2014 5th IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid Technologies Europe (ISGT Europe), October 12-15, Istanbul

11

A Review of Plug-in Electric Vehicles as

Distributed Energy Storages in Smart Grid
Xianjun Zhang, Member, IEEE, Qin Wang, Member, IEEE, Guangyue Xu, Member, IEEE,
Ziping Wu, Student Member, IEEE
could impact the load profile in distribution systems by
causing voltage drop and losses [5]. However, with the onboard batteries it is envisioned that the PEVs could supply to
electric power grid as ancillary services when necessary [6].
With the continuing development of battery technologies
and price reduction, PEVs can be an economic choice for
transportation and gradually displace traditional fossil fuelbased vehicles. The PEV can travel up to 160 km with a
battery of 24 kWh recharged using a simple household outlet
at 120/240 V and 15/30A or a fast recharge station at 240V
[7]. The U.S. DOE estimates that there will be more than 1.2
million of PEVs by 2015 [8]. Vehicle charging standards
have also been developed in [9]. Besides the policy initiatives
to boost the sales of PEVs from governments [ 10 ],
automobile companies have been devoting to the market
commercialization of PEVs for the last ten years [11]. In the
long term most vehicles might be fully battery-powered.
The advancement of PEV technologies drives the
Index TermsDemand response, distributed energy storages, enhancement of system operations and infrastructures to meet
distributed generation, plug-in electric vehicles, smart grid, this growing demand with economic efficiency and reliability
survey, vehicle to grid.
requirement. The PEVs are emerging to be one indispensable
component in composing the energy-wise, cost effective,
I. INTRODUCTION
sustainable and resilient urban energy systems, especially in
he increasing environmental concerns, electricity industry smart grid environment. PEVs, chargers, grids, batteries and
restructuring and deregulated market forces are driving storages, renewable based distributed generation (DG), and
distributed energy resources (DERs) penetration into control facilities, all of these compose microgrid or smart grid
distribution systems [1] and [2]. The plug-in electric vehicles system. Consequently, traditional passive distribution systems
(PEVs) are actually one kind of such DERs, more specifically, are now on the way of growing into active systems [12].
Significant studies on PEV performance and impacts have
in the form of distributed energy storages (DESs) that can be
utilized for demand-side management, outage management as been conducted in existing literatures [ 13-16]. This paper
emergency back-up power supply, and asset management [3]. extends existing literatures of PEV review with the detailed
Since the PEVs directly run on electricity instead of survey and analysis of PEVs as dynamically DESs. This
traditional carbon-based fossil fuels, they are considered to be study was divided into several sections to investigate the
one effective and promising solution to reduce greenhouse superior characteristics of PEVs as DESs.
gas emissions, promote energy efficiency, and decrease
II. SMART PEV INTERFACE INFRASTRUCTURE
petroleum usage, reliance and price fluctuations [4]. Presently
PEVs are treated as a new load for load serving entities that
To develop the PEV market, a reliable interface
AbstractThe growing regulatory environment and security
concerns about fossil fuels are driving the research and
development of new technologies that can contribute
significantly to sustainable and resilient urban energy systems.
Plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is just one of those new
technologies that meet current and future environmental and
economic challenges of transportation. By charging from the
electric power grid or renewables, aggregated PEVs can be
deployed as dynamically configurable distributed energy
storages (DESs) to supply additional power to home appliances,
buildings, or the electric power grid when necessary. This
growing PEV penetration coupled with the increasing
consumers interaction with market operations are paving the
way for decentralized electric power systems that promise to be
efficient, reliable, flexible, economic, and environmentally
friendly. This study surveys and summarizes the latest progress
and advancement of PEVs, especially as mobile DESs in the
areas of technologies, market development, policy, system
impact and operations, and relevant pairing infrastructures in
smart grid environment.

