Change
In the systems where power theft is the highest, electricity sector organizations are state
owned and managed enterprises.
Some power sector state enterprises have operated with substantial efficiency (in Singapore,
for instance), so one cannot argue a case that the public sector is incapable of running
services effectively and efficiently. However, a case can be made that state owned and
operated enterprises are not managed as true businesses and therefore do not try to optimize
profits. The organizations may be intertwined into the political and bureaucratic structures
and processes and there are few incentives to reduce theft .In the Indian case, theft did not
slowly emerge, it has been around for many decadesit is just that nothing was ever done
about it. Political leaders, power consumers and SEB managers and employees have
benefited from the system.
A world trend has been deregulation and the transformation of public sector enterprises into
the private sector. In the past decade many power systems were privatized and now operate as
businesses with shares traded on the stock exchanges (Bacon, 1999).The total power sector is
difficult to privatize into effective private sector enterprises because transmission and
distribution are natural monopolies, and competition is essential to spur businesses to be more

efficient. National and state level power systems have been transformed in the past decade
and the creation of an independent regulatory commission for electricity has been a common
reform.
The problem of how to deal with technical and non-technical losses is a complex one for the
new commissions. The issues to grapple with include setting levels of acceptable loss,
whether utilities should be allowed to pass on theft and other inefficiency costs to customers,
and whether utilities should be penalized if they do not achieve reductions in T&D and theft.
The transformation of electric power systems into more business-like enterprises means for
many countries the elimination of subsidies provided by the state that kept electricity prices
low for consumers.
As prices in poor countries rise to international levels, many consumers are trapped. Their
own income is by local standardsperhaps $2 to $5 per day, but their electricity ARTICLE
IN PRESS 2074 T.B. Smith / Energy Policy 32 (2004) 20672076 charges are the same as for
a customer in Los Angeles who earns $80 per day. Under these conditions, consumers may
feel that there is no alternative but to engage in electricity theft or not pay their bills. Logic
and theory suggests that private owned power organizations will be more concerned with
theft than public sector organizations. Contrasting Malaysias privatized system with
Thailands public enterprise system regarding electricity theft is interesting (Smith,
2003).Both systems have similar T&D losses of around 11%.In 1994 Malaysia divested
Tenaga, the power generation, transmission and distribution enterprise for peninsular
Malaysia.
Government maintains majority ownership, but its shares are traded on the Kuala Lumpur
stock exchange. Independent power producers (IPPs) were permitted from the mid-1990s to
produce power and sell it to Tenaga for distribution. In the Thai case, the EGAT is a public
enterprise that generates and transmits power to two large distribution public enterprises, the
Provincial Electricity Authority (PEA) and the Metropolitan Electricity Authority (MEA).
Attempts to privatize Thai electricity have been discussed for nearly 20 years, but the 32,000
member EGAT employees union has vigorously opposed the change. Electricity theft is not a
big issue in Thailand because EGAT, PEA and MEA appear to have no concerted effort to
deal with it. The enterprises make sufficient profits to keep the government happy and to
provide the employees with free electricity as well as a substantial end of year bonus in
EGAT equal to about US$1000 per employee.

The recent economic crisis severely dented Tenagas profitability. Low profits affect the stock
market price of shares forced to run efficiently, Tenaga management turned, in a very serious
way, to the reduction of power theft that causes losses of M$500 million a year. Caution
needs to be exercised about promoting privatization as a panacea for the ills of inefficiency.
The Orissa (India) electricity sector was privatized in 1996 with the corporatization of the
Orissa State Electricity Board, the establishment of the Grid Corporation of Orissa to manage
T&D of electricity and the Orissa Electricity Regulatory Commission to regulate the system.
The record shows uneven improvement (see Dixit et al., 1998).Power tariffs went up by 76%,
T&D losses soared to 45%, and revenue collection was only at 54% of those billed (Dhume,
1999). 11. Conclusions The evidence points to the increasing levels of power theft in many
countries and the financial losses for some systems are so immense that the utility is in
financial turmoil.
Investment in improving the system and adding additional capacity cannot be undertaken,
loans and payments cannot be met, and the consumer faces increased electricity charges.
Even in efficient systems, theft losses can account for millions of dollars each year in lost
revenue. Electricity theft in its various forms can be reduced and kept in check only by the
strong and assertive action of power sector organizations.
The strategy and the action should be based upon a thorough understanding of the specific
nature of the theft problem. A strong case can be made that each power system (including
consumers attitudes and behavior) has its own unique qualities and only by knowing the
system and the problem can effective solutions be designed and implemented.
Since a high level of power theft is linked with corruption, the analysis cannot be confined to
technical and managerial perspectives and needs to be multi-disciplinary in approach. Theft
as an activity in some systems is closely intertwined with governance and with the social,
economic and political environment.
Corruption and electricity theft thrives off each other.
In an overall culture of corruption as a way of life, electricity theft can be reduced to
smoderate levels by technical/engineering methods. But it is an uphill battle to reduce the
electricity theft rate drastically as long as extensive corruption continues. Reduction in power
theft and keeping it within reasonable bounds is more likely to be successful in systems with
a good governance culture. This is because the theft reduction mechanisms find a friendly
environment for initiation and implementation.

