VOICE is sampled at which Frequency?

8 KHz as the sampling frequency will be double the maximum frequency component for no
aliasing effect, as per the nyquist theorm. as the maximum frequency allowed by the filter is
just 4khz. so the sampling frequency is 8KHz

Explain CDMA in wireless networks.

CDMA differs from FDMA and TDMA because only one channel occupies the entire
bandwidth of the link and also there is no timesharing. In CDMA a code is available for every
station wanting to send the data. In this protocol the assigned codes have two properties.
1. If we multiply each code by another, we get zero.
2. If we multiply each code by itself, we get the number of stations.
So suppose there are three stations and code and data are (c1, d1), (c2, d2), (c3, d3)
respectively. The data that go on the channel are the sum of all these terms. Any
station wanting to receive data from one of the other two, multiplies the data on the channel
by the code of the sender. For example, suppose stations 1 and 2 are talking to each other.
Station 2 wants to hear what station I is saying. It multiplies the data on the channel by cl the
code of station 1.
Because (cl . cl) is 3, but (c2 . cI) and (c3 . cI) are all Zero, station 2 divides the result by 3 to
get the data from station 1.

8 Describe the functionality of data link layer.

Data Link Layer is the second layer from the bottom in OSI model. This layer has two main
functions
Data link control
Media access control.
Data link control provides the functionality of include framing, flow and error control that
provide smooth and reliable transmission of frames between nodes. Media Access Control
(MAC) handles the sharing of link.
=================================================================

Differentiate between hub and switch.

a.) Hub is a layer 1 device while Switch is layer 2 device.
b.) Hub works on single collision and single broadcast domain while switch works on per
port collision and single broadcast domain.

What are 10Base2, 10Base5 and 10BaseT Ethernet LANs?

10Base2 - It is an Ethernet term which means a maximum transfer rate of 10 Megabits per
second that uses baseband signalling, with a contiguous cable segment length of
100 meters and a maximum of 2 segments.
10Base5
- It is an Ethernet term meaning a maximum transfer rate of 10 Megabits per
second that uses baseband signalling, with 5 continuous segments not exceeding
100 meters per segment.
10BaseT
- It is an Ethernet term meaning a maximum transfer rate of 10 Megabits per
second that uses baseband signalling and twisted pair cabling.

Define Bandwidth and Latency?

- Bandwidth/ Throughput It means the number of bits which can be transmitted over the
network in a specified time.
- Latency It is the time taken by a message to travel from one side to another.
Bandwidth and latency describe the performance of a network.

What is point to point link?

- Direct connection between two computers on a network is called as point to point link.
- No other network devices other than a connecting cable are required for point to point
connection.
- The cable connects the NIC card of both the devices.
When is a switch said to be congested?

- Sometimes a switch receives the packets faster than they can be accommodated in the
shared link. These packets are stored in the memory for sometime.
- However, after sometime the buffer space will exhaust and some packets will start getting
dropped off.
- The switch is called as congested in this state.
Explain a.) Uni-casting, b.) Multicasting and c.) Broadcasting

a.) Uni-casting - Message is sent from a source to a single destination node.

b.) Multicasting - Message is sent from a source to some subsets of other nodes.
c.) Broadcasting - Message is sent from a source to all the nodes in the network.
Which layers of OSI are referred to as network support layers?

The following 3 layers of OSI are referred to as network support layers:

a. Physical Layer
b. Data link Layer and
c. Network Layers
Which layers of OSI are referred to as user support layers?

The block of user support layers consists of:

a. Session Layer
b. Presentation Layer and
c. Application Layer
What does the Data Link Layer do?

- The Data Link Layer transforms the physical layer to a reliable link.
It takes care of:
a. Node to node delivery.
b. Framing
c. Physical Addressing
d. Flow Control
e. Error Control
f. Access Control
What is NIC?

- NIC stands for Network Interface Card.

- It is a peripheral card attached to a PC to helps it connect to a network.
- The MAC address of the card helps the network in identifying the PC.
What are the responsibilities of Network Layer?

- The Network Layer aids in source-to-destination delivery of packet across multiple

networks.
- It performs:
a. Logical Addressing
b. Routing
Name the various error detection methods.

The various error detection methods are:

a. Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC)
b. Longitudinal Redundancy Check (VRC)
c. Cyclic Redundancy Check (VRC)
d. Checksum

What is Bit Stuffing?

- Bit stuffing means adding one extra 0 whenever five consecutive 1s follow a 0.
- This is done so that the pattern 0111110 is not mistaken for a flag.
How does dynamic host configuration protocol aid in network administration?

- In a large set up where it is difficult to manually configure the IP address of each system,
dynamic host configuration protocol comes very helpful.
- Using this protocol, the administrator can create a pool of IP addresses which are called
scopes. These can be then dynamically assigned to the systems.
Can you differentiate among encoding, encryption and hashing?
Encoding: Basically encoding is used to protect the integrity of data as it crosses through
communication network to keep its original message upon arriving. It is primarily an insecure
function because it is easily reversible.
Encryption: Encryption is basically designed for confidentiality and data integrity and
reversible only if you have the appropriate key.
Hashing: With hashing the operation is one-way i.e. non-reversible. It takes an input (or
message) and returns a fixed-size string, which is called the hash value.

Describe the POP3 protocol.

