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IIT Kanpur
Kanpur, India (208016)

Carburetion and fuel injection

Introduction
ThewordcarburetorcamefromtheFrenchcarburemeaning"carbide".Carburemeanstocombine
withcarbon.
ThecarburetorwaspatentedbyKarlBenzin1886.
FuelinjectionsystemisavitalcomponentofbothCI&SIengines.
Ottocycleenginesarefedwithfuel(normalgasoline,,methylorethylalcoholetc.),whichissufficiently
volatileandhasignitionpropertieswhichallowittobepremixedwiththecombustionairbeforethe
combustionisinitiatedbythesparkplug.
inDieselcycleengines,thefuelislessvolatileandairisonlymixedinsidethecombustionchamber,
wherethepressureandtemperatureconditionsaresuchtoinducenaturalignition.sothepower
deliveryofdieselenginesmaybeadjustedbyfueldeliveryalone,withouttheneedtocontrolthe
airflow.
InSIengine,theliquidfuelandtheair(whichcontainsnecessaryoxygen)aremixedpriortoarrivalin
thecombustionchamber.
InOttocycleengines,whenthefuelispremixedwiththeair,itisnecessarytocontroltheairflowand
therefore,indirectlytheairfuelmixture.

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Gasoline engines cannot run on liquid gasoline. It must be vaporized and mixed with air in the
proper proportions for varying conditions.
the process of producing a mixture of air and fuel in the correct proportion for engine
combustion Is called carburation
A carburetor is a device that blends air and fuel for an internal combustion engine.

Induction system
Induction system is responsible for preparing correct air-fuel mixture and directing this mixture
to each of the cylinder.
Carburetor is main part of induction system.
Liquid fuel supplied to carburetor from the fuel system.
Air is drawn into carburetor form atmosphere by the action of the engine piston on intake
stroke. most of the automobile engine induct air directly into carburetor through air cleaner.
Through Intake manifold fuel and air mixture travels from carburetor to the cylinder.
The throttle located in the carburetor regulates the quantity of mixture entering the cylinder.

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During the suction stroke vacuum created in the cylinder causes air to flow through carburetor
and fuel to sprayed from the fuel jets.

most of the fuel vaporizes and forms a combustible fuel-air mixture because of volatility of fuel.
how ever some of the larger droplets may reach the cylinder in liquid form which should be
vaporized and mixed with air during compression stroke before ignition.

Important factor affecting the process of carburation

1. Time available for preparation of mixture.
2. Temperature of the incoming air of the mixture.
3. Quality of fuel supplied.
4. Design of the induction system and combustion chamber.

Chemically correct air/fuel ratio

A chemical equation for combustion hydrocarbon can be written as follows:
C8H18 + 12.5 O2 = 8 CO2 + 9 H2O
From this we can calculate for complete combustion, there must be 15.12 k.g. of air required
for every k.g. of C8H18 fuel.
The air/fuel ration (A/F) in this case is 15.12 : 1, that is 0.0661.
The quantity of fuel calculated by this method is an ideal amount necessary to react completely
with all the oxygen. So this A/F ratio is known as chemically correct or stoichiometric A/F ratio
for this type of fuel.
The chemically correct A/F mixture is not mandatory condition for engine operation.
However, with in a limited range of A/F ratios Si engine combustion will occur. Outside this
range ,the ratio is too rich or too lean to sustain flame propagation.

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Theoretical carburetor considerations

Carburetor must fulfill following functions
1. Meter the liquid fuel in correct quantities to produce A/F ratio required to meet engine
operating conditions.
2. Atomize the fuel, and mix it homogeneously with the air.
Carburetor must be designed to provide as nearly as possible A/F ratio which the
engine requires.

The mixture corresponding to the

maximum point on bhp curve is
called best power mixture.

The mixture corresponding to the

minimum point on the bsfc curve is
called the best economy mixture.

The above figure is based on full throttle position operation.

It is important to note that, the best power mixture is richer than the chemically correct
mixture, and the best economy mixture is leaner than the chemically correct.

The A/F ratios for best power and best economy at part throttle are not strictly the same as full
load.
Carburetor could be set for the best power mixture when maximum performance desired and
for best economy mixture when fuel economy is primary consideration.
There are three general ranges of throttle operation. in each of these, engine has different
requirement.
The carburetor must modify the A/F ratio to satisfy these demands
The three ranges are
1. Idling (mixture must be enriched)
2. Crushing (mixture must be leaned)
3. High power (mixture must be enriched)

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Mixture requirements for maximum power

Maximum power is obtained at about
12.5: 1.
Maximum energy is released when
mixture is slightly rich so all the
oxygen present in the cylinder is
utilized.

(For full throttle and constant speed operation)

This is undesirable as combustion of large excess of fuel with same amount of oxygen
results in smaller energy release due to partial combustion hence carbon monoxide is
formed

Mixture requirement for minimum specific fuel consumption

Maximum efficiency occurs at A/F ratio of
about 17:1 (0.06 :1 F/A ratio)
Maximum efficiency occurs at a point
slightly leaner than chemically correct A/F
ratio because mixing is not perfect, excess
air requires for complete combustion of
fuel.

(For various throttle position)

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Engine A/F mixture requirement

1. IDLE MIXTURE
an idle engine is one operating at no load condition and the throttle position is nearly closed.
Engine produces power only to overcome friction between parts, and a rich mixture is to be fed
to the engine to sustain combustion.
The engine requires a rich mixture. This is because existing pressure conditions within the
combustion chamber and intake manifold, which causes exhaust gas dilution of the fresh
charge.
When intake valve opens, the pressure differential
between combustion chamber and the intake manifold
results in backward initial flow of exhaust gases into
intake manifold.
As the piston moves down on the intake stroke, these
exhaust gases are drawn back into the cylinder along
with fresh charge. so the final mixture of fuel and air is
diluted by exhaust gas.

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This exhaust gas obstruct the contact between fuel and air particles. As a result less power
obtained.
Hence it is required to provide more fuel particle by enriching the air and fuel mixture which
increases the probability of contact between fuel and air particles, thus improves combustion.
As the throttle is gradually opened the pressure differential becomes smaller and exhaust gas
dilution of the fresh charge diminishes

Idling system
The idling system consists of an idling fuel
passage and idling port.
When the throttle is partially closed, a
depression past the throttle allows the fuel
to go into the intake through the idle tube.
The depression also draws air through the
idle air bleed and mixes with fuel .

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2. CRUSHING RANGE
normal power or crushing operation have lower fuel consumption for maximum economy.
The arrangement used is the auxiliary port
carburetor where opening of butterfly valve
allows additional air to be admitted and at the
same time depression at the venturi throat gets
reduced, there by decreasing the fuel flow rate

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3. POWER RANGE
Richer mixture required for following reason
a) Provide best power as high power is desired so it is required to transfer the cruising range to
the mixture which will produce the greatest power or near the vicinity of best power mixture.
b) Prevent overheating of exhaust valve area enriching the mixture reduce the flame temperature
and cylinder temperature. So it reduces the cooling problem and lessening the tendency to
damage exhaust valve at high power.
c) Inhibit detonation in air craft engines enriching the mixture beyond chemically correct
reduces the flame temperature so it reduces detonation.
In automobile engine detonation are produced in the form of audible knock or ping. Also these
automobile engine operate well below full power and enriching fuel air mixture will not be
economical for this purpose.
For aircraft engine installations, richening the mixture is justified and necessary to increase
permissible take off power.

