ACAS Overview Jan09

Overview of ACAS II / TCAS II
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©2009 The European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation (EUROCONTROL). This document is
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The information in this document may not be modified without prior written permission from EUROCONTROL.
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Additionally, the disclaimer available under www.euroocontrol.int/acas applies to the information contained in
this presentation.
1
Version 1.4 – 7 January 2009
Maastricht ATC 2006

ACAS
z ACAS: Airborne Collision Avoidance System
z ACAS is a set of standards defined by ICAO:

z an ACAS I issues Traffic Advisories (TAs)
z an ACAS II issues Resolution Advisories (RAs), in addition to TAs, in the
vertical plane only
z an ACAS III issues Resolution Advisories (RAs), in addition to TAs, in both the
vertical and in the horizontal plane
z Only ACAS II standards have been defined and approved

z ACAS equipage automatically implies Mode S equipage
2
Version 1.4 © 2009 EUROCONTROL
• The standards are established by ICAO

• ACAS I is not planned for an international implementation (only a minimum set
of standards exists)
• ACAS III standard development will take a considerable time, because the
horizontal avoidance is complex and there are also a lack of short-term plans for
equipment.
• The ACAS acronym refers to ICAO standards, whereas the TCAS acronym
refers to the actual equipment in the aircraft.
TCAS
z TCAS: Traffic alert and Collision Avoidance System
z TCAS II v7.0 is the current in-use system for Europe

z An upgrade to TCAS II v7.1 is planned – the implementation schedule is not
known yet
z TCAS II v6.04a is still in-use in some countries, notably USA
3
• The development of TCAS was an American initiative, and pre-dates the ICAO
studies. Preliminary studies, in 1955, defined the time criterion (TAU) for
collision avoidance (Bendix, Dr MORRELL).
• TCAS I is only used in light transport aircraft in the USA (from 11 to 30 seats).
Other States are not currently interested in TCAS I, as it does not generates
resolution advisories.
• TCAS II is and will remain the only ACAS equipment available providing
effective anti-collision protection.
• The TCAS II v7.0, being released in late '98 will have improved performance in
some areas (e.g.: horizontal miss distance filter) and compliance with ACAS II
standards.
• TCAS II v6.04a is still in-use in the USA.
• The TCAS III project, which would have provided resolution advisories in the
horizontal plane, in addition to the vertical plane, was aborted because it was
not possible, using the SSR technology, to measure the bearing of an intruder
with a sufficient accuracy from an airborne equipment.
• The TCAS IV project would have used data from outside the equipment itself
(e.g.: GPS, INS), however, a dependency problem has been identified. The
project was put on stand-by for operational reasons (the interest of horizontal
manoeuvres has not been demonstrated) and financial reasons.
ACAS II principles
z Intended as a last resort protection against risk of collision

z Designed for collision avoidance only
z Independent of ground-based systems and the auto-pilot and of
NAV systems
z ACAS algorithms and parameters as far as possible chosen to be
compatible with separation standards - but:
z Does not warn of loss of separation
z Sometime generate unnecessary (nuisance) alerts
z Sense of RAs coordinated between ACAS equipped aircraft
z Complying with RAs can result in deviation from clearance
4
• TCAS II function depends upon the interrogation of the transponders of

adjacent aircraft. For example, no ground based computer systems or beacons,
no satellite systems are involved.
• The collision risk detection is based on a flight time to Closest Point of
Approach (CPA), not on distance; the collision avoidance manoeuvre should
provide a safe vertical distance to avoid collision. This vertical distance has no
direct relation to standard ATC separation minima.
• The independence of the TCAS II system from the FMS or the auto-pilot, etc.
allows TCAS to continue to provide collision avoidance when such systems
fail. However, the flight intentions of own aircraft and the intruder cannot be
known by TCAS.
• TCAS cannot be used to establish or maintain separation.
• This presentation deals only with TCAS II version 7 equipment.
Situation in the world
z Europe:
z The carriage of ACAS II has been mandatory from 1-1-2005 for all civilian
turbine-engined aircraft carrying more than 19 passengers or with the maximum
take-off mass more than 5700 kg
z USA:
z TCAS II has been mandatory in US airspace since 1994, for all civilian turbine-
engined aircraft carrying more than 30 passengers
z Three manufacturers (Rockwell-Collins, ACSS, Honeywell)
z ICAO has recommended world-wide mandatory ACAS II carriage

