Mariano Marcos State University

College of Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering

CHE132: CPI REPORT

EXPLOSIVES, PROPELLANTS AND

TOXIC CHEMICAL AGENTS

Submitted by:
Eunice A. Flores

Submitted to:
Engr. Eric Halabaso

EXPLOSIVES, PROPELLANTS & TOXIC CHEMICAL AGENTS

DEFINITION:
i. Explosive materials are chemicals or mixtures which under the influence of thermal or
mechanical shock, decomposes rapidly and spontaneously with the evolution of a great
deal of heat and much gas.
The hot gases cause extremely high pressure if the explosive is set off in a
confined space. Only those of a comparatively insensitive nature, capable of being
controlled and having high energy content, are of importance commercially or in a
military sense. An explosive material may be a solid, liquid or gelatinous substance.
There are 3 fundamental types of explosives: mechanical, atomic and chemical; the
primary concern of this report is chemical explosives.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF EXPLOSIVES:
I. In accordance with behaviour
1. DETONATING, OR HIGH EXPLOSIVES
a) Primary, or initiating (detonators)
- are quite sensitive materials, which can be made to explode by the application
of fire or by means of a blow.
- They are very dangerous to handle and are used in comparatively small
quantities to start the explosion of larger quantities of less sensitive explosives.
- They will generally trigger explosive reactions in neighbouring, less sensitive,
main charge explosives.
- Initiating explosives are generally used in primers, detonators, and percussion
caps.
- They are usually inorganic salts, whereas secondary high explosives and many
conventional propellants are largely organic materials.
e.g.) lead azide, mercury fulminate, lead styphnate
b) Secondary (main charge)
- are materials which are quite insensitive to both mechanical shock and flame
but which explode with great violence when set off by an explosive shock, such
as that obtained by detonating a small amount of an initiating explosive in
contact with the high explosive.
- Decomposition proceeds by means of detonation.
*** DETONATION: rapid chemical destruction progressing directly through the
mass of the explosive; a chain reaction; proceeds at rates frequently as high as
6000 m/s. It is this HIGH RATE OF ENERGY RELEASE, rather than the total energy
given off, that makes a product an explosive.
*** NITROGLYCERIN has only 1/8 the energy of gasoline.

*** On the other hand, most high explosives, when unconfined or unshocked, will
merely burn if ignited.
- are designed to burn supersonically, producing a high velocity shock wave and
large volumes of gas.
- They are manufactured both for military and for commercial use.
***MILITARY: shells, bombs, missiles
***COMMERCIAL: essential to industries such as mining, quarrying, construction
and demolition, geophysical exploration
e.g.) TNT-AN, tetryl, PETN, RDX, TNT, ammonium picrate, picric acid, DNT
2. DEFLAGRATING, OR LOW EXPLOSIVES, OR PROPELLANTS
- Smokeless powder, black powder, nitrocotton
- Differ from high explosives in their mode of decomposition; they only burn.
*** BURNING: a phenomenon that proceeds not through the body of the
material, but through layers parallel to the surface; quite slow in its action,
comparatively speaking, rarely exceeding 0.25 m/s.
- The action of low explosives is therefore less shattering.
- Low explosives evolve large volumes of gas on combustion in a definite and
controllable manner. They burn at a rapid but regular rate producing a large
volume of gas.
- The rapid rise in pressure of the combustion gases is used to accelerate a bullet
or shell along the bore of a gun or to provide thrust to propel a rocket or similar
missile.
- Specialized uses for propellants include: starter mechanisms for aircraft engines,
aircraft ejector seats and release units held on aircraft.
3. PYROTECHNICS
- applications include signalling and illuminating flares, fireworks, incendiary
devices, smoke flares, explosive igniters, and used as propellants.
4. MATCHES
- Consists of a head which ignites by friction and a tinder substance to pick up and
transmit the flame.
PROPERTIES OF EXPLOSIVES
In order to compare explosives for suitable use, the most important standard tests
are those employed to determine:
a) Sensitivity
- The sensitivity of an explosive to impact is determined by finding the height
from which a standard weight must be allowed to fall in order to detonate
the explosive.
- This test is of greatest importance in the case of initiating explosives.
b) Stability
c) Brisance (shattering action)

may be measured by exploding a small quantity of it in a sand bomb (a

heavy-walled vessel filled with standard coarse sand) which is crushed by
the explosion.
Screening measures the sand crushed, and from this the explosive force.
Another test for this is the TRAUZL BLOCK TEST. This test measures the
strength of the explosive by measuring the ballooning of a soft lead cylinder
in which the explosive is inserted and exploded.
BRISANCE is probably a combination of STRENGTH and VELOCITY.

d) Strength
After passing the first tests, additional tests (for commercial and military purposes)
include tests for: volatility, solubility, density, hygroscopicity, compatibility with
other ingredients, and resistance to hydrolysis. Plus, cost of manufacture and
toxicity of materials be considered.
In the case of explosives used in mining, they should of such a type that they evolve
no poisonous gases on explosion and produce minimum of flame. This is necessary
for the explosive to be incapable of igniting mixtures of air and coal dust, or air and
methane, which inevitably occur in coal mines.
*** PERMISSIBLES: are explosives tested and specified for mine use; differ from
other explosives such that they produce flame of small size and extremely short
duration; contain coolants so as to regulate temperature of their flame, hence
further reduce the possibility of their igniting combustible mixtures.