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POWER ENRICHMENT SYSTEM

For rich mixture, additional fuel supplied by a power
enrichment system
It consist of a meter rod economizer that provides a larger
orifice opening to the main jet as the throttle is opened
beyond a certain point.

ACCELERATING PUMP SYSTEM

During sudden acceleration of an engine an extra
amount of fuel is momentarily required to supply a rich
mixture.
This is obtained by accelerating pump system consists of
a spring-loaded plunger and necessary linkage
mechanism

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Transient mixture requirements

Carburetor has to provide suitable mixture for transient conditions where speed, load ,
temperature ,pressure changes rapidly.
The principle transition conditions of operations are
1. starting
2. Warming up
3. Acceleration
4. Deceleration
The difference between steady state and transient state are
1. Incomplete evaporation
2. Fluctuation in quantity of liquid fuel in inlet manifold (increasing or decreasing)
3. Distribution of fuel to various cylinder

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1. Starting and warm up

while starting from cold

the speed as well as

engine temperature are low, hence fuel supplied

by carburetor does not vaporize and remain in
liquid form.
Also the vaporized fuel may recondence on
coming in contact with cold cylinder walls and
piston head.
Therefore even when air-fuel ratio at carburetor is
well enough but the ratio of evaporated fuel to air
in the cylinder may be too lean to ignite. Hence
during start up 5 to 10 times the normal amount

(During start-up the components are cold

so fuel evaporation is very slow, as a result
additional fuel is added through a second
injecting valve)

fuel must be supplied for proper combustion.

As engine warms up the amount of evaporated fuel increases and hence the mixture ratio
should made leaner to avoid rich evaporated fuel-air ratio. Too high or too low volatility, both
create difficulties in operation.

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2. Acceleration and deceleration

Acceleration means increase in engine speed resulting from
opening the throttle.
Fuel evaporated in intake manifold moves faster than the
liquid film formed on the induction system walls.
When throttle is suddenly open, the liquid fuel lags behind
and temporarily the engine cylinder receives a lean mixture
whilst rich mixture is needed to produce instantaneous
power for acceleration.
To compensate for temporary leaning of mixture and to
provide rich mixture needed for acceleration period,
additional fuel must be supplied by suitable mechanism.

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Simple carburettor

The simple carburetor mainly

consists of
1.

float chamber,

2.

fuel discharge nozzle

3.

a metering orifice

4.

venturi

5.

throttle valve

6.

choke.

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FLOAT CHAMBER

1. The float and a needle valve system maintain a constant level of gasoline in the float chamber
2. Float chamber is vented either to the atmosphere or to the upstream side of the venturi
VENTURI
1. A tube of decreasing cross-section with a minimum area at the throat, and is so shaped that it
offers minimum resistance to the air flow.
2. As the air passes through the venturi the velocity increases
reaching a maximum at the venturi throat.
Correspondingly, the pressure decreases reaching a
minimum.
3. From the float chamber, the fuel is fed to a discharge jet,
the tip of which is located in the throat of the venturi
4. Because of the differential pressure between the float
chamber and the throat of the venturi, known as
carburetor depression, fuel is discharged into the air
stream

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CHOKE VALVE

1. A choke valve to control air supply in order to provide rich or lean mixture.
2. When the choke is partly closed, large pressure drop occurs at the venturi which inducts large
amount of fuel from the main nozzle and provides a very rich mixture.
THROTTLE VALVE
1. A throttle valve to supply varying quantity of the mixture at different load conditions.
FUEL NOZZLE
1. It is used to atomize and produce a spray of fuel

OPERATION
1. The fuel supply to the float chamber is controlled by the action of the float and the attached
fuel supply valve. during the intake stroke of the engine, the piston moves from TDC to BDC ,
and creates a vacuum in suction manifold.
2. due to fall in the pressure, the atmospheric air rushes into carburetor. Near the venturi, the
velocity increases, pressure decreases and the fuel comes out in the form of a jet. the fuel gets
mixed with air and goes into the cylinder

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Because of the narrow passage at the venturi throat, the air velocity increases but its pressure
falls. this is known as carburetor depression at venturi throat.
This causes fuel to come out as jet in the form of a spray . This fuel spray vaporizes and mixes
with the incoming air, and the mixture goes into the cylinder through the throttle valve.

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BETWEEN THROTTLE VALVE AND ENGINE IS A PARTIAL VACUUM

CAUSED BY SUCTION
FROM ENGINE

AND FLOW RESTRICTION THROUGH THROTTLE VALVE

CARB.
AIR
FILTER

FUEL AND AIR ISVENTURI

MIXED
DUE TO LOWERED AIR
PRESSURE

INLET
MANIFOLD

CONTROLS
THROTTLE
MIXTURE FLOW
TO
VALVE
ENGINE

EXHAUST
MANIFOLD

ENGINE

ENGINE PULLS AIR

IN DURING
INDUCTION STROKE
SIMPLIFIED PISTON ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM

Drawback of simple carburetor

At a very low speed, the mixture supplied by a simple carburetor is so weak that it will not
ignite properly and for its enrichment, some arrangement in the carburetor is required to be
made.

The working of simple carburetor is affected by changes of atmospheric pressure.

If the setting is done in winter season, it will be found to give too rich mixture in the summer.
This is happened due to less density of air with the rise of temperature to a grater extent than
the density of fuel.

It gives the proper mixture at only one engine speed and load, therefore, suitable only for
engines running at constant speed.

increase or decrease ,the quantity of fuel issuing out will change and not match the velocity of
air flowing through the venturi and proper mixture is not take place.

In simple carburetor, the mixture is weakened when the throttle is suddenly opened because of
Inertia effect of the fuel which prevents the proper quantity of fuel from flowing immediately.

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Compensating Devices
An automobile on road has to run on different loads and speeds.
the tendency of a simple carburetor is to progressively richen the mixture as the throttle starts
opening. The main metering system alone will not be sufficient to take care of the needs of the
engine.
Therefore, certain compensating devices are usually added in the carburetor along with the
main metering system so as to supply a mixture with the required air/fuel ratio.

A number of compensating devices are in use. The important ones are

1. Air-bleed jet
2. Compensating jet
3. Emulsion tube
4. Back suction control mechanism
5. Auxiliary air valve
6. Auxiliary air port

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Air bleed jet

it contains an air-bleed into the main nozzle.
An orifice restricts the flow of air through this bleed and therefore it is called restricted air-bleed
jet .
When the engine is not operating the main jet and the air bleed jet will be filled with fuel. When
the engine starts, initially the fuel starts coming through the main as well as the air bleed jet.
As the engine picks up, only air
starts coming through the air
bleed and mixes with fuel at
making a air fuel emulsion.
it is possible to maintain a fairly
uniform mixture ratio for the
entire power range of the
operation of an engine

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Compensating Jet
The principle of compensating jet device is to make the mixture leaner as the throttle opens
progressively.
In this method, in addition to the main jet, a compensating jet is incorporated.
The compensating jet is connected to the compensation well and it is vented to atmosphere
like the main float chamber.