As part of generating and sustaining good governance in communities, electric power

systems have the opportunity to take the lead in promoting sound corporate governance. The
technological innovations make this task easier should the managerial skills and desire exist.
Electric power systems can be restructured to make power sector organizations operate in
competitive environments where efficiency and effectiveness in service delivery.

Chapter 2

EMBEDDED SYSTEM
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Embedded system is a computer system designed for specific control functions within a
larger system, often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a
complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts. By contrast, a generalpurpose computer, such as a personal computer (PC), is designed to be flexible and to meet a
wide range of end-user needs. Embedded systems control many devices in common use
today.
Embedded systems contain processing cores that are typically either microcontrollers or
digital signal processors (DSP). The key characteristic, however, is being dedicated to handle
a particular task. Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers
can optimize it to reduce the size and cost of the product and increase the reliability and
performance. Some embedded systems are mass-produced, benefiting from economies of
scale.
Physically, embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital watches and MP3
players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers, or the systems
controlling nuclear power plants. Complexity varies from low, with a single microcontroller
chip, to very high with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted inside a large
chassis or enclosure. Embedded systems span all aspects of modern life and there are many
examples of their use.
Telecommunications systems employ numerous embedded systems from telephone switches
for the network to mobile phones at the end-user. Computer networking uses dedicated
routers and network bridges to route data. Consumer electronics include personal digital
assistants (PDAs), mp3 players, mobile phones, videogame consoles, digital cameras, DVD
players, GPS receivers, and printers. Many household appliances, such as microwave ovens,
washing machines and dishwashers, are including embedded systems to provide flexibility,
efficiency and features. Advanced HVAC systems use networked thermostats to more
accurately and efficiently control temperature that can change by time of day and season.
Home automation uses wired- and wireless-networking that can be used to control lights,
climate, security, audio/visual, surveillance, etc., all of which use embedded devices for
sensing and controlling.

Transportation systems from flight to automobiles increasingly use embedded systems. New
airplanes contain advanced avionics such as inertial guidance systems and GPS receivers that
also have considerable safety requirements. Various electric motors brushless DC motors,
induction motors and DC motors are using electric/electronic motor controllers.
Automobiles, electric vehicles, and hybrid vehicles are increasingly using embedded systems
to maximize efficiency and reduce pollution. Other automotive safety systems include antilock braking system (ABS), Electronic Stability Control (ESC/ESP), traction control (TCS)
and automatic four-wheel drive.
Medical equipment is continuing to advance with more embedded systems for vital signs
monitoring, electronic stethoscopes for amplifying sounds, and various medical imaging
(PET, SPECT, CT, and MRI) for non-invasive internal inspections.
Embedded systems are especially suited for use in transportation, fire safety, safety and
security, medical applications and life critical systems as these systems can be isolated from
hacking and thus be more reliable. For fire safety, the systems can be designed to have greater
ability to handle higher temperatures and continue to operate. In dealing with security, the
embedded systems can be self-sufficient and be able to deal with cut electrical and
communication systems.
In addition to commonly described embedded systems based on small computers, a new class
of miniature wireless devices called motes are quickly gaining popularity as the field of
wireless sensor networking rises. Wireless sensor networking, WSN, makes use of
miniaturization made possible by advanced IC design to couple full wireless subsystems to
sophisticated sensors, enabling people and companies to measure a myriad of things in the
physical world and act on this information through IT monitoring and control systems. These
motes are completely self-contained, and will typically run off a battery source for many
years before the batteries need to be changed or charged.