Xianjun Zhang and Qin Wang are with the Midcontinent ISO, 720 City
Center Drive, Carmel, IN 46032-7574, USA (xzhang@misoenergy.org,
qwang@misoenergy.org).
Guangyue Xu is with the Smart Grid Division, Siemens Industry
Inc.,Minnetonka, MN 55305, USA. (guangyue.xu@siemens.com)
Ziping Wu is with the Department of Electrical & Computer
Engineering, University of Denver, Denver, CO 80208, USA.
(ziping.wu@du.edu)

infrastructure is required. Enough pairing residential plugs

and public charging stations must be developed in large scale
to meet the fast growing demand resulting from the
penetration of increasing PEVs.
A. PEV Impacts on Urban Electrical Infrastructure
Either for residential plugs or public charging stations, the
increasingly and geographically aggregated PEVs can have

978-1-4799-7720-8/14/$31.00 2014 IEEE

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significant impacts on urban electrical infrastructure or even

the electric power grid if no appropriate control or
uncoordinated strategies and policies were implemented.
Existing local distribution feeders, branches, and transformers
could thus experience unprecedented congestion and stresses.
The extent the deployments of PEVs impact urban
electrical infrastructure depends on the interface
characteristics including charger rating, battery capacity,
charging power level, charging/discharging length,
charging/discharging time as well as power inverters [17]. As
shown in the literatures, these impacts include electrical
infrastructure overloading, unbalanced load conditions,
increased harmonic distortions and voltage deviations, utility
equipment and customer appliances damage, additional
investment on distribution reinforcements, and system
stability and reliability impairments [5] and [18].
The increased loading current of PEV charging and current
harmonics from renewable charging in transformer windings
can cause abnormal transformer operation such as operating
temperature rise, reduced efficiency, premature insulation,
windings or core structure failure, etc. [7] and [16]. One study
proposes to quantify the loss of life duration of power
transformers [ 19 ]. The smart load management with high
penetration of PEVs during peak hours has significant
benefits in reducing transformer thermal loading and
minimizing harmonic losses [20].
B. Bi-directional Communication System
Advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) and smart
metering technology can be used to make the PEVs
controllable load and facilitate the vehicle to grid (V2G) and
renewables integration [20]. Advantages could be achieved
through the building of a reliable and high speed bidirectional communication system to exchange information
among PEVs and charging stations, and provide end users
and power generators with the effective information
regarding real time system dispatch and demand to facilitate
the integration of increasing PEV penetration [21] and [22].
The communication network with broad bandwidth can
transport essential information between PEVs and controllers
for effective and efficient charging/discharging, selection of
public charging points, achieving real time pricing
information, and distribution network congestion conditions
[ 23 ]. The communication architecture and protocols were
investigated in [24] as the nexus between electric power grid,
PEVs, charging stations, generation units, etc. The
communication and control of PEVs were investigated with
the integration of renewables in [25]. However, the industrywide code or standards regarding the communication between
PEVs and the grid have not been defined yet at this stage [23].
C. PEV Interface Infrastructure with Renewables Integration
Public charging stations could be built like the gas stations
with similar functionalities. The present residential and
commercial charging facilities are still insufficient because of
limited availability and immature PEV market. For a 10 kWh

battery, about 5.5 hours are needed to fully charge in

residential garages and commercial buildings or parking lots;
1 to 2 hours are needed in specific charging facilities; less
than a half hour are needed in fast charging [21]. The battery
chargers in PEV charging stations have many AC-DC power
inverters with high ratings, resulting in significant current
harmonics that lead to transformer outages and transformer
aging [20]. This can significantly impact the reliability,
security, efficiency and economy of smart grids. The PEV
charging is controllable by altering the timing and level of
charging and thus various objectives can be achieved, e.g.
valley filling, grid frequency regulation, and grid support [6].
PEVs could be sustainable and resilient automobiles as
DESs by charging from renewables and thus reduce the
dependence on fossil fuel. A conceptual framework was
proposed in [26] for designing the grid-interfaced system by
integrating PEV chargers, DG and storage. The intermittent
and variable characteristics of wind and solar power from
renewable based DG add challenges to system operation and
reliability under the large scale of PEV integration [27]. With
necessary inverters equipped, PEVs could be utilized as
premium medium to facilitate and transport the bidirectional
power flow between vehicles, DG and electric power grid
through the on-board batteries working as buffers and
isolators. This kind of configuration could reduce the reverse
power flow from the renewable based DG to the electric
power grid and mitigate disruptive impacts to local
distribution networks [28].
The on-board PEV battery storage is an essential solution
for variable DG output, especially when dealing with reverse
power flows, voltage rise, and fluctuation [29]. A hierarchical
control algorithm was proposed in [ 30 ] to study the
integration of controllable PEV charging and scheduling of
wind energy. In [31], the PEV was used as energy storage for
a house with PV modules installed, and the PV utilization rate,
CO2 reduction, and cost reduction were calculated.
III. SYSTEM OPERATIONAL IMPACTS AND DEMAND RESPONSE
MECHANISMS
With the rapid development and significant penetration of
PEVs, they are emerging to be a good solution to utilize the
spare generation resources, and facilitate the system operation
through demand response (DR) mechanisms.
A. PEV Impacts on Grid System Operation
In most of the time, generation resources are underutilized
based on the fact that even though the peak demand lasts only
for a few hours, the system must strike to meet this demand
considering the system reliability [ 32 ]. Therefore, it is
meaningful and challenge to sufficiently utilize generation
resources and transmission constraints.
The charging/discharging of PEVs has to be controllable
and adjustable rates and time scheduling have to be deployed
to prevent the additional demand burden during the peak
hours. Significant number of studies has been conducted on