The compensating well is supplied with fuel

from the main float chamber through a
restricting orifice. With the increase in airflow
rate, there is decrease of fuel level in the
compensating well, with the result that fuel
supply through the compensating jet decreases.
The compensating jet thus progressively makes
the mixture leaner as the main jet progressively
makes the mixture richer

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Emulsion Tube
The mixture correction is attempted by air bleeding in modern carburetor. In one such
arrangement, the main metering jet is kept at a level of about 25 mm below the fuel level in the
float chamber. Therefore, it is also called submerged jet which is located at the bottom of a
well. The sides of the well have holes which communication with the atmosphere.
In the beginning the level of petrol in the float chamber
and the well is same. When the throttle is opened the
pressure at the venturi throat decreases and petrol is
drawn into the air stream. This results in progressively
uncovering the holes in the central tube leading to
increasing air-fuel ratios or decreasing richness of
mixture.
The air is drawn through these holes in the well, and the
fuel is emulsified and the pressure differential across
the column of fuel is not as high as that in simple
carburetor.

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Types of carburetors
There are 3 general types of carburetors depending on the direction
of flow of air.
Updraught, Downdraught, Cross- draught
a) Updraught
Air enters at the bottom and leaves at the top hence the direction
of the flow is upward.
The disadvantage is that it must lift the sprayed fuel droplet by air
friction.
b) Downdraught
To overcome the drawback of downdraught carburetor it is used.
It is placed at a level higher than the inlet manifold and air and
mixture generally follow a downward course. Here fuel does not
have to lifted by air friction but move into the cylinder by gravity
even if the air velocity is low.

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c) Cross-draught

It consists of a horizontal mixing tube with a float

chamber on one side of it.it reduce the resistance to
flow by eliminating the right angle turn in the inlet
passage
Constant choke carburetor
1. The air and fuel passage areas are always maintained constant, but the pressure difference
which causes the flow of fuel and air vary as per demand.
2. Example are Solex and zenith carburetor.
Constant vacuum carburetor
1. Air and fuel areas are varied as per demand on the engine, while the vacuum is maintained to
be always same.
2. Example are S.U. and carter carburetors

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Multiple venturi carburetor

1. It has double or triple venturi.
2. Boost venturi is located concentrically with in the main venturi and discharge edge of the
boost venturi is located at the throat of the main venturi.
3. Only a fraction of the total air flows through it also pressure at the boost venturi exit equals the
pressure at the main venturi throat.
4. Better control over the fuel flow as high depression is created in the region of the fuel nozzle.
5. Excellent low speed full throttle operation is possible
6. More efficient mixing of the air fuel mixture
7. An annular blanket of air is formed .
8. The advantage of this carburetor are

Reducing condensation of the fuel

High speed system

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Distribution
Problem of distribution comes in multi
cylinder engine, as the carburetor must
supply air-fuel mixture to each of several
cylinders.
It is impossible to obtain complete
atomization and vaporization of fuel by
carburetor.
Mixture passing through intake manifold generally contains a certain amount of liquid in
droplet form. these droplet has higher inertia than gaseous mixture. So whenever the direction
changed ,the droplets tend to continue in their original direction of movement.
In addition to fuel droplets, there exist a thin film of liquid fuel adhering to the inner walls of
intake manifold which causes uneven distribution.
A partial solution is to heat the mixture in intake manifold.
Another solution is to enrich the overall air fuel mixture so that leanest cylinder receives the
required A/F ratio. This causes, some of cylinder receive a richer A/F ratio than necessary

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Mixture preparation
The air/fuel mixture can be prepared by either a carburetor or a fuel injection system. In both
cases fuel will be present in the inlet manifold as, vapour, liquid droplets and a liquid film.
Although emissions legislation is now reducing the scope for using carburetor still their use is
still widespread. There are two main types of carburetor
1. Fixed jet (or fixed venturi)
2. variable jet (or variable venturi)
There are also two types of fuel injection system used on spark ignition engine
multi-point injection and single-point injection
The multi-point injection system employs Injectors usually mounted close to the inlet port(s)
of each
cylinder.
The single-point injection system look very much like a carburetor, and the throttle plate and
inlet manifold play an important part in mixture preparation.
Even with multipoint fuel injection systems, a liquid fuel film will develop on the walls of the
inlet manifold.

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The carburetor (or fuel injection system) and manifold have to perform satisfactorily in both
steady-state and transient conditions.
When an engine is started, extra fuel floods into the inlet manifold. So the engine starts on a
very rich mixture and often there small ribs are provided to control the flow of liquid fuel.

In a simple branched manifold with a single-point injection system, the intersections will
often have sharp corners. The reason is the sharp corners help to break up the liquid film
flowing on the manifold walls.
With the use of multiple carburetor installations, the aerodynamic performance of the inlet
manifold improves.

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The engine should normally receive a lean mixture and at full throttle a rich mixture. If a lean
mixture were used at full throttle, this would reduce the power output and possible overheat
the exhaust valve because of the slower combustion.
When the engine is idling or operating at low load the low pressure in the inlet manifold
increases the exhaust, gas residuals in the cylinder, and consequently the carburetor has to
provide rich mixture.

The below picture shows the optimum air/fuel ratio changes for maximum power and
maximum economy with varying power output for particular engine at constant speed

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When the throttle is opened, extra fuel is needed for several reasons .
1. The air flow into the engine increases, more rapidly than the fuel flow, since some fuel is in the
form of droplets and some is present as a film on the manifold walls.
2. for maximum power a rich mixture is needed.
3. when the throttle is opened the vaporized fuel will tend to condense
When the throttle opens the pressure in the manifold increases also the partial pressure of the
fuel vapour will increase. If the partial pressure of the fuel rises above its saturation pressure
then fuel will condense and extra fuel is injected to compensate.
When the throttle is suddenly closed, the reduced manifold pressure causes the fuel film to
evaporate . This can provide an over-rich mixture, and so lead to emissions of unburnt
hydrocarbons. This problem is over come by a spring-loaded over-run valve on the throttle
value plate that by-passes air into the manifold .

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Some times heated manifolds are used to reduce the liquid film and droplets. The manifold
can be heated by the engine coolant, or by conduction from the exhaust manifold. The
disadvantage of a heated inlet manifold is the ensuing reduction in volumetric efficiency
However, supplementary electrical heaters can be used during warm-up.
these heaters often use PTC (positive temperature coefficient) materials. so as to give
automatic temperature control. The heaters employ extended surfaces (usually spines), and arc
located in the manifold under the carburetor or a single-point fuel injector.
Despite the careful attention paid to manifold design, it is quite usual for carburetor to give 5
percent variation in mixture strength between cylinders, even for steady-state operation

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Variable jet carburetor

The fuel is supplied to the jet from an integral float
chamber. This has a float-operated valve that
maintains a fuel level just below the level of the jet
If the throttle is opened, the air flow through the
venturi increases. This decreases the pressure
downstream of the venturi and causes the piston to
rise.
The piston will rise until the
pressure on the piston is balanced by its weight and
the force from the light spring .
The position of the tapered needle in the Jet or orifice
varies with piston position, thus controlling the
air/fuel mixture.