(1-1-2003)
5
• Several mid-air collisions occurred in the United States between 1970 and 1980,
which initiated the FAA study of the current TCAS (1981), and subsequently
Congress to mandate the carriage of TCAS in 1987.
• In Europe, the equipping is required based upon the weight criteria.
Additionally, the equipping of military transport aircraft is in progress in most
ECAC States.
• The world-wide mandatory carriage of ACAS II recommended by ICAO -
1.1.2003.
Equipment description
MODE S
TCAS DIRECTIONAL ANTENNA
ANTENNA
AURAL
ANNUNCIATION
COORDINATION
& INHIBITION
EFIS or TCAS DISPLAY
TCAS II MODE S
UNIT XPDR
RADAR ALTIMETER AIR DATA TCAS + SSR

GEARS & CONTROL
COMPUTER
FLAPS PANEL
(ADC)
RADAR ALTIMETER
ANTENNA LOWER TCAS MODE S
ANTENNA ANTENNA
6
• The TCAS II unit has its own antennas and interrogates the surrounding
transponders on 1030 MHz and receives the replies on 1090 MHz.
• Due to the mode S air-to-air data exchange capability, the transponder of a
TCAS-equipped aircraft co-ordinates the resolution advisories during an
encounter with another TCAS-equipped aircraft. The mode S transponder is
compulsory when fitting an aircraft with TCAS.
• The TCAS aural annunciations have a lower priority than the stall warning, the
windshear warning, the ground proximity warning, etc.
• The connection with various systems (landing gear, flaps, radio altimeter)
allows some advisories to be inhibited of when the aircraft is going to land or
has just taken off.
• The Air Data Computer passes on a more accurate altitude value to the TCAS II
unit (of the same aircraft) than the traditional air pressure altitude system.
Functions
z Surveillance of adjacent transponders (range = 14 NM)
z Maximum number of aircraft processed = 30
z Determination of the alerts: TA and RA
z Co-ordination between two TCAS units (through the mode S data-link)
z Aural annunciations
z Display of information on Vertical Speed Indicators (VSI) or on EFIS (ND

+ PFD)
z Processing cycle = 1 second

7
• TCAS II uses a modified mode C interrogation known as "the mode C only all-
call" to interrogate mode A/C transponders, within about 14 NM, and it sends
mode S interrogations to identified mode S transponders out to a range of 30
NM.
• The range accuracy is to 1/128th of a nautical mile.
• TCAS II does not interrogate mode A, so it cannot know the SSR code selected
in the aircraft.
• However, TCAS II tracks the mode A/C transponders, even if the altitude
reporting system is either not fitted or not operating. In this situation, no RA
will occur, only TAs.
• If the number of tracked aircraft becomes too high, TCAS II discards the less
threatening targets and can reduce its interrogation range down to 5 NM, in
order to minimise the risks of transponder ‘lock-out’ in the event of over
interrogation by both ground SSR and airborne systems.
• In the event of an RA, co-ordination is performed with all TCAS-equipped
intruders. The co-ordination only determines the RA sense, not its strength.
• The aural annunciations are essential to alert the crew when an advisory is
generated.
Example of IVSI-type TCAS display
(classic instrumentation)
Intruder target
Other traffic
Proximate traffic
Relative altitude (ft x 100)
Intruding traffic
Threat
Vertical trend arrow
TCAS display centre Vertical speed needle
2-NM radius circle
Resolution advisory
8
• Note: the centre of the TCAS display is the symbolic aircraft and not the
rotational axis of the VSI needle.
• The blue diamonds represent non-threatening aircraft. The "-10" is solid (status
"Proximate Traffic" = less than 6 NM and 1,200 ft) in order to catch the pilot's
attention, so as not to confuse this target with the "Intruding Traffic" (-02 on top
of the display) when attempting a visual acquisition.
• The most distant traffic on the display is not necessarily the least threatening
based upon time criteria.
• Note: the information is adapted to help the visual acquisition of the intruder.
However, the display does not provide past positions, speed vector, nor the
identity of the displayed traffic. Therefore, it is impossible for the pilot to
determine based on TCAS display the trajectory of the other aircraft.
• The RA, shown here, is a "Climb". The pilot must initiate a climb of between
1,500 fpm and 2,000 fpm.
Example of EFIS with RAs displayed on
the vertical speed scale
MACH ALT HDG AP1
A/THR
FL 310
360
315
340
320 310 40
20
300
305
280
2
.818 STD
The pilot must manoeuvre the aircraft to comply with the specified vertical
speed (here: -1500 fpm)
9
• The TCAS information are dispatched between the PFD (Primary Flight
Display) for RAs and the ND (Navigation Display) for the traffic display.
• The RA is shown on the vertical speed scale
• The scale displayed on the ND can extend 320 NM. In the event of advisories,
the scale must be reduced (here, a scale of 10 NM is selected).
• The "Other Traffic" diamonds shown here are white; they can be either white or
blue.
the artificial horizon
SPD L-NAV ALT
M 0.82 31000
380 31400
360
340 31200
5 40
32 310 20
6
320
30800
300
280
30600
240
260 CRS 110
10 11 12
0.818 09 13 STD
14
08
The pilot acts on the aircraft attitude