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the impact of PEV charging on system operation [5] and [33].

Charging is generally dependent on the driving profile of
individual customers, and the driving profiles can be
generated from empirical data [34]. In an ideal model where
partial loads are replaced with PEVs and these PEVs are fully
controllable in charging, monthly electric bill should keep
unchanged. However, research in [ 35 ] indicates that
uncontrolled charging can increase the monthly electric bill
by 22%, even with a 10% low PEVs penetration. Centralized
coordination methods of EV charging were introduced in [36].
The simple dual time-of-use pricing schemes were
investigated in [37] as a form of tariffs for PEV charging
coordination. With the optimized charging and discharging,
the aggregated PEVs can effectively shift part of the grids
load peak to off-peak hours and enhance the overall effective
load carrying capacity of the grid [38].
Nowadays the electricity in distribution systems is
supplied by load serving entities to the end users with fixed
retail price by periods, not like the real time wholesale
electricity market, where the pricing information is updated
every five minutes. If similar market was developed in
distribution systems, they might be able to obtain relevant
pricing information based on the provided historical pricing
information and load forecast and thus make decisions on
charging/discharging strategies [ 39 ]. Despite the charging
stations are most probably operated by private enterprises for
profit purposes, charging/discharging strategies and interface
prices should be developed for PEV users to minimize the
electricity cost in charging stations. The distribution
substations are used to provide reliable electricity supply to
the end users. A market mechanism needs to be developed for
the PEVs to fill in the valley and chop the load peak with the
coordination of distribution substation [39] and [40].

The advantages of DR mechanisms for PEVs have been

proven in helping electric power grid shift the peak load. The
increasingly aggregated PEVs could even more efficiently
and economically supply electricity to the electric power grid.

B. DR Mechanisms
Most DR mechanisms, e.g. time of use, pricing, and real
time pricing bring economic incentives for PEV owners
besides the benefits of fuel cost savings and emissions
reduction [41]. DR mechanisms can also enhance robustness
since the demand side management (DSM) enables the users
to employ the energy more efficiently by interacting between
participants such as wholesale markets, retail utilities and
customers [21]. Here DSM differs from DR. DR encourages
end users to make short term reductions in energy demand;
while DSM encourages end users to use energy more
efficiently by improving or upgrading their devices.
Based on tariffs, compel or incent PEV charging towards
off-peak hours, DR (Type II), the real time pricing program
should be designed for PEV charging. A good overview of
existing DR mechanisms is described in detail in [42]. The
DR and wind power integration were investigated in [27]
with the penetration of PEVs. The joint use of DR schemes
and traffic patterns or consumption data has been applied to
the problem of charging batteries for PEVs [43].
The electric power system normally has the peak period

A. On-board Batteries
Presently, costly batteries and limited driving range are
constraining the market development of PEVs. However, the
cost will reduce gradually with the fast development in
battery technologies. The charging levels defined in Society
of Automotive Engineers (SAE) J1772 [9] and [ 45 ] are
shown in Table I. The distribution and fuel efficiency of
vehicles are shown in Table II [46] and [47]. The Nissan Leaf
PEV has a 24kWh battery with a Depth of Discharge (DOD)
of 80%, which will be fully charged via Level 1 (1.44kW) in
13.3 hours, via Level 2 in 5.8 hours, and via DC fast charge
(50 kW) in 23 minutes; the Chevy Volt PEV has a 16kWh
battery with a 65% DOD, which will be fully charged via
Level 1 for 7 hours, and Level 2 for 3 hours [35].
Currently, batteries, e.g. Pbacid, Ni-Cd, Ni-MH, Li-ion,
etc., have been developed focusing on high power density,
long cycles, fast recharging capabilities and low cost, with
different charging methods depending on the type, capacity
and other characteristics, namely, constant voltage, constant
current charge, taper current charge, pulsed charge, etc. [48].
The load profiles of lithium-ion batteries have been studied