2.2 CHARACTERSTICS
1. Embedded systems are designed to do some specific task, rather than be a general-purpose
computer for multiple tasks. Some also have time performance constraints that must be met,
for reasons such as safety and usability; others may have low or no performance
requirements, allowing the system hardware to be simplified to reduce costs.

2. Embedded systems are not always standalone devices. Many embedded systems 2consist
of small, computerized parts within a larger device that serves a more general purpose.
3. The program instructions written for embedded systems are referred to as firmware, and
are stored in read-only memory or Flash memory chips. They run with limited computer
hardware resources: little memory, small

2.3 USER INTERFACE

Embedded systems range from no user interface at all dedicated only to one task to complex
graphical user interfaces that resemble modern computer desktop operating systems. Simple
embedded devices use buttons, LEDs, graphic or character LCDs (for example popular
HD44780 LCD) with a simple menu system.
More sophisticated devices which use a graphical screen with touch sensing or screen-edge
buttons provide flexibility while minimizing space used: the meaning of the buttons can
change with the screen, and selection involves the natural behavior of pointing at what's
desired. Handheld systems often have a screen with a "joystick button" for a pointing devices.

2.4 TOOLS REQUIRED

As with other software, embedded system designers use compilers, assemblers, and
debuggers to develop embedded system software. However, they may also use some more
specific tools.

In circuit debugger or emulators (see next section)

Utilities to add a checksum or CRC to a program, so the embedded system can check if

the program is valid.

For systems using digital signal processing, developers may use a math workbench such
as Scilab /Scicos, MATLAB / Simulink, EICASLAB, Mathcad, Mathematical, or
Flowstone DSP to simulate the mathematics. They might also use libraries for both the
host and target which eliminates developing DSP routines as done in DSPnano RTOS and

Unison Operating System.

A model based development tool like VisSim lets you create and simulate graphical data
flow and UML State chart diagrams of components like digital filters, motor controllers,
communication protocol decoding and multi-rate tasks. Interrupt handlers can also be
created graphically. After simulation, you can automatically generate C-code to the
VisSim RTOS which handles the main control task and preemption of background tasks,
as well as automatic setup and programming of on-chip peripherals.

Custom compilers and linkers may be used to improve optimization for the particular
hardware.

An embedded system may have its own special language or design tool, or add
enhancements to an existing language such as Forth or Basic.

Another alternative is to add a real-time operating system or embedded operating system,

which may have DSP capabilities like DSPnano RTOS.

Modeling and code generating tools often based on state machines

Software tools can come from several sources:

Software companies that specialize in the embedded market

Ported from the GNU software development tools

Sometimes, development tools for a personal computer can be used if the embedded
processor is a close relative to a common PC processor

As the complexity of embedded systems grows, higher level tools and operating systems
are migrating into machinery where it makes sense. For example, cellphones, personal
digital assistants and other consumer computers often need significant software that is
purchased or provided by a person other than the manufacturer of the electronics. In these
systems, an open programming environment such as Linux, NetBSD, OSGi or Embedded
Java is required so that the third-party software provider can sell to a large market.

2.4.1 Processor in Embedded System

Embedded processors can be broken into two broad categories: ordinary microprocessors
(P) and microcontrollers (C), which have many more peripherals on chip, reducing cost
and size. Contrasting to the personal computer and server markets, a fairly large number of
basic CPU architectures are used; there are Von Neumann as well as various degrees of
Harvard architectures, RISC as well as non-RISC and VLIW; word lengths vary from 4-bit to
64-bits and beyond (mainly in DSP processors) although the most typical remain 8/16-bit.
Most architectures come in a large number of different variants and shapes, many of which
are also manufactured by several different companies.
2.4.2 Microprocessor
A microprocessor incorporates the functions of a computer's central processing unit (CPU) on
a single integrated circuit, (IC) or at most a few integrated circuits. It is a multipurpose,
programmable device that accepts digital data as input, processes it according to instructions
stored in its memory, and provides results as output. It is an example of sequential digital
logic, as it has internal memory.