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The damper in the oil stop the piston oscillating when there is a change in load. A valve in the
damper causes a stronger damping action when the piston rises than when it falls.
When the throttle is opened the piston movement is delayed by the damper and this causes
fuel enrichment of the mixture .
For an incompressible fluid the flow through an orifice or venturi is proportional to the square
root of the pressure drop. As air is compressible its pressure drop will be greater than that
predicted by incompressible flow and this will cause extra fuel to flow.
For starting - extra fuel is provided by a lever that lowers the jet. A linkage and cam also
operate the throttle valve to raise the idling speed.
This simple type of carburetor is found on some small engines (such as motorcycles and
outboard motors) and does not have facilities like enrichment for acceleration.

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Fixed jet carburetor

It resembles the simpler variable-jet
type carburetor
The components are
1. Air intake
2. Idling jet holder
3. Idling mixture tube
4. Needle valve
5. Float fulcrum povot
6. Float
7. Carburetor bowl
8. Idling jet
9. Main jet
10. Throttle butterfly
11. Choke tube
12. Emulsioning tube
13. Air bleed screw

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Fixed jet carburettor

This carburettor can only sense air flow rate without distinguishing between fully open throttle at a
slow engine speed or partially closed throttle at a higher engine speed. The fuel outlet is at the
smallest cross-sectional area so that the maximum velocity promotes break-up of the liquid jet and
mixing with the air; the minimum pressure also promotes fuel evaporation.
No fuel will flow until the pressure drop in the venturi overcomes the surface tension at the fuel outlet
and the head difference from the float chamber.
As the air flow increases to its maximum the velocity than at the venturi throat the velocity is
supersonic.
Fuel can be treated as incompressible,
and for flow through an orifice

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air is compressible. Air mass flow rate for flow through the venturi

r is always less than unity, so the square bracket term in equation will always he less than unity.
This term accounts for the compressible nature of the flow. Thus, for a given mass now rate the
pressure drop will he greater than that predicted.
the pressure drop is larger than that predicted, then the fuel flow will also be larger than
expected and the air/fuel ratio will be richer as well.

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As the velocity increases in the venturi the pressure drops and density also reduces . The reduction in
density dictates a greater flow velocity than that predicted by incompressible theory , thus causing a
greater drop in pressure.
This effect becomes more pronounced as flow rates increase, until the speed in the throat is at the
speed of sound (Mach No. I) and the venturi is said to be choked.
To make allowance for the mixture becoming richer at larger flow rates a secondary flow of fuel added
where the flow of fuel reduces with increase air flow rate.
One of the method is using the compensating jet and emulsion tube

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Emulsion tube
The emulsion tube has a series of holes along its length, and air bleed to the center. At low flow rates
the emulsion tube will be full of fuel. As the flow rate increases the fuel level will fall in the emulsion
tube, since air is drawn in through the bleed in addition to the fuel through the compensating jet.
The fuel level will be lower inside the emulsion tube than outside it ,
owing to the pressure drop associated with the air flowing through the
emulsion tube holes. As air emerges from the emulsion tube it will
evaporate the fuel and form a two-phase flow or emulsion. The
secondary flow will assist the break up of the main now.

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A rich mixture for full throttle operation can he provided by a variety of means, by either
sensing throttle position or manifold pressure. The mixture can he enriched by an extra jet (the
power jet) or the air supply to the emulsion system can he reduced .
Alternatively an air bleed controlled by manifold pressure can he used to dilute a normally rich
mixture.

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Fuel injection
purpose of fuel injection is to obtain the maximum power output from all engine.

The pressure drop in a carburetor impairs the volumetric efficiency of all engine and reduces its
power output.

there are two types of fuel injection system

1.

Single point injector

2. Multipoint injector

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(Overview of Electronic Fuel Injection System)

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Single point injection

The single-point fuel injection system is a
cheaper alternative to multi-point fuel
injection .
it can lead to 10 percent lower power output
than multipoint injection system.
the injector sprays fuel into a region at
atmospheric pressure, so a constant gauge
pressure is maintained by the fuel pressure
regulator.
Single-point injection uses a single injector at the throttle body (the same location as was
used by carburetors).

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Multipoint fuel injection

Multipoint (or port) fuel injection means there is a separate fuel injector for each cylinder that
shoots fuel into the intake port. it has the potential for a higher power output, since the
manifold can be design for optimum air flow.
In multi-point injection systems, the fuel pressure regulator has an inlet connection from the
fuel rail, and an outlet that lets fuel return to the tank. The fuelling level is controlled by the
fuel supply pressure and the duration of the injection pulses
control diaphragm and pressure spring
determines the exposed opening of the outlet, and
the amount of fuel that can return..
The pulse duration is in the range of 2-8 ms.
The ratio of maximum to minimum fuel flow rate
in S.I engine can be 50 or so.
At maximum power. the injectors will be open
almost continuously.

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while at light load , then the injector duration will be an order of magnitude less (about 2 ms).
At part load operation, if injection occurs, when inlet valve is closed leads to lower emission of
Nox and unburnt hydrocarbons.
Advantages
1. Absence of Venturi No Restriction in Air Flow/Higher Vol. Eff./Torque/Power
2. Hot Spots for Preheating cold air eliminated/Denser air enters
3. Manifold Branch Pipes Not concerned with Mixture Preparation (MPI)
4. Better Acceleration Response (MPI)
5. Fuel Atomization Generally Improved.
6. Use of Greater Valve Overlap
7. Use of Sensors to Monitor Operating Parameters/Gives Accurate Matching of Air/fuel
Requirements: Improves Power, Reduces fuel consumption and Emissions
8. Precise in Metering Fuel in Ports

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Electronic control of engines

There are two approaches to electronic control of engines or engine management. The first is
to use a memory for storing the optimum values of variables. such as ignition timing and
mixture strength, for a set of discrete engine-operating conditions.
The second approach is to use an adaptive or self-tuning control system to continuously
optimize the engine at each operating point.
The advantages of an electronic engine management system are the greater control on
variables like ignition timing and mixture strength. this manifest reductions in both fuel
consumption and emissions.

51

Electronic unit injectors are mechanically pressurized and electronically controlled. This
means injection timing, duration, and metering are controlled by the ECM or electronic
governor. Electronic ignition and fuel injections is a logical step since the additional
computing power is very cheap.
injection systems unit functions
1. Time fuel delivery
2.

Pressurize the fuel for combustion

3. Atomize and distribute fuel in the combustion chamber

52

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When an engine is tested, the power output,

emissions, manifold depression, optimum
ignition timing and air/fuel mixture will all
be recorded for each throttle setting and
speed.
This information is then used by the engine
management system to control the ignition
timing, the exhaust gas recirculation valve,
and the fuel injection equipment.
The results are plotted against engine speed and bmep In a microprocessor controlled system.
the optimum operating conditions will be stored in ROM (Read Only Memory) for each
operating point.
In engine management system, some of the parameters can be measured like specific fuel
consumption , pressure drop across throttle ,wide open throttle etc.

