Physics

Moment of a force:
Moment of a force = force x perpendicular distance of the
line if action if the force from fulcrum

Law of moments:
When a body is in equilibrium the sum of the clockwise
moments about any point equals the sum of the
anticlockwise moments about the same point.

Centre of mass:
I.

Centre of mass is the point where whole mass of the body

assumes to be concentrated.
II. If the vertical line through the centre of mass is outside
the base it will be a topples but if its passed through the
base it will be stable.

The stability of the body is increased by:

1. Lowering its centre of mass.
2. Increasing the area of the base.

Energy measurement:
Work is set to be done when a force is applied at an object
and the object is moved in the direction of the force.

work=force distance moved thedirection of force

Kinetic energy:
All moving objects have kinetic energy.
1
K . E= mass ( velocity )2
2

Potential energy:
The energy due to change in position, shape, or state.
P . E=mass gravity height

Power:
Its the rate at which it transfers energy from one form to
another.
power=

work done energy transfer

=
time taken
timetaken

Efficiency:
total energy applied
useful energy transfered by device
efficiency=
device 100

Pressure:
pressure=

force
= pa
area

pressure=depth density gravity= pa

pressuregas=atmosphericpressure + excess pressure=pascals

Speed
average speed =

distance moved
time taken

Velocity
velocity=

distance moved stated direction

time taken

velocity=

displacement
time taken

Acceleration
acceleration=

change of velocity
time taken for change

Uniform acceleration
v =u+at

Vsecond speed
Ufirst speed
Sdistance

( u+ v )
s=
t
2

1
s=ut + a t 2
2

v =u + 2as

The heat equation

heat recievedgivenout=mass temperature change specific heat capacity

Specific heat capacity:

The specific heat capacity of a substance is the heat
required to produce a 1

rise in 1 Kg

Specific heat capacity of water

specific heat capacity of water=

heat recevied by water (J )

mass ( Kg ) temp . rise()

Thermal capacity:
Its the quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature
of the whole body by 1 .
Thermal capacity=mass specific heat capacity

Specific latent heat of fusion:

The specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the
quantity of heat needed to change unit mass from solid to
liquid without temperature change.

Specific latent heat of fusion

Q=m l f

Specific latent heat of vaporization:

The specific latent heat of vaporization of a substance is
the quantity of heat needed to change unit mass from
liquid to vapor without change of temperature.

Specific latent heat of vaporization

Q=m l v

Heat supplied by a heater:

Q=P t=ItV

Speed of wave
speed =frequency wavelength

Circular motion:
mv 2
F=
r

The Ampere and the Coulomb

The unit of current is the Ampere (A) which is defined
using the magnetic effect.
The unit of charge, the Coulomb (C)
The Coulomb is the charge passing any point in a circuit
when a steady current of 1 ampere flows for 1 second,
coulombs (Q)=amperes (I ) time(t )

Series and parallel circuit

The current is the same at all points in a series circuit

The current is different in the branches of a parallel circuit

Direct and alternating current
In a Direct current (d.c) the electrons flow in one direction
only.
In an Alternating current (a.c) the direction of flow
reverses regularly.
Voltages round a circuit
In series: The voltages at the terminals of a battery equal
the sum of the voltages across the devices in the external
circuit from one battery terminal to the other.
In parallel: the voltages across devices in parallel in a
circuit are equals.
V=

E
Q

E=I t V

V
Resistance
The opposition if a conductor to a current is called its
resistance.
The resistance of a wire of a certain material:
i) Increases as its length increases
ii) Increases as its cross-section area decreases
iii) Depends on the material
The Ohm
The ohm is the resistance of a conductor in which the
current is 1 ampere when a voltage of 1 volt is applied
across it.