Microprocessors operate on numbers and symbols represented in the binary numeral system.
The advent of low-cost computers on integrated circuits has transformed modern society.
General-purpose microprocessors in personal computers are used for computation, text
editing, multimedia display, and communication over the Internet. Many more
microprocessors are part of embedded systems, providing digital control of a myriad of
objects from appliances to automobiles to cellular phones and industrial process control.
Thousands of items that were traditionally not computer-related include microprocessors.
These include large and small household appliances, cars (and their accessory equipment
units), car keys, tools and test instruments, toys, light switches/dimmers and electrical circuit
breakers, smoke alarms, battery packs, and hi-fi audio/visual components (from DVD players
to phonograph turntables.) Such products as cellular telephones, DVD video system
and ATSC HDTV broadcast system fundamentally require consumer devices with powerful,
low-cost, microprocessors. Increasingly stringent pollution control standards effectively
require automobile manufacturers to use microprocessor engine management systems, to
allow optimal control of emissions over widely varying operating conditions of an
automobile. Non-programmable controls would require complex, bulky, or costly
implementation to achieve the results possible with a microprocessor. A microprocessor
control program can be easily tailored to different needs of a product line, allowing upgrades
in performance with minimal redesign of the product. Different features can be implemented
in different models of a product line at negligible production cost.
Microprocessor control of a system can provide control strategies that would be
impractical to implement using electromechanical controls or purpose-built electronic
controls. For example, an engine control system in an automobile can adjust ignition timing
based on engine speed, load on the engine, ambient temperature, and any observed tendency
for knocking - allowing an automobile to operate on a range of fuel grades.
2.4.3 Microcontroller
A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated C, uC or MCU) is a small computer on a single
integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output
peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included
on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for
embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or
other general purpose applications.

Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as

automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office
machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By reducing the size
and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output
devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and
processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed
to control non-digital electronic systems. Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and
operate at clock rate frequencies as low as 4 kHz, for low power consumption (mill watts or
microwatts). They will generally have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an
event such as a button press or other interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU
clock and most peripherals off) may be just Nano watts, making many of them well suited for
long lasting battery applications. Other microcontrollers may serve performance-critical
roles, where they may need to act more like a digital signal processor.
A microcontroller can be considered a self-contained system with a processor, memory and
peripherals and can be used as an embedded system.[5]The majority of microcontrollers in
use today are embedded in other machinery, such as automobiles, telephones, appliances, and
peripherals for computer systems. While some embedded systems are very sophisticated,
many have minimal requirements for memory and program length, with no operating system,
and low software complexity. Typical input and output devices include switches, relays,
solenoids, LEDs, small or custom LCD displays, radio frequency devices, and sensors for
data such as temperature, humidity, light level etc. Embedded systems usually have no
keyboard, screen, disks, printers, or other recognizable I/O devices of a personal computer,
and may lack human interaction devices of any kind.
2.4.3.1 Interrupts in microcontroller
Microcontrollers must provide real time (predictable, though not necessarily fast) response to
events in the embedded system they are controlling. When certain events occur, an interrupt
system can signal the processor to suspend processing the current instruction sequence and to
begin an interrupt service routine (ISR, or "interrupt handler").
The ISR will perform any processing required based on the source of the interrupt before
returning to the original instruction sequence. Possible interrupt sources are device
dependent, and often include events such as an internal timer overflow, completing an analog
to digital conversion, a logic level change on an input such as from a button being pressed,
and data received on a communication link. Where power consumption is important as in

battery operated devices, interrupts may also wake a microcontroller from a low power sleep
state where the processor is halted until required to do something by a peripheral even.
2.4.3.2 Programs in microcontroller
Typically microcontroller programs must fit in the available on-chip program memory, since
it would be costly to provide a system with external, expandable, memory. Compilers and
assemblers are used to convert high-level language and assembler language codes into a
compact machine code for storage in the microcontroller's memory. Depending on the device,
the program memory may be permanent, read-only memory that can only be programmed at
the factory, or program memory may be field-alterable flash or erasable read-only memory.
Manufacturers have often produced special versions of their microcontrollers in order to help
the hardware and software development of the target system. Originally these included
EPROM versions that have a "window" on the top of the device through which program
memory can be erased by ultraviolet light, ready for reprogramming after a programming
("burn") and test cycle. Since 1998, EPROM versions are rare and have been replaced by
EEPROM and flash, which are easier to use (can be erased electronically) and cheaper to
manufacture. Other versions may be available where the ROM is accessed as an external
device rather than as internal memory, however these are becoming increasingly rare due to
the widespread availability of cheap microcontroller programmers. The use of fieldprogrammable devices on a microcontroller may allow field update of the firmware or permit
late factory revisions to products that have been assembled but not yet shipped.
Programmable memory also reduces the lead time required for deployment of a new product.
Where hundreds of thousands of identical devices are required, using parts programmed at
the time of manufacture can be an economical option. These "mask programmed" parts have
the program laid down in the same way as the logic of the chip, at the same time. A
customizable microcontroller incorporates a block of digital logic that can be personalized in
order to provide additional processing capability, peripherals and interfaces that are adapted
to the requirements of the application. For example, the AT91CAP from Atmel has a block of
logic that can be customized during manufacturer according to user requirements.
2.4.3.3 Other features of microcontroller