53

Since the engine calibrated to operate with a particular schedule of air/fuel ratio, it is very
important to know the air flow rate.
This leads to two types of electronic fuel injection control, the major difference between the
two is the method used to determine the air flow rate. The first one is speed - density systems.
Different component of speeddensity MPFI system are
1. ECU
2. Fuel pressure regulator
3. Injection valve
4. Pressure senor
5. Temperature sensor
6. Start valve
7. Electronic fuel pump
8. Fuel filter
9. Throttle valve switch

53

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The speed-density systems measure the manifold pressure and air temperature, and then from
the engine speed/manifold pressure relationship (stored in memory), the engine management
system can deduce the air flow rate. This approach is less direct and less accurate .
Two common flow measuring techniques are
1. The use of a pivoted vane connected to a variable resistor, that is deflected by the air flow
2. The use of a hot wire anemometer
Here the appropriate coil excitation pulse duration or width is set by the electronic control unit
(ECU). In the speed-density system, the primary inputs to the ECU are the outputs from the
manifold pressure sensor, the engine speed sensor and the temperature sensors installed in the
intake manifold to monitor air temperature and engine block to monitor the water-jacket
temperature.

L-Jetronic (which uses an air-flow meter to measure air flow directly)

Advantage of direct flow measurement are
1. Dependence of volumetric efficiency on speed
and exhaust back pressure is automatically
accounted for.
2. Improved idling stability
3. Lack of sensitivity of the system to EGR since
the fresh air flow is measured
4. Less acceleration enrichment is required
K-jetronic
The K-Jetronic mechanical injection system
injects fuel continuously in front of the intake
valves with the spray directed toward the valves.

54

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Lambda censor
the sensor is used to decide whether the mixture is rich or weak.
The principle of operation is One electrode (platinum) is exposed to air. and the other electrode
is exposed to the exhaust gas. The difference in the partial pressures of oxygen leads to a flow of
electrons related to the difference in partial pressure.

55

IIT Kanpur
Kanpur, India (208016)

Diesel Fuel Injection

29

10/1/2015

Diesel Fuel Injection System

The fuel injection system injects fuel into the combustion chamber at high pressure, at the
right time and in the right quantity.
The main components of the fuel injection system are the injection pump that generates high
injection pressure and the injection nozzles that are linked to the injection pump via high
pressure delivery lines except with the unit injector system.

Injection Pump

High Pressure fuel

line

Injection nozzle

In most systems, the nozzle opens when the fuel pressure reaches a specific opening pressure
and closes when it drops below this pressure.
The nozzle is only controlled externally by an electronic controller in the common rail system.

Fuel Injection Processes

Requirements of fuel injection

Must provide accurate metering of fuel

Must provide accurate metering of fuel

Must provide accurate timing of injection

Must atomize the fuel into fine droplets

Must provide sufficient penetration into the cylinder

Must initiate mixing of fuel with air

Must accomplish complete injection within some milliseconds (depending

on engine speed)

Must be repeatable and durable

The injection systems are manufactured with great accuracy, especially the
parts that actually meter and inject the fuel. Some of the tolerances
between the moving parts are very small of the order of 1 micron. Such
closely fitting parts require special attention during manufacture and
hence the injection systems are costly.

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Requirements of a diesel injection system

1) The fuel should be introduced into the combustion chamber within a precisely defined period
of the cycle.
2) The amount of fuel injected per cycle should be metered very accurately. The clearances
between the working parts of a fuel pump as well as the size of the orifice are very small.
3) The rate of injection should be such that it results in the desired heat release pattern.
4) The quantities of the fuel metered should vary to meet changing speed and load requirements.
5) The injected fuel must be broken into very fine droplets, i.e., good atomization should be
obtained.
6) The spray pattern must be such that it results in rapid mixing of fuel and air.
7) The beginning and the end of injection should be sharp, i.e., there should not be any dribbling
or after injection.
8) The injection timing, if desired, should change to suit the engine speed and load requirements.
9) In the case of multi-cylinder engines, the distribution of the metered fuel among various
cylinders should be uniform.
10) The weight and the size of the fuel injection system must be minimum. It should not be costly
to manufacture and expensive to attend to, adjust or repair.

Functional Elements required in a fuel injection system

1. Pumping Elements : Its function is to move the fuel from the fuel tank to cylinder (plus
piping, etc.).
2. Metering Elements : The function of the Metering elements is to measure and supply the
fuel according to the requirement 0f speed and load.
3. Metering Controls : Its function is to adjust the rate of the metering elements for changes in
load and speed of the engine.
4. Distributing elements : Its function is to divide the metered fuel equally among the
cylinders.
5. Timing Controls : Its function is to adjust the start and the stop injection.
6. Mixing Elements : Its function is to atomize and distribute the fuel within the combustion
chamber.

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Fuel Injection Processes

General methods of fuel injection

Air Injection - compressed air is used to blast fuel into the cylinder.
Used by early diesel engines; not currently used

Traditional (jerk) pump systems positive displacement

Distributor-type fuel pumps (smaller engines)

Unit injectors pump/nozzle in same assembly

High-pressure, common rail uses separate high pressure pump to

supply common rail; mechanisms to open nozzles to control timing and
delivery

Many other types and variations of the above

Types of injection Systems

Direct injection systems can be divided into two types :
1) Air injection

2) Solid injection

Air Injection : The fuel is metered and pumped to the fuel valve by a camshaft driven fuel
pump. The fuel valve is opened by means of a mechanical linkage operated by the camshaft
which controls the timing of injection. The fuel valve is also connected to a high pressure air
line fed by a multi stage compressor, which supplies air at a pressure of about 60-70 bar. When
the fuel valve is opened the blast air sweeps the fuel along with it and a well atomised fuel
spray is sent to the combustion chamber.

Fig shows: Schematic

diagram of Air Injection
System.
7

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Air injection

The main advantage of the air injection system is the good atomisation obtained. A high mep
can be attained as rapid combustion results due to good mixing of fuel and air.
Heavy and viscous fuels, which are cheaper, can also be injected.
The fuel pump is required to develop only a small pressure.
Disadvantages :
It requires a high pressure multi stage compressor. The large number of parts, the inter-cooler,
etc., make the system complicated and expensive.
A separate mechanical linkage is required to time the operation of the fuel valve.
Due to the compressor and the linkage the bulk of the engine increases. This also results in
reduced bhp due to power loss in operating the compressor and the linkage.
The fuel in the combustion chamber burns very near to the injection nozzle which many times
leads to overheating and burning of the valve and its seat.
The fuel valve sealing requires considerable skill.
In case of sticking of the fuel valve, the system becomes quite dangerous due to the presence of
high pressure air.

Solid Injection
Injection of fuel directly into the combustion chamber without primary atomisation is
termed as solid injection. This is also called airless mechanical injection.
Every solid injection system must have :

A pressurising unit (the pump).

An atomising unit (the injector).

The different types of solid injection systems vary only in the manner of operation and control
of these two basic elements . The main types of modern fuel injection system are :

1. Individual pump and injector or jerk pump system.

2. Distributor system
3. Common rail system
4. Unit Injector and Unit Pump Systems

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Air/Fuel Ratio Curve

Rich areas are responsible

for sooty combustion. In
order to prevent the
formation of too many rich
areas, diesel engines run
with an overall excess air.

Lambda level at full load

may vary from 1.15 to 2.0

Around the outer zone of a

single liquid droplet (vapor
envelop), there are localized
lambda levels of .3 to 1.5,
known as combustible zone.