HISTORY OF EXPLOSIVES
Black Powder
It is unknown who invented the first explosive black powder. Black powder also known as
gunpowder is a mixture of saltpeter (potassium nitrate), sulfur, and charcoal (carbon). It
originated in China around the tenth century and was used in fireworks and signals. Black
powder is the oldest form of a ballistic propellant and it was used with early muzzle-type
firearms. Being a mechanical explosive that is messy, black powder was eventually
replaced by cleaner smokeless powder explosives.
Safety Fuse
In 1831, William Bickford an English leather merchant invented the first safety fuse. Using
a safety fuse made black powder explosives more practical and safer.
Nitroglycerin
In 1846 Italian chemist Ascanio Sobrero invented the first modern explosive, nitroglycerin,
by treating glycerin with nitric and sulfuric acids. Sobrero's discovery was, unfortunately

for many early users, too unstable to be used safely. Nitroglycerin readily explodes if
bumped or shocked.
Nitrocellulose
In 1846, Chemist Christian Schonbein discovered nitrocellulose or guncotton when he
accidently spilled an acid mixture on a cotton apron and the apron exploded.
TNT
In 1863, TNT or Trinitrotoluene was invented by German chemist Joseph Wilbrand. It is
considered a high explosive.
Blasting Cap
Nobel continued experimenting with explosives and in 1875, invented a gelatinous
dynamite, an explosive jelly. It was more powerful and even a little safer than the dynamite
he had invented nine years earlier. The addition of ammonium nitrate to dynamite further
decreased the chances of accidental explosions. It also made it cheaper to manufacture.
Dynamite
Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel in 1862 to seek a safe way to package nitroglycerin. In 1867
he succeeded in mixing it with an inert absorbent material. His invention was called
dynamite.
Smokeless Powders
In 1888, Albert Nobel invented a dense smokeless powder explosive called ballistite. In
1889, Sir James Dewar and Sir Frederick Abel invented another smokeless gunpowder
called cordite. Cordite was made of nitroglycerin, guncotton, and a petroleum substance
gelatinized by addition of acetone.
Modern Explosives
In 1955, modern high explosives were developed. Explosives such as nitrate-fuel oil
mixtures or ANFO and ammonium nitrate-base water gels now account for seventy percent
of the explosive market.

EXPLOSIVE MANUFACTURING COMPANY:

Dyno Nobel is a manufacturer of explosives. It is a wholly owned subsidiary of Incitec
Pivot Limited, and has customers in the mining, quarry, construction, pipeline and
geophysical exploration industries. The company operates in Australia, Canada, the United
States, Africa, Indonesia, Mexico, South America, Papua New Guinea and Turkey.
Dyno Nobel manufactures a full line of commercial explosives, including ammonium
nitrate, bulk explosives, package emulsions, dynamite, detonators (electric, nonelectric and
electronic), cast boosters, and detonating cord, as well as surface and underground loading

systems and Portable Modular Emulsion Plants. They provide the explosives used in coal
and metal mining, quarry and construction as well as pipeline and seismic used for oil and
gas exploration.
The company also offers services including blast design, shot loading, shot service,
vibration control, airblast, flyrock and NOx reduction, through DynoConsult, a specialist
consulting division. In 2012 Dyno Nobel had over a million tons of ammonium nitrate
capacity and over 30 manufacturing facilities on two continents.
History of Company
Dyno Nobel's history began in 1865 with Swedish dynamite inventor Alfred Nobel. The
company traces its roots back to Alfred Nobel's legacy of safety innovation (as
demonstrated by his 300+ patents including dynamite and blasting caps) and William
Bickford's invention of the safety fuse in 1831. Dyno Nobel is proud of this legacy and
boasts that its safety standards are among the highest in the industry.
PRODUCTION PROCESS:
PYROTECHNICS: FIREWORKS
I. RAW MATERIALS
The materials used in fireworks manufacture can be divided into the following
categories:
Oxidizing agents
Fuels
Colour producing agents
Reducing agents
Binders
Substances which improve particular effects
Substances which produce smoke, colour, light
Neutralisers which reduce the sensitivity of mixture
Stabilizers which help to prevent chemical reactions
Substances which accelerate or retard the combustion
Production aids such as solvents and lubricants
OXIDIZING AGENTS
The major compositions of fireworks are oxidizing agents, fuels and colour producing
agents which include ammonium nitrate, potassium nitrate, barium nitrate and sodium
nitrate. These produce oxygen to burn the mixture.
Oxidizers are usually nitrates, chlorates or perchlorates. The common oxidizers are
nitrates. These are made up of a metal ion and the nitrate ion. Nitrates only give up 1/3 of
their oxygen. Other oxidizers are chlorates. Chlorates give up all of their oxygen causing a
more spectacular reaction. Unfortunately, this also makes the chemicals extremely
explosive.