Microcontrollers usually contain from several to dozens of general purpose input/output pins
(GPIO). GPIO pins are software configurable to either an input or an output state. When
GPIO pins are configured to an input state, they are often used to read sensors or external
signals. Configured to the output state, GPIO pins can drive external devices such as LEDs or
motors.
Many embedded systems need to read sensors that produce analog signals. This is the
purpose of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Since processors are built to interpret and
process digital data, i.e. 1s and 0s, they are not able to do anything with the analog signals
that may be sent to it by a device. So the analog to digital converter is used to convert the
incoming data into a form that the processor can recognize. A less common feature on some
microcontrollers is a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) that allows the processor to output
analog signals or voltage levels.
A dedicated Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) block makes it possible for the CPU to control
power converters, resistive loads, motors, etc., without using lots of CPU resources in tight
timer loops.
Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) block makes it possible to receive
and transmit data over a serial line with very little load on the CPU. Dedicated on-chip
hardware also often includes capabilities to communicate with other devices (chips) in digital
formats such as IC and Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI).

Chapter 3

ENERGY THEFT DETECTION: THEORY AND WORKING

MODEL
3.1 PROJECT IDEA
The aim of this project, as the title name suggests, is to detect the power theft that occurs in
our daily lives. We come across such a situation many times in our daily lives where power
and electricity get routed to some other destination through various means like cross-wiring
etc. Our idea to detect power theft is by using two meters, one at the load end and one for the
detection, which would indicate if any discrepancy occurs in the power supply and if
detected, would result in power supply cut-off immediately.

3.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig. 3.1.Functional Block Diagram of Energy Theft Detector

3.3 WORKING
This project consists of mainly two sections. One section consists of energy meter, isolator
and receiver + comparator situated on our supply pole and the one consists of energy meter
isolator and transmitter, situated in our homes.
The energy meter 1 & 2 can measure the energy by measuring voltage and current. Voltage
can measure directly with the help of voltmeter provided on the energy meter but for
measuring current it requires a Current transformer (C.T.). The C.T. can measure current by
measuring magnetic field induced from a current carrying thick copper wire using a coil.
Energy meter consists of four LEDs to show the status. One LED (transparent red LED)
blinks with a constant time interval. This time interval reduces with increase in LOAD.
The energy meter at our home measures the energy consumed by different LOADs. The
output from energy meter (from blinking LED) is given to transmitter section through
isolator. Isolator consists of a relay and a driver for switching it by energy meters output. The
isolator prevents the transmitter section from high voltage output of energy meter. The
isolator output is used to drive one out of four inputs of the transmitter. This signal is decoded
using encoder IC HT12E and transmitted using RF transmitter module.
At the pole the energy meter 1 will measure the supplied electric energy to the home by
similar method, by measuring voltage and current using C.T. The output of energy meter is
fed to the trigger input of the receiver section through isolator. This isolator also consists of a
relay and a transistor driver circuit.
The receiver section consists of RF receiver to receive the signal transmitted from the home
transmitter section. It consists of various LEDs to show the status. LED 5(orange LED) will
blink to show proper transmission from transmitter at home to the receiver at pole. If this
LED L5 does not blink, it indicates that there is a problem in the RF link between Tx and Rx.
LED 4 is by default ON. The triggered input wills ON the LED L3. The next pulse received
from the transmitter section OFF LED L3.Since the energy meter at pole measure the same
energy as measured by the home energy meter i.e. the energy delivered to the LOAD (various
appliances). The pulse rate of blinking LEDs of both energy meters is same. In case of any
theft i.e. bypassing the home energy meter or taking energy before our home energy meter the
pulse rate of blinking LED of the home energy meter will reduce while the pulse rate of
blinking LED at the pole energy meter will remain same.