Progress of combustion in a direct-injection test engine

with a multi-hole nozzle.

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Development of Reacting Jet in Diesel Engine

Rapid Compression Machine

Optical CI Engine

Diesel Combustion Optimization

General Rules
Center fuel injector in bowl, and if possible, center bowl in piston
Trade off fuel injection pressure versus air motion to provide
required mixing while not over-mixing at light load

Supply sufficient air to meet peak torque smoke limits, and trade off
timing and compression ratio for best fuel economy
Optimize for optimum fuel economy within emission constraints

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Injection system pump distributor with Mechanical control

1. Fuel Tank
2. Fuel Filter
3. Distributor pump
4. injector
5. Return fuel
6. Rod glow plug (GSK)
7. Battery
8. Ignition switch
9. Preheat timer (GZS)

Bosch Fuel Injection pump (Construction)

L is the plunger which is driven by a cam and tappet mechanism at the bottom.

B is the barrel in which the plunger reciprocate .

There is a rectangular vertical groove in the

plunger which extends from top to another helical groove .
V is the delivery valve which lifts off its seat under the
liquid fuel pressure and the spring force.
The fuel pump is connected to the fuel atomiser
through the passage P.
SP and Y are the spill and supply ports respectively.

16

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Method of operation of plunger-and-barrel assembly

(stroke phase sequence)

Fuel-delivery control

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Working of Bosch Fuel Injection Pump (Working)

When the plunger is at its bottom stroke the ports SP and Y are uncovered .
Oil from low pressure pump after being filtered is forced into the barrel.
When the plunger moves up due to cam and tappet mechanism, a stage reaches when both the
ports SP and Y are closed and with the further upward movement of the plunger the fuel gets
compressed.
The high pressure thus developed lifts the delivery valve off its seats and fuel flows to atomiser
through the passage P.
With the furthur rise of the plunger, at a certain moment, the port SP is connected to the fuel
in the upper part of the plunger through the rectangular vertical groove by the helical groove ,
as a result of which a sudden drop in pressure occurs and the delivery valve falls back and
occupies its seat against the spring force.
The plunger is rotated by the rack R which is moved in or out by the governor. By changing the
angular position of the helical groove of the plunger relative to the supply port , the length of
the stroke during which the oil is delivered can be varied and thereby the quantity of fuel
delivered to the engine is also varied accordingly.

17

Distributor system
In this system, the fuel is metered at a central point , a pump pressurises, meters the fuel and
times the injection. From here the fuel is distributed to cylinders in correct firing order by cam
operated poppet valves which open to admit fuel to the nozzles.

Fig shows: The

Distributor System

10

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10/1/2015

Distributor injection pump

It has only one pump unit that serves all the cylinders.
A vane pump forces the fuel into the high pressure chamber.
High pressure is generated by an axial piston or several radial pistons.

11

Common rail fuel system

12

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Common Rail System

The function of pressure generation and fuel injection are separated.
High pressure fuel pump delivers fuel to an accumulator, whose pressure is kept constant with
the help of a pressure regulating valve.
The supply pressure of the fuel is independent of the speed and hence it is not affected by the
fuel pump.
The main disadvantage is that in case of injection needle sticking in an open position an excess
amount of the fuel may be injected into cylinders.

13

Unit pump System

The nozzle and holder assembly is separated from the fuel injection pump and linked by a
short pressure line.
This separation of high pressure generation and nozzle and nozzle holder assembly allows for a
simpler attachment to the engine.

14

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Unit Injector system (UIS)

The fuel injector, pump and injection nozzle form a single unit.
It is designed to operate at higher injection pressure and the maximum injection pressure is
about 2200 bar.

15

Different types of fuel injection system

Throttle body or Single point injection : This is the simplest and the foremost fuel
injection system which was employed in cars as a replacement for carburetors. This employs
one or two fuel injectors in the throttle body which delivers the apt ratio of fuel air mixture to
every fuel intake manifold in the engine.

The drawback of this system is that the cylinders closest to the fuel injectors would get a
better mixture than the ones away from them.

The reason why Throttle body Injectors (TBI) replaced carburetors was because they would
easily adjust according to air density and altitude and were independent of the vacuum
manifold.

18

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Multi point fuel injection or Port injection

As the name suggests the multi point fuel injector denotes one fuel injector for every
cylinder-the fuel is misted at the intake manifold.
If an engine has six cylinders then it will have six fuel injectors- one for each cylinder located at
the intake port of the manifold.
Since the fuel is misted so closed to the intake manifold, it ensures complete amount is used
for combustion making it more efficient than the TBI, hence aiding in enhanced fuel economy
as well.
Multi port fuel injectors fire fuel all at the same time, with the fuel sitting at the intake
manifold till the time its needed. This happens for a split second, even during engine idling.
MPFI allows for more even fuel distribution.

19

Sequential fuel injection

Sequential fuel injection is a type of MPFI. While in an MPFI all the injectors are fired at the
same time, in SFI they are fired according to the intake timing of the respective cylinder i.e.
just before the intake valve of that particular cylinder opens.
This timing is matched according to the camshaft and though it may seem as a minor change it
helped improve efficiency and emissions.

DIRECT FUEL INJECTION :

Direct fuel injection is one of the most advanced fuel injection systems.
More commonly seen on diesel engines, this technology is now making way in petrol engines.
In a direct injection system, the fuel is injected directly in the combustion chamber i.e. the
cylinder .
The advantage of this type of system is that there is no wastage of fuel or any carbon deposit on
the intake valve.
The sensor monitor the exact amount of fuel needed by the vehicle and supply the same to the
chamber. In direct injection fuel metering is more precise than any other system.

20

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Types of Nozzles
Single hole nozzle
Multi-hole nozzle
Pintle nozzle
Pintaux nozzle
SINGLE HOLE NOZZLE : They are used in open combustion chambers. The size of the hole is
usually larger than 0.2 mm. The hole may be drilled centrally or at an angle to the centre line of
the nozzle.

Fig shows : Single hole

nozzle

21

The main disadvantages of the single hole nozzle are :

1) Since whole of the fuel passes through a single hole and also because the relative fuel velocity
required is high, very high injection pressure is needed.
2) Single hole nozzle has a tendency to dribble which reduces the pressure drop available across
the orifice resulting in a weak injection at the start of injection and dribbling at the end of
injection.
3) The spray angle is very narrow (usually about 15 degree). This doe not facilitate good mixing
unless higher air velocities are provided.
MULTI HOLE NOZZLE

These are needed in order to mix the fuel properly with the slow air movement available with
many open combustion chambers.

The number of holes varies from 4 to 18

and the size from 1.5 mm to 0.35 mm.

Usually the holes are drilled symmetrically but many times

they are non- symmetrical to meet certain specific
requirements of the combustion chamber.

22

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Pintle Nozzle (Design and Method of operation)

Inside the nozzle body is the nozzle needle. It is pressed downwards by the force (Ff ) exerted
by the spring and the pressure pin in the nozzle holder so that it seals off the nozzle from the
combustion chamber. As the pressure of the fuel in the pressure chamber increases, it acts on
the pressure shoulder and forces the nozzle needle upwards (force FD ) . The pintle lifts away
from the injector orifice and opens the way for the fuel to pass through into the combustion
chamber.