10
• On this PFD, the RA is converted into an attitude value to avoid. When the pilot
has manoeuvred the aircraft to the required attitude (i.e. has brought the
symbolic wings outside of the red trapezium), the plane will then be moving at
the vertical rate prescribed by TCAS.
• This solution is supposed to be easier for the pilot to interpret and initiate to
control the aircraft.
• There is no green zone.
Initiation of alerts
z Horizontal test: time to reach the Closest Point of Approach (CPA)

(or "DMOD" distance if the closing speed is low)
z Vertical test: time to reach co-altitude (or "ZTHR" if the aircraft are
steady)
z The TA/RA threshold values increase with the altitude
z The bearing is not taken into account (only used for the display)
z RA sense selection: objective of safe vertical distance "ALIM",

co-ordination
z If the intruder does not transmit its altitude, there will be no RA

11
• The horizontal test is based upon a measurement of the slant range every
second but is generally processed as a time criterion.
• If the slant range decreases, TCAS computes a closing speed. By dividing the
slant range by the closing speed, TCAS gets the flight time until the possible
collision (TCPA). TCAS considers a collision point because the measurement
is linear and does not take into account the respective routes.
• The vertical test is based upon a principle similar to the horizontal test one.
• In the case of steady aircraft, the ZTHR parameter replaces the time to reach
co-altitude.
• The determination of the RA sense relies on a complex logic (see the
following figures).
• ALIM is a safe vertical distance, which is sufficient to prevent the risk of
collision. It is not related to standard ATC separation minima.
• TCAS does not require flight level changes, nor a vertical deviation of a
specified amount of feet, but only to maintain a vertical speed, to ensure that
ALIM is achieved at CPA.
Threshold values (TCAS II v7)
Sensitivity-level dependent Layer dependent
Above Altitude Hysteresis Sensitivity VTT TAU DMOD TAU_TA Layer ZTHR ALIM ZTHR_TA
(ft) (ft) level (s) (s) (nm) (s) (ft) (ft) (ft)
42,000 MSL +- 500 7 25 35 1.1 48 6 800 700 1200

20,000 MSL +- 500 7 25 35 1.1 48 5 700 600 850
10,000 MSL +- 500 6 22 30 0.8 45 4 600 400 850
5,000 MSL +- 500 5 20 25 0.55 40 3 600 350 850
2350 AGL +- 200 4 18 20 0.35 30 2 600 300 850
1000 AGL +- 100 3 15 15 0.2 25 1 600 300 850
-6000 AGL 2 20 1 600 300 850
TAU Time to CPA 1550’ (+-100’) AGL and below TCAS inhibits INCREASE DESCEND RAs
CPA Closest Point of Approach 1100’ (+-100’) AGL and below TCAS inhibits DESCEND RAs
DMOD Distance Modifier 1000’ (+-100’) AGL and below TCAS inhibits all RAs
Layer Altitude Layer 500’ (+-100’) AGL and below TCAS inhibits all Aural Alerts
ZTHR Fixed Threshold (RA)
ZTHR TA Fixed Threshold (TA)
ALIM Miss Distance
VTT Variable Threshold Test
12
Illustration of the horizontal test
TCAS
Intruder
35 seconds
The collision avoidance criterion is a generally a time parameter
13
• This figure shows the principle of TCAS operation. The system knows neither
of the aircraft routes, nor their speed, but it only "sees" a linear closing, between
own and the intruder aircraft, measured in terms of flight time.
• When the time left between now and the possible collision (TCPA) is lower
than a given threshold (here 35 seconds), an advisory is triggered.
• The distance at which the advisory is triggered, can vary a great deal, according
to the different encounter geometries, and to the speeds of the aircraft.
• For example, in the case of a head-on encounter, an RA can be issued at a
distance greater than 9 NM, whereas for a slow convergence, this distance may
be 2-3 NM.
RA sense selection
Threat
CPA
ALIM
TCAS
'upward'
ALIM
'downward'
The 'downward' sense will achieve ALIM, the 'upward' sense will not.
The 'downward' option is therefore selected.
14
RA without altitude crossing
TCAS
‘Climb’ RA
issued CPA
Threat
ALIM
ALIM
Both 'downward' and 'upward' senses will achieve ALIM. The 'upward'
sense is selected because it prevents the TCAS aircraft from
crossing through the intruder's altitude
15
Target on-the-ground determination
1,700 feet above ground level