It will lead to continuous ON of LED L3. As LED L3 continuously glows for more than one
minute it will switch OFF the relay to cut the supply to the home. At this situation LED L4
turn OFF and LEDs L2 and L3 will glow continuously to show the occurrence of fault.
Internal description of the RF Transmitter and Receiver is:1. RF Transmitter
The RF Tx consists of RF Tx module, an encoder i.e. HT12E, four switches and the
transmitting antenna. The energy meter 2 is connected to RF Tx with the help of Isolator.
Isolators are nothing but relay circuit consists of a resistor, transistor and an inductor
connected to 12V supply and of course relay. RF Tx has four switches viz. S1, S2, S3 and S4.
Isolator relay is connected to S4 switch of the RF Tx. The main function of RF Tx is to
change the state of LED L4. If the LED is ON it will turn it OFF and if it is OFF it will turn
it ON. All the switches is then connected to the encoder HT12E whose output drives the RF
Tx module unit and then it is transmitted with the help of an antenna. The transmitter module
accepts serial data. The encoder IC takes in parallel data at the TX side packages it into serial
format and then transmits it with the help of a RF transmitter module. At the RX end, the
decoder IC receives the signal via the RF receiver module, decodes the serial data and
reproduces the original data in the parallel format.

Fig. 3.2. Encoder HT

12E

The 212 encoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for remote control system applications. They
are capable of encoding information which consists of N address bits and 12_N data bits.
Each address/data input can be set to one of the two logic states. The programmed
addresses/data are transmitted together with the header bits via an RF or an infrared
transmission medium upon receipt of a trigger signal. The capability to select a TE trigger on
the HT12E or a DATA trigger on the HT12A further enhances the application flexibility of
the 212 series of encoders. The HT12A additionally provides a 38 kHz carrier for infrared
systems.

Fig. 3.3. Address and Data of Micro Controller

Note: D8~D11 are all data input and transmission enable pins of the HT12A.
TE is a transmission enable pin of the HT12E
The 2^12 series of encoders begin a 4-word transmission cycle upon receipt of a transmission
enable (TE for the HT12E or D8~D11 for the HT12A, active low). This cycle will repeat
itself as long as the transmission enable (TE or D8~D11) is held low. Once the transmission
enables returns high the encoder output completes its final cycle and then stops as shown
below.

Fig. 3.4. Transmission Timing for the HT12E

The TX433 wireless RF transmitter uses on/off keying to transmit data to the matching
receiver, RX433. The data input keys the saw resonator in the transmitter when the input is
+3 volts or greater, AM modulating the data onto the 433 MHz carrier. The data is then
demodulated by the receiver, which accurately reproduces the original data. The data input is
CMOS level Compatible when the unit is run on +5 volts.When driving with a CMOS input,
there must be enough level to achieve at least 3V on the data input, 5V is preferable. This is
due to the start-up time of the oscillator needing to be fast to accurately reproduce your data.

If the voltage is too low, the oscillator will not start fast enough to accurately reproduce your
data, especially at higher data rates. Luckily not much drive is needed, so this should be easy
since it is 22K ohms of load. Almost any CMOS output will drive this without any problems.
There are some CMOS outputs which have very little drive capability which may not work,
so testing the voltage at the data input may be a wise choice if you are having problems.

Fig. 3.5. 433 MHz Transmitter

2. RF Receiver
This section consists of five LEDs (four yellow and one orange), RF Rx module, decoder HT
12D, and PIC microcontroller 16F73 and a receiving antenna. Antenna receives the
transmitted signal and that received signal is then fed to the RF Rx module whose output is
then provided to the decoder HT12D and then to the PIC 16F73.
The receiver shown in Figure also contains just one transistor. It is biased to act as a
regenerative oscillator, in which the received antenna signal causes the transistor to switch to
high amplification, thereby automatically arranging the signal detection. Next, the raw
demodulated signal is amplified and shaped-up by op-amps. The result is a fairly clean digital
signal at the output of the receiver. The logic high level is at about 2/3 of the supply voltage,
i.e., between 3 V and 4.5 V. The range of the simple system shown in Figures is much smaller
than that of more expensive units, mainly because of the low transmit power (approx. 1 mW)
and the relative insensitivity and wide-band nature of the receiver. Moreover, amplitudemodulated noise is not suppressed in any way.