starting from 6:00 am to 10:00 pm while the rest hours are in

the off-peak period. Most PEVs are charged between 18:00
pm and 6:00 am at home; while between 8:00 am and 17:00
pm this charging will occur in commercial areas and public
charging stations, which coincides with the peak hours.
During the off-peak hours, the PEV charging behavior should
be incentivized with lower off-peak rates to minimize the bill
cost and maximize the utilization of the spare generation
resources that otherwise would not have been committed and
dispatched. While during the peak hours, since the PEV
charging coincides with the system peak load, this additional
demand burden should be prevented for the system. Lower
rates should be offered to compel PEV users to switch into
charging in off-peak hours. Contrarily, the PEV discharging
to the grid should be encouraged and incentivized with higher
rates to provide ancillary service and relieve system tight
conditions. A study in [38] was performed to investigate the
effective load carrying capacity of PEVs to the grid.
When charging stations are based on the renewable
generation resources, lower rates should be provided for the
PEV charging in both peak and off-peak periods. Also, the
PEV discharging in this case should be greatly promoted to
increase the renewable energy utilization. However, it should
be noted that no matter the charging stations are fossil-fuel
based or renewables based, the PEV users should be informed
of the real time variable charging/discharging prices by smart
meters to maintain the equilibrium of market mechanism [44].
IV. MOBILE DISTRIBUTED ENERGY STORAGES

44

based on optimization techniques by vehicle companies [49].

Despite PEV batteries can be utilized for voltage regulation
and frequency regulation, battery life will be degraded due to
frequent charging and discharging [50].
TABLE I
CHARGING CONFIGURATIONS AND RATINGS
Charging Method
Supply
Maximum
Maximum
Voltage (V)
Current (A)
Power (kW)
AC Level 1
120
12/16
1.4/1.9
DC Level 1
200-450
80
36
AC Level 2
208-240
80
19.2
DC Level 2
200-450
200
90
AC Level 3 (TBD) 208-240
TBD
>20
DC Level 3 (TBD) 200-600
400
240
TABLE II
PEV ATTRIBUTES
Car Type
% of PEV
Battery
Size Fuel Efficiency
Vehicles
(kWh)
(Wh/km)
Nissan Leaf
50
24
173
Mitsubishi i-Miev
25
16
135
Chevy Volt
20
16
224
Tesla Roadster
5
53
110

years. However, vehicle to building (V2B) operation could be

feasible to serve the load inside a building in the next coming
few years based on the relatively fewer technology
requirements compared to directly connect to the electric
power grid [56]. Despite the PEVs normally have a limited
short driving range, typically less than 200 km after a full
charge [ 57 ], the capacity of the on-board batteries are
considered to be large enough to partially support the
household electric consumption management [56].