(Threshold below which TCAS checks for targets on the ground)
Barometric Declared
altimeter airborne
Radar
altimeter
value
Declared
on ground 380-foot allowance
Declared
on ground
Ground level
Standard altimeter setting Estimated elevation of ground
16
• TCAS uses the radar altimeter data to progressively inhibit some advisories
when the aircraft flies closer to the ground:
– < 1,450 ft no more "Increase descent" RA
– < 1,100 ft no more "Descend" RA
– < 1,000 ft no more RA, nor aural annunciation
Miss Distance Filtering
TCAS
Intruder
35 se
cond
s
TCAS A/C
ground speed
HMD Intruder
ground speed
TCAS computes the Horizontal

Miss Distance (HMD).
If the HMD is "sufficient", no RA
17
• TCAS II tries to estimate HMD as it triggers an RA.

• To calculate the HMD, it takes the changes of the closing speed and of the
bearing as bases. The system does not know the routes and the speeds of
aircraft.
• If the computed HMD is "sufficient”, in providing collision avoidance, the RA
will not be issued. Indeed, if the minimum distance, measured by the TCAS, is
3 NM for example, there is no risk of collision between the aircraft, even if the
ATC separation minima are not maintained.
• This HMD filter is only effective if the aircraft are not turning or changing
speed. If an horizontal manoeuvre is detected, the filter is inhibited.
Alerts: "Traffic Advisory"
z Thresholds:
z horizontal: 20 to 48 s (or DMOD = 0.3 to 1.3 NM)
z vertical: 20 to 48 s (or ZTHR = 850 or 1,200 ft)
z Aural annunciation: "Traffic, traffic”

z Intruder: solid amber circle
z Helps to the visual acquisition of the intruder
z Prepares the crew for a possible RA
z No manoeuvres shall be made in response to TA
z TA shall not be reported to ATC
18
• Aircraft manoeuvres in response to TA are prohibited because of the high risk

of misinterpretation of the data shown on the TCAS display. The pilot will not
know the intentions of the intruder.
Alerts: "Resolution Advisory"
z Thresholds:
z vertical: 15 to 35 s (or ZTHR = 600 to 800 ft)
z Aural annunciations: "climb", "descend", "increase climb", "increase

descent", "monitor vertical speed", etc.
z Display of a range of vertical speeds or attitudes to avoid
z Objective: a safe vertical distance ALIM varying from 300 to 700 ft
z An RA takes into account all existing threats
z The RA intensity is checked and revised, if necessary, every second
19
• The various thresholds relate to the altitude band in which the aircraft are
operating. If the aircraft are not in the same altitude band, the highest one is
used.
• The DMOD values are very small and have no relationship to the applied radar
separation.
• During a TCAS alert, the RA can strengthen ("Increase ...") or weaken (“Adjust
vertical speed”) or even reverse ("Climb now" or "Descend now").
• Reversal can happen only once during the conflict
Alerts: “Resolution Advisory”
z The pilot must react within 5 seconds

z A vertical speed of +/-1,500 fpm (acceleration = 0.25 g) is generally
required, but may vary according to the event
z Pilots shall never manoeuvre in the opposite sense to the TCAS RA
(RAs are coordinated with other suitably equipped aircraft)
z The pilot must inform ATC as soon as possible
z The "Clear of Conflict" message is issued when the aircraft diverge
horizontally
z The pilot must then resume the ATC clearance
20
• The vertical acceleration required to comply TCAS deviations should be hardly