Fig. 3.6. 433 MHz RF Receiver

The 2^12decoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for remote control system applications. They
are paired with Holteks 2^12series of encoders (refer to the encoder/decoder cross reference
table.
For proper operation, a pair of encoder/decoder with the same number of addresses and data
format should be chosen. The decoders receive serial addresses and data from a programmed
2^12 series of encoders that are transmitted by a carrier using an RF or an IR transmission
medium. They compare the serial input data three times continuously with their local
addresses.
If no error or unmatched codes are found, the input data codes are decoded and then
transferred to the output pins. The VT pin also goes high to indicate a valid transmission. The
2^12 series of decoders are capable of decoding in formations that consist of N bits of
address and 12_N bits of data. Of this series, the HT12D is arranged to provide 8 address bits
and 4 data bits, and HT12F is used to decode 12 bits of address information.

Fig. 3.7. HT12D Controller

For proper operation, a pair of encoder/decoder with the same number of addresses and data
format should be chosen. The decoders receive serial addresses and data from a programmed
2^12 series of encoders that are transmitted by a carrier using an RF or an IR transmission
medium. They compare the serial input data three times continuously with their local
addresses. The decoders receive serial addresses and data from a programmed 2^12 series of
encoders that are transmitted by a carrier using an RF or an IR transmission medium. They
compare the serial input data three times continuously with their local addresses.

Fig. 3.8. HT12D Pin Diagram

The 2^12 series of decoders provides various combinations of addresses and data pins in
different packages so as to pair with the 2^ 12 series of encoders. The decoders receive data
that are transmitted by an encoder and interpret the first N bits of code period as addresses
and the last 12_N bits as data, where N is the address code number. A signal on the DIN pin
activates the oscillator which in turn decodes the incoming address and data. The decoders
will then check the received address three times continuously. If the received address codes
all match the contents of the decoders local address, the 12_N bits of data are decoded to
activate the output pins and the VT pin is set high to indicate a valid transmission. This will
last unless the address code is incorrect or no signal is received. The output of the VT pin is
high only when the transmission is valid. Otherwise it is always low. Of the 2^12 series of
decoders, the HT12F has no data output pin but its VT pin can be used as a momentary data
output. The HT12D, on the other hand, provides 4 latch type data pins whose data remain
unchanged until new data are received. The decoders will then check the received address
three times continuously. If the received address codes all match the contents of the decoders
local address, the 12_N bits of data are decoded to activate the output pins and the VT pin is
set high to indicate a valid transmission. This will last unless the address code is incorrect or
no signal is received. The output of the VT pin is high only when the transmission is valid.
Otherwise it is always low. Of the 2^12 series of decoders, the HT12F has no data output pin
but its VT pin can be used as a momentary data output. The HT12D, on the other hand,
provides 4 latch type data pins whose data remain unchanged until new data are received.

Fig.3.9. PIC16F73 Block Diagram

3.4 CODING OF TRANSMITTER

int flag=0;
int counter=0;
void main()
{
PORTC.bit4=1
PORTC.bit5=0;
PORTC.bit6
PORTC.bit7=0;
While(1)
{
If(PORTB.bit0==1)
{
While (PORTB.bit0==1)
{
}
If(flag==1)
{
PORTC.bit6=1;
Counter=counter+1;
Delay..ms(1000);
}
If(flag==0)
{
Flag=1:
PORTC.bit5=1;
Delay..ms(200);
}
If(PORTC.bit0==1||PORTC.bit3==1)
{
While(PORTC.bit==1||PORTC.bit==1)

{
}
flag=0;
PORTC.bit5=0;
PORTC.bit6=0;
}
If(counter>4)
{
goto end
}
}
end:
PORTC.bit4=0;
PORTC.bit5=0;
PORTC.bit6=0;
PORTC.bit7=1;
}

3.5 RELAYS
A relay is usually an electromechanical device that is actuated by an electrical current. The
current flowing in one circuit causes the opening or closing of another circuit. Relays are like
remote control switches and are used in many applications because of their relative
simplicity, long life, and proven high reliability. They are used in a wide variety of
applications throughout industry, such as in telephone exchanges, digital computers and
automation systems.
3.5.1 How relay works?
All relays contain a sensing unit, the electric coil, which is powered by AC or DC current.
When the applied current or voltage exceeds a threshold value, the coil activates the
armature, which operates either to close the open contacts or to open the closed contacts.
When a power is supplied to the coil, it generates a magnetic force that actuates the switch
mechanism. The magnetic force is, in effect, relaying the action from one circuit to another.
The first circuit is called the control circuit; the second is called the load circuit. A relay is
usually an electromechanical device that is actuated by an electrical current. The current
flowing in one circuit causes the opening or closing of another circuit.