Resistors in series:
V 1=IR 1 , V 2=IR 2 , V 3=IR 3 . Also, if R is the combined resistance,
v =IR

and so

IR=IR1 + IR 2 + IR3

Dividing both sides by I,

R=R 1+ R 2+ R3

Resistors in parallel
I1 =

V
V
V
,I = , I = .
R1 2 R2 3 R3 Also, if R is the combined resistance,
V =IR

and so

V V V V
= + +
R R 1 R2 R 3

1 1 1 1
= + +
Dividing both sides by V, R R1 R2 R 3

For simpler case of two resistors in parallel

R
R
1 1 1
= + = 2 + 1
R R1 R2 R1 R 2 R 1 R2
1 R2 + R1
=
R R1 R 2

Inverting both sides,

R=

R 1 R2 Product of resistnaces
=
R1 + R2
of resistances

Capacitor
It stores electric charge and is useful in many electronic
circuits.
Effects of capacitors in d.c and a.c circuits
The capacitor block d.c
The capacitor passes a.c
Electric power
power=

work done energy transfer

=
time taken
timetaken
E=I t V
P=IV

Electronic system
Any electronic system consists of three parts:
i)

An input sensor or transducer

ii) A processor
iii) An output transducer

A transducer is a device to convert a non-electrical input

into an electrical signal or vice versa.
The processor decides on what action to take on the
electrical signal receives from the input sensor;
The output transducer converts the electrical energy
supplied by the processor into another form.
Light dependent resistor (LDR)
Its a type if variable resistor where resistance depends in
the amount of light falling on it. It is used in circuits to
detect the level of light
Dark

high resistance

less current

Light

low resistance

more current

Thermistor
Its a type of variable resistor where resistance depends
on the temperature.
Cold
Hot

high resistance
low resistance

less current
more current

Relays
Its a type of switch that works using an electromagnet.

Diode
Its a component that allows the electric current to flow in
one direction only. Its also known as Rectifier. It changes
alternative current to direct current.

Magnetization of iron and steel

Magnetic materials like IRON which magnetize easily but
readily lose their magnetism (are easily demagnetized)
are said to be SOFT.
But those like STEEL which are harder to magnetize than
iron but stay magnetized are HARD.

Simple d.c electric motor

A direct current (DC) motor is a
fairly simple electric motor that uses electricity and
a magnetic field to produce torque, which turns the motor.
Parts of the Motor
DC power supply of some sort
Armature or rotor
Commutator
Brushes

Lenzs law
An induced current is always in such a direction as to
oppose the motion or change causing it

Sensitivity of a thermometer
It is the length of increase of the liquid per degree rise in
temperature. More sensitive means more noticeable
expansion.
Linear scale
When the fixed points of the thermometer have been
marked, the distance between them is divided into equal
degrees which are the range of the thermometer.
Range of thermometer
The temperature limits of the thermometer. The lower
limit and the upper limit.
Linear expansivity
The expansion can be calculated if:

i) The length of the bridge,

ii) The range of temperature it will experience, and
iii)
The linear expansivity of the material to be used,
Are all known
expansion=linear expansivity original length temperature rise

Weight
The weight of a body is the force of gravity on it.

Mass
Mass is the amount of matter in an object and is measured
in Kg.

Hookes law:
Within elastic limit, the force is directly proportional to
the extension produced.

Plastic
If a force is applied to an abject, the object changes its
shape, and it stays the same shape when the force if
removed.

Elastic
If you put a force on an object making the object change
shape and it returns to its original shape after removing
the force. We say the object is Elastic.

Conditions of equilibrium:
I.

The sum of the forced in one direction equals the sum of

the forces in the opposite direction
II. The law of moments must apply.

Stable equilibrium
The body is in stable equilibrium when it slightly displaced
and then released, it returns to its previous position.

Unstable equilibrium
A body is in unstable equilibrium if moves farther away
from its previous position when slightly displaced and
then released.

Neutral equilibrium
A body is in neutral equilibrium if it stays in its new
position when displayed.

The gas laws

Boyles law:
The pressure of fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional
to its volume if its temperature is kept constant.

p=

k
v

P1 V 1=P 2 V 2

Charles law:
The volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature if the pressure is
kept constant.
V1 V2
=
T 1 T2

Pressure law:
The pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature if the volume is
kept constant.
p1 p2
=
T1 T2

Combining laws:
P1 V 1 P 2 V 2
=
T1
T2