Post Office Protocol, version 3 is used for accessing the message. POP3 is very simple
protocol and has limited functionality. POP has different version but currently version 3 is
used. A POP3 server listens on well-known port 110. POP3 supports two types of mode.
Delete Mode: In this mode, the mail is deleted from the mailbox after each retrieval.
Keep Mode. The mail remains in the mailbox after retrieval.

Describe IMAP4 (Internet Mail Access Protocol) in detail.

This protocol is also used in Internet for accessing the mail. IMAP4 has more feature than
POP3 and is more powerful.
Main difference in POP3 and IMAP4 are as follows.

Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses.

a. 200.56.045.78
b. 22.34.7.8.20
c. 75.45.279.14
d. 11100010.23.24.66
Solution
a. There must be no leading zero (045).
b. There can be no more than four numbers in an IPv4 address.
c. Each number needs to be less than or equal to 255 (279 is outside this range).
d. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal notation is not allowed.

Describe how many types are wireless transmission?

In general we can divide five types of wireless transmission
1. The Electromagnetic Transmission
2. Radio Transmission
3. Microwave Transmission
4. Infrared Transmission
5. Light Transmission

Describe FDMA and TDMA in short.

In frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), the available bandwidth is divided into
frequency bands. Each station is allocated a band to send its data. Different frequency bands
are used by different stations.
In time-division multiple access (TDMA), the stations share the bandwidth of the channel in
time. Each station is allocated a time slot during which it can send data. Each station
transmits its data in is assigned time slot.

FIG: TDMA

Explain CDMA in wireless networks.

CDMA differs from FDMA and TDMA because only one channel occupies the entire
bandwidth of the link and also there is no timesharing. In CDMA a code is available for every
station wanting to send the data. In this protocol the assigned codes have two properties.
1. If we multiply each code by another, we get zero.
2. If we multiply each code by itself, we get the number of stations.
So suppose there are three stations and code and data are (c1, d1), (c2, d2), (c3, d3)
respectively. The data that go on the channel are the sum of all these terms. Any
station wanting to receive data from one of the other two, multiplies the data on the channel
by the code of the sender. For example, suppose stations 1 and 2 are talking to each other.
Station 2 wants to hear what station I is saying. It multiplies the data on the channel by cl the
code of station 1.
Because (cl . cl) is 3, but (c2 . cI) and (c3 . cI) are all Zero, station 2 divides the result by 3 to
get the data from station 1.

Describe the Packet Format of ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)?

The fields of the packet format of ARP are as follows:
-Hardware type: It is a 16-bit field . Each LAN has been assigned an integer based on its type.
For example, Ethernet is given the type 1.
-Protocol type: This is a 16-bit field defining the protocol. For example, the value of this field
for IPv4 protocol is 0800.
-Hardware length: This is an 8-bit field defining the length of the physical address in bytes.
For example, for Ethernet the value is 6.
-Protocol length: This is an 8-bit field defining the length of the logical address in bytes. For
example, for IPv4 protocol the value is 4.
-Operation: This is a 16-bitfield defining the type of packet. Two packet types are defined:
ARP request (1), ARP reply (2).
-Sender hardware address: This is a variable-length field defining the physical address of the
sender. For example, for Ethernet this field is 6 bytes long.
-Sender protocol address: This is a variable-length field defining the logical (for example, IP)
address of the sender. For the IP protocol, this field is 4 bytes long.
-Target hardware address: This is a variable-length field defining the physical address of the
target. For example, for Ethernet this field is 6 bytes long.
-Target protocol address: This is a variable-length field defining the logical (for example, IP)
address of the target. For IPv4 protocol, this field is 4 bytes long.

What are the advantages of IPv6 over IPv4?

the next generation IP, or IPv6 has some advantages over IPv4 that can be summarized as
follows:
- Larger Address Space: An IPv6 address is 128 bytes long where IPv4 has 32-bit address
only, this is a huge increase in the address space.
- Better Header Format: IPv6 uses a new header format which simplifies and speeds up the
routing process because most of the options do not need to be checked by routers.
- New Options: IPv6 has new options to allow for additional functionalities.
- Allowance for extension: In IPv6 new technologies can easily embedded.

-Support For Resource Allocation: In IPv6, flow label has been added to enable the source to
request special handling of the packet. This mechanism can be used to support traffic such as
real-time audio and video.
-Support For More Security: The encryption and authentication options in IPv6 provide
confidentiality and integrity of the packet.
A 2MB PCM(pulse code modulation) has how many channels?
30 voice channels, 1 signalling channel, & 1 synchronization channel.
What is the difference between TFTP and FTP application layer protocols?
The differences between FTP and TFTP:
FTP is connection oriented, where as TFTP is not.
TFTP uses error checking and flow control, where as TFTP does not cause error checking.
FTP uses TCP as transport protocol, where as TFTP uses UDP as transport protocol.
Authentication is mandatory in FTP, where as authentication is not needed in TFTP.
Just getting and putting application effectively is the design concern of TFTP, where as FTP provides more
control and data connection aspect

What is the difference between POP3 and IMAP Mail Server?

POP3:
All emails are to be downloaded again if used by another desktop PC for checking the email.
May leads to confusion if used for checking email in office and at home pc.
Attachments will be down loaded into desktop while the check new email process is in progress.
Mailboxes can be created only on desktop and one mail box exists on the server.
IMAP:
There is no need for downloading all email while using another desktop PC for checking email.
Unread mail identification is easier.
Message downloading is possible only when opened for display from its contents.
Multiple mailboxes creation is possible on the desktop PC and also on the server.