23

Pintle Nozzle continued...

The nozzle opens, opening pressure is 110..170 bar. When the pressure drops the nozzle closes
again. Opening and closing of the nozzle is thus controlled by the pressure inside the nozzle.
Pintle nozzles are used on Indirect injection engines i.e., engines that have pre-chambers or
whirl chambers.
Pintle nozzles are not suitable for the direct injection engines as the peak pressures inside the
combustion chamber would open the nozzle.
The following types of pintle nozzle are available :

Standard pintle nozzle.

Throttling pintle nozzles.

Flatted pintle nozzles.

24

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Pintaux Nozzle
This type of nozzle is used to improve cold starting performance without any detrimental effect
on efficiency.
The is a development of the pintle nozzle and has an auxiliary hole drilled in the nozzle body
which allows for a small amount of fuel injection in the upstream direction (Pilot injection) at
a time slightly in advance of the main downstream injection.
The main disadvantage of the pintaux nozzle is the tendency for the side hole to choke. The
injection characterisitcs of the nozzle is even poorer than multi-hole nozzle.

Fig shows :
Pintaux nozzle
25

Injection rate characteristics of different nozzles

In order to avoid knocking in the engine it is always desirable to supply less quantity of fuel .
The characteristics of multi hole, pintle and pintaux nozzles are shown respectively :
It is obvious from the figure the pintle nozzle gives desired characteristics as (dmf/d) which is
smaller at the beginning compared with multi hole nozzles.
The characterisitcs of pintaux nozzle is totally different because of fuel supply through
auxiliary and main orifices.

Fig shows : Injection rate characteristics of different nozzles

26

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Overview of Diesel Fuel Injection Systems

Objectives of the Injection System:

The injection system of the compression ignition engine should fulfill the
following objectives consistently and precisely:
o

Meter the appropriate quantity of fuel, as demanded by the speed of, and
the load on, the engine at the given time.

Distribute the metered fuel equally among cylinders in a multi-cylinder

engine.

Inject the fuel at the correct time (with respect to crank angle) in the
cycle.

Inject the fuel at the correct rate (per unit time or crank angle degree).

Inject the fuel with the correct spray pattern and sufficient atomization as
demanded by the design of the combustion chamber, to provide proper
penetration also.

Begin and end injection sharply without dribbling or after injection.

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Diesel Fuel Injection System

The fuel injection system injects fuel into the combustion chamber at
high pressure, at the right time, & in the right quantity.

The main components of the fuel injection system are the injection pump
that generates high pressure, & the injection nozzles that are linked to
the injection pump via high pressure delivery lines- except with the Unit
Injector System.

In most systems, the nozzle opens when the fuel pressure reaches a
specific opening pressure, & closes when it drops below this pressure.

The nozzle is only controlled externally by an electronic controller in the

common rail system.

Fuel Injection Systems Classification

o

There are two main classifications for fuel-injection systems,

namely

1. Air Injection which had become obsolete but now some

interest has been shown by researchers (however very high
pressure is required for air) and
2. Solid (or airless) Injection systems.

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The airless, mechanical, or solid injection systems consist

of three types
Individual pump system: This consists of a separate metering and
compression pump for each cylinder
Distribution system: This consists of a single pump for compressing the
fuel (which may also meter), plus a delivery device for distributing the
fuel to the cylinders (which may also meter).
Common rail system: A single pump for compressing the fuel, plus a
metering element for each cylinder

In-line Fuel Injection Pumps

In-line fuel injection pumps

have a separate pump element
consisting of a barrel & plunger
for each engine cylinder.
When the helix of the plunger
clears the inlet port, fuel can
escape & pressure is lost. The
nozzle closes & fuel injection
ceases.
The piston travel between
opening & closing the inlet
opening is the effective stroke.
The pump plunger is turned by
a control rack to control the
injected fuel quantity as a
factor of engine speed & load.
This changes the position of the
helix relative to the inlet
opening, & thus the effective
stroke.

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Inline Fuel Pump

Examples of in-line fuel injection pumps

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Distributor Injection Pump

Distributor injection pumps have only one pump unit that

cylinders.

serves all

A vane pump forces the fuel into the high pressure chamber.

High pressure is generated by an axial piston or several radial pistons.

Distributor Pump

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Distributor Pump

Radial Distributor Pump

Axial-piston distributor pump

Unit Injector System

The fuel injector, pump &

injection nozzle form a single unit.

The UIS can therefore be designed

to operate at higher injection
pressures.

The maximum injection pressure

is about 2200 bar.

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Diesel Engine Piezo unit injectors

Unit Pump System

The nozzle & holder assembly

is separated from the fuel
injection pump & linked by a
short high pressure line.

This
separation
of
high
pressure generation & nozzle &
nozzle holder assembly allows
for a simpler attachment to the
engine.

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Common Rail System

The
function
of
pressure
generation & fuel injection are
separated.
This takes place by means of an
accumulator volume composed of
the CR & the injectors.
Injection pressure is independent
of engine speed or injected fuel
quantity.
Presently, pressures range up to
1800 bar.

Common rail fuel system

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Evolution: Diesel Engine Patented in 1893

Four stroke Compression Ignition engine

Rudolph Diesels Patent

First Diesel Engine

Rudolf Diesel
Rudolf Diesel (1853-1913),
born in Paris, decided at 14 that
he wanted to become an
engineer.
Diesel developed his engine
initially on paper, based on
Carnots models
He completed his theoretical
studies in 1890 & in Feb 1892
applied for a patent on New
rational thermal engines.
In Feb 1893, he received
patent document DRP 67207
entitled Operating Process &
Type
of
Construction
for
combustion engines.

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First Design of Diesel Engine

New engine initially only existed on paper.
The required compression pressures of 250
bar were beyond technical feasibility
In 1893, MAN began to build the first uncooled test engine by an agreement with Diesel,
reducing max. pressure from 250 to 90 bar &
then later to 30 bar
In 1897, in cooperation with MAN, Diesel
built the first working prototype of a
combustion engine to be run on heavy fuel oil
with a high level efficiency of 26.2%

Bosch Diesel Fuel Injection

In 1886, Robert Bosch opened a workshop

for light & electrical engineering in
Stuttgart.

In 1922, Robert Bosch turned his attention

to
the
diesel
engine
&
started
manufacturing fuel-injection pumps &
nozzles.

The required injection pressures were at

that time already over 100 bar &
guaranteed over 2,000 operating hours.

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Series Production By Bosch

In 1925, Bosch concluded

contracts with Acro AG to
utilize the Acro patents on a
diesel engine system with
air
chamber
&
the
associated injection pump &
nozzle.

The first specimens of the

Bosch fuel injection pump
really suitable for volume
production
were
manufactured
in
April 1927.

Diesel Engine Facts

The diesel engine is a type of internal combustion engine (more

specifically, a compression ignition engine) in which the fuel is
ignited by suddenly being exposed to the high temperature and
pressure compressed gas containing oxygen (usually
atmospheric air), [rather than a separate source of ignition
energy (such as a spark plug), as is the case in the petrol
engine].
Initial CI engines were large and slow.
Heavy distillate petroleum was forced into the cylinder using
compressed air.
Robert Bosch began producing injection systems in 1927.
In very cold weather, diesel fuel thickens and increases in
viscosity and forms wax crystals or a gel. This can make it
difficult for the fuel injector to get fuel into the cylinder in an
effective manner, making cold weather starts difficult at times,
though recent advances in diesel fuel technology have made
these difficulties rare.