detectable by the passengers.
• If the pilot does not follow the RA and if the intruder is also fitted with TCAS,
the safety benefit of TCAS equipage will be reduced as both TCAS will have
co-ordinated the sense of the manoeuvres.
• The pilot will not be aware if the RA is co-ordinated or not.
• The phraseology used by the pilot to report an RA is typically: "<call sign>
TCAS Climb/Descend". The controller should acknowledge.
• The "TCAS" term is used rather than "ACAS", because it is more often used as
a generic descriptive term, is easier to pronounce and understand on the R/T.
TCAS Advantages
z Independent system, which acts as a last resort safety barrier
z Highly accurate distance measurements, with a one-second refresh

rate
z All threats taken into account
z TCAS-TCAS co-ordination
z Detection of all transponding aircraft, including those which are not

displayed on the controller’s screen
z TCAS II reduced the risk of mid-air collision
21
Limitations: General
z No detection of aircraft without or not operating transponders (e.g.

VFRs, military flights)
z No knowledge of the pilot’s intentions and of the ATC separation

minima
z Basic display: no identification, no past positions, no speed vector
22
• The potential dangers of some “normal” controlling practices, with the

objective of achieving a 1,000-ft separation, where high-performance modern
twin jets are converging vertically and horizontally toward the same beacon, is
revealed by TCAS.
Limitations: Unnecessary Alerts
z Some alerts seen by the pilots and controllers as unnecessary

(nuisance) alerts, especially 1000-ft level offs
z The alerts are unnecessary only in hindsight
z Limited horizontal tracking – unless ground tracks of both aircraft

remain very straight, an RA can be generated even if the aircraft are
3 NM apart
23
• The RAs occurring in the 1,000-ft level off geometry situations make +/- 50%
of RAs and are considered by some as nuisances. However, real examples show
that these RAs can turn out to be necessary.
• When an RA is issued the pilot does not know how the intruding aircraft is
going to be behave. Assuming that “he is going to level-off” is speculative.
Operational impact: Pilots
z An RA is usually stressful experience: surprise, very rapid

development (around 30 s)
z Consequences:
z frequently excessive deviations (observed average: 650 ft)
z slow returns to the ATC clearance (brief loss of confidence)
z discussions on the frequency and correct phraseology not always used
z Crews often use the TCAS display as a surveillance tool: high risk of
misinterpretation
z Air crew training is essential
24
• An RA will be a surprise for the crew, especially when cruising and in the
phases near take-off/landing. The crew must then leave all the "usual" cockpit
tasks at very short notice, and initiate the collision avoidance manoeuvre.
• Deviations over 1,000 ft, when 300 to 600 ft would have been sufficient, have
been noted. Some pilots have even changed flight level.
• Generally, pilots do not follow weakening RAs, introduced to minimise
deviations, but wait for the "Clear of Conflict" message before starting to
resume their ATC clearance.
• It must be clearly understood that the risk of misinterpreting the TCAS display
is high, mainly because there is no identity, nor speed vector, nor flight
intention shown. Additionally significant traffic data may be dropped in a dense
traffic environment.
Operational impact: Controllers
z Consequences of an RA:
z Disturbance to the tactical control plan
z Possibility of an induced conflict, although TCAS has a multiple threat
processing
z Frequency overload, initial lack of understanding
z In practice:
z Controller will not know about the RA until notified by the pilot
z If the RA event is known, the controller must cease issuing any
instructions, but should provide traffic information
z The controller must not consider the TCAS equipment of the aircraft to
establish and maintain spacing (ICAO)
25
• The concern of a conflict induced by an aircraft responding to an RA is

justified, but TCAS detects and processes any new threat simultaneously with
the original one (composite RA).
Doc. 8168 (1/3)
Airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS) indications shall be used by pilots in the
avoidance of potential collisions, the enhancement of situational awareness, and the active
search for, and visual acquisition of, conflicting traffic.
Doc. 8168, part VIII, para. 3.1.1
Pilots should use appropriate procedures by which an aeroplane climbing or descending to

