Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 2: Atomic Structure

Matter

Elements

Atoms
1.

Compound

Molecules

Ionic

Covalent

Element is a substance that cannot be made into anything simpler by

means of a chemical reaction

2.

A compound is a substance that can be made into something smaller by

means of a chemical reaction.

3.

A molecules may consists of atoms of the same elements or dissimilar

atoms of two or more elements.

4.

Some compounds consist of atoms or a group of atoms that carry positive

or negative charges. These charged particles are called ions.

5.

Positive ions are called cations. For example sodium ions and calcium
ions.

6.

Negative ions are called anions. For example chloride ions and oxide
ions.

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 2: Atomic Structure

The Kinetic Theory of Matter

a) The particles possess kinetic energy. They are in constant motion.
b) The velocities of the particles in the three physical states of matter are
different
c) The higher the temperature, the higher the kinetic energy
d) The lighter particles move faster than heavier ones.
Robert Brown made an observation through a microsope. He found that
pollen grains on the surface of water are in constant motion. He explained
that the pollen grains are moving because the moving water molecules are
constantly colliding with the pollen grains. The visible motion of these
pollen grains. The visible motion of these pollen grains is called the
Brwonian motion.

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 2: Atomic Structure

Comparison between the Three States of Matter

States of Matter

Solid

Liquid

Arrangement of
particles

Closely packed

Closely packed but

there are more
spaces compared to
solid

Gas

Forces of attraction
between particles

Volume and shape

Type of movement

Fixed volumes and

shapes

Vibration, rotation
and translation

Kinetic energy of
particles

Compressibility

Rate of diffusion

Easily compressed
because particles are
very far apart

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 2: Atomic Structure

Diffusion
It is a result of random motion of particles that possess kinetic energy.
The rate of diffusion depends on the temperature and the molecular mass.
The higher the molecular mass, the lower the rate of diffusion.
Diffusion in a gas

Diffusion in a liquid

Diffusion in a solid

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 2: Atomic Structure

The Heating Curve of Naphthalene

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 2: Atomic Structure

Region in the
graph

State of substance and the energy change

Region AB

State: Solid
Motion: Kinetic energy increases and the molecules
vibrate faster about their fixed position.
Temperature: Increases as the molecules receive more
heat energy

Point B

The substance begins to melt

Region BC

State: Solid + liquid

Temperature: constant (melting point)
Reason: Heat energy is absorbed to overcome the
forces of attraction holding the naphthalene molecules
together in the solid state.

Point C

All the naphthalene has completely melted

Region CD

State: Liquid
Motion: The particles moves freely and randomly.
Temperature: Keeps increasing as heat energy is
constantly supplied.

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 2: Atomic Structure

The Cooling Curve of Naphthalene

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 2: Atomic Structure

Region in the
graph

State of substance and the energy change

Region AB

State: Liquid
Motion: Kinetic energy decreases and the molecules
moves slower as heat energy is lost to environment
Temperature: Decreases

Point B

The naphthalene begins to freeze

Region BC

State: Liquid and solid

Temperature: constant (freezing point)
Reason: The heat energy lost to the environment is the
same amount as the heat energy released from the
particles when they formed intermolecular forces.

Point C

All the naphthalene has complete freeze

Region CD

State: Solid
Motion: The particle vibrate at fixed position
Temperature: Keeps decreasing as the heat energy is
losing

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 2: Atomic Structure

The Atomic Structure

The Historical Development of the Atomic Model
John Dalton
a) All elements are made up of small indivisible particles called atoms.
b) Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions
c) The atoms of an element are alike, but differ from the atoms of other
elements.
d) When atoms combine, they do so in simple ratio.
e) All chemical reactions result from the combination or separation of
atoms.
J. J. Thomson
Discovered negatively charged particles which he called electrons.
Ernest Rutherford
Bombarded a thin gold foil with alpha particles and the particles deflect
in very acute angle, suggesting a positively-charged particle called proton
in the nucleus of atoms.
Niels Bohr
Proposed the the electrons in the atom are arranged in permitted orbits
called electron shells surrounding the nucleus.
James Chadwick
Discovered electrically neutral subatomic particles which he called
neutron.

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 2: Atomic Structure

Proton Number & Nucleon Number

1. Proton number of an element is the number of protons in its atom. It is

also known as atomic number.
2. In neutron atom, proton number also tells us number of electrons.
3. In cation, the number of electron is less than the proton number whereas
the number of electron is more than the protein number in anion.
4. Nucleon number or mass number of an element is the sum of the number
of protons and neutrons in its atom.

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 2: Atomic Structure

Isotopes and Their Importance

1. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same proton number but
different nucleon number of number of neutron.
2. The isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties because
they have the same electron arrangement but their physical properties
such as densities and melting points differ.

3. Some isotopes are stable while the rest are unstable isotopes. Unstable
isotopes are radioactive isotopes.
4. The radioactive isotopes undergo spontaneous decay to emit radioactive
rays: alpha, beta and gamma.

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 2: Atomic Structure

Uses of Isotopes
1. Cobalt-60 is used to treat malignant cancer cells by directing a beam of
gamma rays towards the cancer cells.
2. Iodine-131 is used to treat thyroid cancer.
3. Gamma radiation is used to sterilise medical equipment such as surgical
glove and bandages.
4. Carbon-14 is used to determine the path of photosynthesis process.
5. Phosphorus-32 can be used to determine the rate of absorption of plant.
6. Male pests is attracted with pheromone into a trap and then exposed them
to gamma radiation which can cause genetic mutation.
7. Beta radiation is used to control the thickness of paper, plastic, metal
and rubber made in industry.
8. Gamma radiation is used to detect whether canned food or bottle drink
is completely filled.
9. Sodium-24 is used to detect leakage of pipe.
10.Carbon-14 is used to determine the age of archaeological artefacts
(carbon dating).
11.Gamma radiation of cobalt-60 is used to kill microorganism of food for
food preservation.
12.Nuclear energy is an alternative source of energy.

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 2: Atomic Structure

The Electronic Structure of an Atom

How to Write Electronic Configuration of an Atom?
1. The first shell is the one nearest to the nucleus and is filled first. It can
hold a maximum two electrons.
2. After the first shell is full, the remaining electrons are filled into the
second shell. The second shell can hold a maximum of eight electrons.
3. After the first and second shell are full, the reaming electrons are filled
into the third shell. The third shell can take a maximum of eight or 18
electrons. If the number of electrons of an atom is more than 20, the third
shell will hold 18 electrons. If the number of electrons is 20 or less, the
third shell will hold 8 electrons.
4. Example, fluorine has 9 electrons. The electronic configuration is written
as 2.7. Potassium has 19 electrons, it is written as 2.8.8.1. Bromine has 35
electrons. Its electronic structure is 2.8.18.7.