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Diesel Engine Facts

A common method to electrically heat the fuel filter and fuel lines.
Other engines utilize small electric heaters called glow plugs inside
the cylinder to warm the cylinders prior to starting. A small number
use resistive grid heaters in the intake manifold to warm the inlet
air until the engine reaches operating temperature.

A vital component of any diesel engine system is the governor, which

limits the speed of the engine by controlling the rate of fuel delivery.

Older governors were driven by a gear system from the engine (and
thus supplied fuel only linearly with engine speed.)

Modern electronically-controlled engines achieve this through the

electronic control module (ECM) or electronic control unit (ECU).

Diesel Engine Facts

The addition of a turbocharger or supercharger (boost
pressures can be higher on diesels) to the engine greatly
assists in increasing fuel economy and power output.
The higher compression ratio allows a diesel engine to be
more efficient than a comparable spark ignition engine,
although the calorific value of the fuel is slightly lower at
45.3 MJ/kg to gasoline at 43.8 MJ/kg.

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Diesel Engines - Applications

High-Speed (approximately 1200 rpm and greater) engines are

used to power lorries (trucks), buses, tractors, cars, yachts,
compressors, pumps and small generators.

Large electrical generators are driven by medium speed engines,

(approx. 300 to 1200 rpm) optimized to run at a set speed and
provide a rapid response to load changes.

The largest diesel engines are used to power ships. These

engines have power outputs over 80,000 kW, turn at about 60 to
100 rpm, and are up to 15 m tall. They often run on cheap lowgrade fuel, which require extra heat treatment in the ship for
tanking and before injection due to their low volatility.

LargeMarineEngines

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LargeMarineEngines

SULZER RTA96
Turbocharged two-stroke inline diesel engine
6 through 14 cylinder versions
38" bore and the 98 stroke
Displacement volume 1820 liters
7780 horsepower per cylinder

Some facts about the 14 cylinder version:

Total engine weight: 2300 tons
Length: 28 m, Height: 14 m
Maximum power: 108,920 HP at 102 rpm
Thermal efficiency: more than 50%

SULZERRTA96

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SULZERRTA96

SULZERRTA96

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10/1/2015

SULZERRTA96

Basic Principles of Diesel Engine

Stroke 1:
Stroke 2:
Stroke 3:

Air is introduced into cylinder through intake valve

Air is compressed
Combustion (roughly constant pressure) occurs and
product gases expand doing work
Product gases pushed out of the cylinder through the
exhaust valve

Stroke 4:
A

Fuel Injector

I
R

Air

Intake
Stroke

Compression
Stroke

Combustion
Products

Power
Stroke

Exhaust
Stroke

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Diesel Cycle
Isentropic
Compression(1-2)
Isochoric heat
propagation(2-3)
Isobaric heat
propagation(3-3)
Isentropic Expansion(34)
Isochoric heat
dissipation(4-1)

Real Process
To determine the work done in the real process, the pressure curve in
the cylinder is measured & presented in the p-v chart.
The area of upper curve corresponds to the work present at the piston.
For turbocharged engine the gas exchange area (Wg) has to be added to
this since the compressed air delivered by the turbocharger, also helps to
press the piston downwards on the induction stroke.

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Method of Operation
Piston performs up & down
movements & hence the name
reciprocating piston engine
The connecting rod converts
the linear reciprocating action
of the piston into rotational
movement of the crankshaft.
A flywheel connected to the end
of the crankshaft helps to
maintain
continuous
crankshaft rotation & reduce
unevenness of rotation caused
by the periodic nature of fuel
combustion in the individual
cylinders.

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Temperature Rise During Compression

In the process of compression
the air heats up to temperatures
as high as 900C.
When the compression stroke is
almost complete, the fuel
injection system injects fuel at
high pressure (as much as 2000
bar in modern engines) into the
hot compressed air.
When the piston reaches TDC,
the cylinder capacity is at its
smallest (compression volume, Vc)

Four-Stroke CI Engine

Cylinder
volume

Fuel mass
flow rate

Cylinder
pressure

SOI start of injection

EOI end of injection
SOC start of combustion
EOC end of combustion

Fuel mass
burn rate

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Valve Timing
Inlet valve is open before
TDC
so that valve is fully open
when piston reaches TDC
Inlet valve is closed few
degrees after BDC to get the
ramming effect
Exhaust valve is opened
before BDC during expansion
stroke to flush the hot exhaust
gases sue to pressure difference
Exhaust valve is closed some
degrees after TDC, this causes
valve overlap, helps to flush out
the remaining exhaust & cool
the cylinders.

Torque & power Output

Torque increases with engine
speed until maximum torque is
reached.
As the engine speed is
increases beyond certain point
the torque begins to fall again
The power generated by the
engine depends upon torque &
engine speed
P=2..n.M
Engine
power
output
increases with engine speed
until it reaches its maximum
level, or rated power Prated at the
engines rated speed, nrated.

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Starting The Engine

Starting an engine involves: cranking, ignition & running up to self
sustained operation.
The minimum ignition temperature required for diesel fuel is
approx. 250C.
This temperature must also be reached in poor conditions.
Low engine speeds, low outside temperatures, & a cold engine lead
to relatively low final compression temperatures.

Starting The Engine

The lower the engine speed, the
lower the ultimate pressure at the
end of compression stroke
&
accordingly
the
ultimate
temperature because of leakage
losses through the piston ring gaps.
Due to heat loss during
compression, maximum compression
temperature is reached a few
degrees bTDC .
Another means of assisted
starting is to inject an excess
amount of fuel for starting to
compensate for condensation &
leakage losses in the cold engine, &
to increase engine torque in the
running up phase.

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Temperature Progression of Glow Plugs

To raise the temperature during starting fuel heating or glow
plugs may be used.
Glow plugs of the latest generation require a preheating
time of only a few seconds, thus allowing a rapid start.
The lower post -glow temperature also permits longer postglow times.
This reduces not only harmful pollutant emissions but also
noise levels during the engine's warm-up period.

Operating Statuses
Starting: Includes cranking, ignition, & running up.
No Load: All speed ranges without torque.
Idle: Lowest no load speed
Full Load: Wide open throttle (WOT); accelerator pedal is fully depressed.
Part Load: No load to full load (zero to maximum possible torque)
Over Run: External force is acting through the drive train.
Steady-state operation: Torque delivered by the engine equals torque required by
the accelerator pedal position.

Non-steady-state operation: Engines torque output does not equals the required
output.

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Operating Conditions

The fuel-injection system must assume the functions of metering

the fuel & distributing it evenly over the entire charge. For any
combination of engine operating parameters fuel injection system
must deliver:

The correct amount of fuel

At the correct time.
At the correct pressure.
At the correct position.

Operating Conditions
Metering the fuel quantity also requires taking account of
operating limits such as:

Smoke limit.
Combustion pressure limits.
Exhaust-gas temperature limits.
Engine speed limits.
Altitude limits.
Turbocharger/supercharger pressure limits.

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