an assigned altitude or flight level, especially with an autopilot engaged, may do so at a rate
less than 8 m/s (or 1 500 ft/min) throughout the last 300 m (or 1 000 ft) of climb or descent to
the assigned altitude or flight level when the pilot is made aware of another aircraft at or
approaching an adjacent altitude or flight level, unless otherwise instructed by ATC. These
procedures are intended to avoid unnecessary airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS II)
resolution advisories in aircraft at or approaching adjacent altitudes or flight levels. For
commercial operations, these procedures should be specified by the operator.
Doc. 8168, part VIII, para. 3.3
26
Doc. 8168 (2/3)
Nothing in the procedures specified in 3.2 hereunder shall prevent pilots-in-command from exercising
their best judgement and full authority in the choice of the best course of action to resolve a traffic
conflict or avert a potential collision.
Note 1.— The ability of ACAS to fulfil its role of assisting pilots in the avoidance of potential collisions is
dependent on the correct and timely response by pilots to ACAS indications. Operational experience
has shown that the correct response by pilots is dependent on the effectiveness of initial and recurrent
training in ACAS procedures.
Note 2.— ACAS II Training Guidelines for Pilots are provided in Attachment A to Part VIII.
27
Doc. 8168 (3/3)
In the event of an RA, pilots shall:

1) respond immediately by following the RA as indicated, unless doing so would jeopardize the safety of the aeroplane;
Note 1. —Stall warning, wind shear, and ground proximity warning system alerts have precedence over ACAS
Note 2.— Visually acquired traffic may not be the same traffic causing an RA. Visual perception of an encounter may be misleading, particularly
at night.
2) follow the RA even if there is a conflict between the RA and an air traffic control (ATC) instruction to manoeuvre;
3) not manoeuvre in the opposite sense to an RA;
Note.— In the case of an ACAS-ACAS coordinated encounter, the RAs complement each other in order to reduce the potential for collision.
Manoeuvres, or lack of manoeuvres, that result in vertical rates opposite to the sense of an RA could result in a collision with the threat aircraft.
4) as soon as possible, as permitted by aircrew workload, notify the appropriate ATC unit of any RA which requires a deviation
from the current air traffic control instruction or clearance;
Note.— Unless informed by the pilot, ATC does not know when ACAS issues RAs. It is possible for ATC to issue instructions that are
unknowingly contrary to ACAS RA indications. Therefore, it is important that ATC be notified when an ATC instruction or clearance is not being
followed because it conflicts with an RA.
5) promptly comply with any modified RAs;
6) limit the alterations of the flight path to the minimum extent necessary to comply with the RAs;
7) promptly return to the terms of the ATC instruction or clearance when the conflict is resolved; and
8) notify ATC when returning to the current clearance.
Note.— Procedures in regard to ACAS-equipped aircraft and the phraseology to be used for the notification of manoeuvres in response to a
resolution advisory are contained in the PANS-ATM (Doc 4444), Chapters 15 and 12, respectively.
Doc. 8168, part VIII para. 3.2.c
28
Doc. 4444 (1/2)
When a pilot reports an ACAS resolution advisory (RA), the controller shall not attempt
to modify the aircraft flight path until the pilot reports “Clear of Conflict”.
Doc. 4444, para. 15.6.3.2
29
Doc. 4444 (2/2)
Once an aircraft departs from its ATC clearance or instruction in compliance with an RA, or a
pilot reports an RA, the controller ceases to be responsible for providing separation between
that aircraft and any other aircraft affected as a direct consequence of the manoeuvre induced
by the RA. The controller shall resume responsibility for providing separation for all the affected
aircraft when:
a) the controller acknowledges a report from the flight crew that the aircraft has
resumed the current clearance; or
b) the controller acknowledges a report from the flight crew that the aircraft is resuming
the current clearance and issues an alternative clearance which is acknowledged by the flight
crew.
Note.— Pilots are required to report RAs which require a deviation from the current ATC
clearance or instruction (see PANS-OPS, Volume I, Part III, Section 3, Chapter 3, 3.2 c) 4)).
This report informs the controller that a deviation from clearance or instruction is taking place
in response to an ACAS RA.
Doc. 4444, para. 15.6.3.3
30
RA Phraseology (Doc. 4444)
... after a flight crew starts to deviate from any ATC clearance or instruction to comply with an ACAS resolution advisory (RA)
(Pilot and controller interchange):
PILOT: [callsign] TCAS RA;

ATC: [callsign] ROGER;
... after the response to an ACAS RA is completed and a return to the ATC clearance or instruction is initiated (Pilot and
controller interchange):
PILOT: [callsign] CLEAR OF CONFLICT, RETURNING TO (assigned clearance);