Perchlorates have more oxygen in them but are less likely to explode if one drops them
than chlorates. Again, these are made up of a metal ion and perchlorate polyatomic ion.
FUELS are classified as follows:
Metallic fuels (Aluminium, Zinc, Magnesium, Iron and Titanium)
Organic fuels (Stearic acid, Shellac, naphthalene etc.)
Inorganic fuels (Sulphur, Charcoal etc.)
Generally, aluminium is used as a fuel for fireworks industry. This is because of easy
availability and low cost.
COLOUR PRODUCING AGENTS
Copper Sulphate - Blue
Strontium Nitrate - Red
Antimony Sulphide - White smoke
Copper Carbonate - Blue smoke
The above chemicals are sieved and mixed in the respective ratios to produce varieties
of colours in the fire crackers.
REDUCING AGENTS
The second elements of fireworks are the reducing agents. The reducing agents burn
the oxygen produced by the oxidizers to produce hot gasses. Two examples of reducing
agents are Sulphur and Charcoal (carbon).
These react with oxygen to form Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
respectively. Usually, two reducing agents are combined. This results in speeding or
slowing the reaction. Therefore, the reducing agents are used to control the speed of the
reaction. Also, metals are often generally added to speed up the reaction.
However, finer the powder, faster the reaction.
BINDERS
Binders hold the mixture in a lump like a star in aerial fireworks. In order to form a star,
two main elements are used.
These two are dextrine dampened by water, or a shellac compound dampened by
alcohol. These are rolled and then cut, or the mixture is forced into a paper tube, and
pushed out with a dowel.
Then the stars are cut as they come out.

II. MANUFACTURING PROCESS

PYROTECHNICS
Normally a batch process
Batch size: varying from around 0.5 kg to tens of kilograms
Depending on the product, manufacturing methods include:
- Dry mixing of powders by tumbling or sieving
- Wet blending of ingredients in end runner or edge runner mills
- Suspension of solids in solutions from which the product is precipitated
Subsequent treatment can involve drying in air or in ovens, possibly under vacuum, or
in fluid bed driers.
FIREWORKS
- means low hazard explosive comprising of any composition or device manufactured
with a view to produce coloured fire or flame, light effect, noise effect, smoke effect
(coloured or natural), or combination of such effects.
In a fireworks industry, different chemicals like fuels, oxidisers, ignitors and special
effect chemicals are mixed manually.
All the mixing operations are done manually. Wooden trays with brass meshed bottoms
are used to sieve the chemicals to attain homogeneous mixture. Here, the major causes of
accidents are due to friction, static electricity charges and human errors.
The well mixed chemicals are filled into the tubes or loading into the required boxes.
Charcoal, other chemicals and water are made into paste and is applied on cotton wicks.
After drying, the wicks are cut to the required size and fitted suitably on the crackers
and other fireworks. The fuses are inserted and allowed to dry further. For drying the
products, specially prepared platforms re used. Fireworks after drying are packed in small
boxes manually. Later, are placed in large bundles.
Push carts and trucks are used to transfer the goods within the factory and to
warehouses. Then daily wastes are collected and burned the very same day itself in a
proper manner.

Figure 1. Flowchart representing the manufacture of fireworks

HEALTH SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT
During the manufacture of fireworks, many varieties of chemicals like oxidising agents,
fuels, colour producing agents, special effects creating chemicals, substances to produce
smoke, binders, neutralisers, stabilisers, combustion accelerators / retardants are added
(Ghosh, 1981).
Bursting of fireworks cracker results in the release of pollutants like sulphur
dioxide(SO2), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx),
suspended particles and several metals like aluminium, manganese and cadmium, etc., both
as metals and oxides which pose serious health hazards (Conkling, 1985).
During the fireworks operations impact, friction, spark and heat stimuli may occur
under certain conditions, one or more stimuli may be enough to cause ignition of the
compositions.
In powder handling industries, dust explosion can be initiated by the rapid combustion
of flammable particulates suspended in air. Fireworks industries are mostly prone to fire
and explosion.
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
NANOTECHNOLOGY IN EXPLOSIVES
Nanosized aluminium powders can successfully replacing the micron-sized Al powder
in pyrotechnics is used to increase the combustion efficiency and reduce agglomeration of
the combustion products.