C. V2G Development
The superiority of V2G regulation has been proved from
the economic perspective in [6] and [55]. Based on the
location and duration of parking at public charging stations or
residential garages, a vision was presumed that the V2G
technology could provide a high revenue stream for PEVs by
supplying peak power, spinning reserves, and/or regulation
[58]. The requirements to realize this vision include pairing
charging/discharging equipment with grid control and kW
Either at the public charging stations or residential garages, levels, expected PEV discharging frequency and period
bi-directional charger and controller need to be equipped to capabilities for providing the required kW and/or kWh of
allow battery charge/discharge when necessary. In [51], a bi- electricity, and higher revenues to cover the costs of the
directional power converter (BPC) is introduced that can provided battery services [55] and [58].
If the energy market was developed that allows the
perform the demand-response service according to the
participation
of PEVs, then the V2G capabilities of multiple
received commands from system operators. Besides, the PEV
PEVs
will
be
aggregated and bid into the market [59] and [60]
charging/discharging, metering and control equipment need
but
every
PEV
will be treated as a single market participant.
to be designed and operated at different kW levels as well.
The applications of V2G for load shifting and frequency
B. Vehicle to Grid Operation
regulations have been studied from different aspects with
Interactions between vehicles and grids are described as promising results achieved [55], [58], and [61]. One further
grid to vehicle (G2V) and vehicle to grid (V2G), the benefits study also indicates that the AC/DC power converters used
of using PEVs as distributed energy storage could be fully for charging PEVs can provide extra reactive power
realized based on the on-board batteries. Various potential compensation and voltage regulation [62]. Unlike frequency
benefits and implementation issues of V2G have been regulation by PEVs, this voltage regulation does not affect the
investigated in [50], [52] and [53]. The PEVs can provide battery degradation and could be a potential way of gaining
reactive power support to the electric grid by adjusting the profit in a foreseen reactive power market [45] and [63].
power factor of vehicles through power inverters [20]. The
PEVs can also be estimated and utilized to supply ancillary
V. APPLIED RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
services such as regulation and stabilization for the electric
A variety of targeted methodologies were developed to
power grid [53] and [54]. In [55], the V2G was investigated analyze and investigate the impacts and development of PEVs
for its capability of dealing with the wind power fluctuation.
as DESs from various aspects and disciplines. Monte Carlo
The increasingly aggregated PEVs can potentially promote methodology was used to investigate the PEVs, including the
the V2G transactions during peak hours and offer services of forecast of thermal loading on transformers and identification
emergency DR and operational capacity planning. In addition, of the associated risk due to its stochastic characteristics [7],
the complementing nature of travel behavior and system and evaluation of PEV impacts in distribution system [64].
demand makes them suitable to provide ancillary services Stochastic approaches could be a good way to fairly
through V2G transactions during peak hours [3]. However, understand the impacts of PEV charging on distribution
since the high speed bi-directional communication systems [65-67]. Optimization based approach was used to
infrastructure
has
not
been
developed,
the find the optimal scheduling of the PEVs charging, and
charging/discharging of such batteries poses new challenges maximize the vehicle owners benefit [ 68 ]. A linear
to system dispatch due to the difficulties of remote control optimization approach was developed in [26] to design grid
and coordination of such batteries [31].
interfaced PEV chargers, DG and storage by maximizing grid
Due to various practical concerns and reasons, wide power usage and minimizing system lifecycle cost. The
deployment of V2G is not mature and still in the early stage pricing strategies on the return of interest of charging stations
of the market, which might be envisioned in the next 10 to 20 were analyzed based on coordinated charging and discharging

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optimization [ 69 ]. Moreover, a deterministic linear

optimization approach was employed in [34] to minimize
charging cost, maximize average use of wind power or
minimize load factor for the charging time of each EV
customer. In [70], an economic optimization approach was
proposed to minimize cost and emissions.
The control and agent based methodologies were also
found in several articles. New management system based on
multi agent transport simulation (MATS) agents was
developed by using the energy hub concept in [ 71 ]. A
hierarchical control algorithm was proposed in [30] to
investigate the integration of controllable PEV charging and
scheduling of intermittent wind energy. The simulation based
methodologies were also developed to conduct the PEV
research. The impact of high penetration of charging stations
on the reliability of distribution systems was analyzed based
on simulation models in MATLAB Simulink [41]. A control
strategy based on DC bus voltage sensing was proposed in
[72] to ensure the optimal usage of available power, charging
time and grid stability using MATLAB Simulink.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
The future urban energy infrastructures should become
resilient and sustainable that can no longer stand alone and be
operated independently [73]. The demand reduction through
improved energy efficiency is one of the essential metrics in
engineering this kind of urban energy infrastructures [74-76].
PEVs could work as an effective means of promoting energy
efficiency by coupling different energy infrastructures,
including the urban electricity, water, and natural gas, which
are becoming more interconnected with the increased
coupling of distributed energy resources and storages.
This paper has surveyed and reviewed the potential
benefits, development and impacts of the PEVs as DESs in
smart grid environment. Presently PEVs as DESs are still
under investigation as a long-term solution for composing the
sustainable and resilient urban energy infrastructure. The
industry sector of PEV market is still in the infancy stage and
it might take 10 to 20 years before existing distribution
systems are ready to support the large scale of PEV
penetration. Besides, the availability of PEVs due to
customers choices and the comfort loss for customers are
considered as significant obstacles on the way to deploy
PEVs as mobile storages.
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