Fig. 3.10. Working of relay

3.5.2 Types of relay
1 Electromechanical Relay
2 Solid State Relay
1 Electromechanical Relay
Electromechanical relays have moving parts, whereas solid state relays have no moving parts.
Advantages of Electromechanical relays include lower cost, no heat sink is required, multiple
poles are available, and they can switch AC or DC with equal ease. They are also known as
General Purpose Relay. The general-purpose relay is rated by the amount of current its switch
contacts can handle. Most versions of the general-purpose relay have one to eight poles and
can be single or double throw. These are found in computers, copy machines, and other
consumer electronic equipment and appliances.

Power Relay: The power relay is capable of handling larger power loads 10-50 amperes
or more

Contactor: A special type of high power relay, its used mainly to control high voltages
and currents in industrial electrical applications. Because of these high power
requirements, contactors always have double-make contacts.

Time-Delay Relay: The contacts might not open or close until sometime interval after the
coil has been energized. This is called delay-on-operate. Delay-on-release means that the
contacts will remain in their actuated position until some interval after the power has been
removed from the coil. A third delay is called interval timing. Contacts revert to their
alternate position at a specific interval of time after the coil has been energized. The
timing of these actions may be a fixed parameter of the relay, or adjusted by a knob on the
relay itself, or remotely adjusted through an external circuit.

Solid State Relay

These active semiconductor devices use light instead of magnetism to actuate a switch. The
light comes from an LED, or light emitting diode. When control power is applied to the
devices output, the light is turned on and shines across an open space. On the load side of
this space, a part of the device senses the presence of the light, and triggers a solid state
switch that either opens or closes the circuit under control. Often, solid state relays are used
where the circuit under control must be protected from the introduction of electrical noises.
Advantages of Solid State Relays include low EMI/RFI, long life, no moving parts, no
contact bounce, and fast response. The drawback to using a solid state relay is that it can only
accomplish single pole switching.

3.6 POWER SUPPLY

Power supply can be defined as electronic equipment, which is a stable source of D.C. power
for electronic circuits.
Power supply can be classified into two major categories:

Unregulated power supply

Regulated power supply

3.6.1 Unregulated Power Supply

These power supplies, supply power to the load but do not take into variation of power
supply output voltage or current with respect to the change in A.C. mains voltage, load
current or temperature variations. In other words, we can say that the output voltage or
current of an unregulated power supply changes with the change in A.C .mains voltage, load
current and temperature.

Fig.3.11. Unregulated power supply

3.6.2 Regulated power supply
These power supplies are regulated over the change in source voltage or load current i.e. its
output remain stable.
Regulated power supplies are of two types: Current Regulated power supplies
These are constant current supplies in spite of change in load or input voltage
Voltage Regulated power supplies
These supplies supply constant output voltage with respect to the variation in load or source
input voltage

Fig.3.12. Regulated power supply

IN

OUT

COM

T1
10TO1
D1

D2

D3

D4

C1
1000uF

C2
0.1uF

Fig. 3.13. Circuit of regulated power supply with half wave rectifier and ic-7809 as a
regulator

CONCLUSION
This project is designed for industrial purpose, but it can be extended to domestic purposes
also. It gives a big hand to vigilance squad to control theft quickly and easily. With its usage, the
crime of stealing power may be brought to an end and thereby a new bloom may be expected in the
economy of our motherland. The prime limitation of the system in the present form is the distance
coverage. To overcome this when applied in a large scale, repeaters can be employed at suitable
intervals. To certain extent the power level of the transmitter may be improved. Our paper not only
indicates the place of power theft but also the amount of energy being stolen that is, it gives the best
of the expected results. The use of this technique gives a new hope and accuracy for the satisfaction to
complete the work.