ATC: [callsign] ROGER (or alternative instructions);
… after the response to an ACAS RA is completed and the assigned ATC clearance or instruction has been resumed (Pilot and

… after an ATC clearance or instruction contradictory to the ACAS RA is received, the flight crew will follow the RA and inform
ATC directly (Pilot and controller interchange):
PILOT: [callsign] CLEAR OF CONFLICT (assigned clearance) RESUMED;

31 Doc. 4444, para. 12.3.1.2 r- y
RA & Aural Alerts (TCAS II version 7.0)
Upward sense Downward sense
Required vertical Required vertical

RA Aural RA Aural
rate (fpm) rate (fpm)
Climb 1500 Climb, climb Descend – 1500 Descend, descend
Climb, crossing climb; Climb, Descend, crossing descend;

Crossing climb 1500 Crossing descend – 1500
crossing climb Descend, crossing descend
Maintain vertical speed,
Maintain climb 1500 to 4400 Maintain descend – 1500 to – 4400 Maintain vertical speed, maintain
maintain
Maintain crossing Maintain vertical speed, Maintain crossing Maintain vertical speed, crossing
1500 to 4400 – 1500 to – 4400
climb crossing maintain descend maintain
>0 <0
> – 500 < +500
Reduce climb Adjust vertical speed, adjust Reduce descent Adjust vertical speed, adjust
> – 1000 < +1000
> – 2000 < +2000
Climb, climb NOW; Climb, climb Descend, descend NOW;
Reversal climb 1500 Reversal descent – 1500
NOW Descend, descend NOW
Increase descent, increase

Increase climb 2500 Increase climb, increase climb Increase descent 2500
descent
Preventive RA No change Monitor vertical speed Preventive RA No change Monitor vertical speed
RA Removed — Clear of conflict RA Removed — Clear of conflict
32
Overview of ACAS II / TCAS II
DISCLAIMER
©2009 The European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation (EUROCONTROL). This document is
published by EUROCONTROL for information purposes. It may be copied in whole or in part provided that
EUROCONTROL is mentioned as a source and to the extent justified by the non-commercial use (not for sale).
The information in this document may not be modified without prior written permission from EUROCONTROL.
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1
Version 1.4 – 7 January 2009
Maastricht ATC 2006

ACAS
z ACAS: Airborne Collision Avoidance System
z ACAS is a set of standards defined by ICAO:

z an ACAS I issues Traffic Advisories (TAs)
z an ACAS II issues Resolution Advisories (RAs), in addition to TAs, in the
vertical plane only
z an ACAS III issues Resolution Advisories (RAs), in addition to TAs, in both the
vertical and in the horizontal plane
z Only ACAS II standards have been defined and approved

z ACAS equipage automatically implies Mode S equipage
2
TCAS
z TCAS: Traffic alert and Collision Avoidance System
z TCAS II v7.0 is the current in-use system for Europe

z An upgrade to TCAS II v7.1 is planned – the implementation schedule is not
known yet
z TCAS II v6.04a is still in-use in some countries, notably USA
3
ACAS II principles
z Intended as a last resort protection against risk of collision

z Designed for collision avoidance only
z Independent of ground-based systems and the auto-pilot and of
NAV systems
z ACAS algorithms and parameters as far as possible chosen to be
compatible with separation standards - but:
z Does not warn of loss of separation
z Sometime generate unnecessary (nuisance) alerts
z Sense of RAs coordinated between ACAS equipped aircraft
z Complying with RAs can result in deviation from clearance
4
Situation in the world
z Europe:
z The carriage of ACAS II has been mandatory from 1-1-2005 for all civilian
turbine-engined aircraft carrying more than 19 passengers or with the maximum
take-off mass more than 5700 kg
z USA:
z TCAS II has been mandatory in US airspace since 1994, for all civilian turbine-
engined aircraft carrying more than 30 passengers
z Three manufacturers (Rockwell-Collins, ACSS, Honeywell)
z ICAO has recommended world-wide mandatory ACAS II carriage

(1-1-2003)
5
Equipment description
MODE S
TCAS DIRECTIONAL ANTENNA
ANTENNA
AURAL
ANNUNCIATION
COORDINATION
& INHIBITION
EFIS or TCAS DISPLAY
TCAS II MODE S
UNIT XPDR
RADAR ALTIMETER AIR DATA TCAS + SSR

GEARS & CONTROL
COMPUTER
FLAPS PANEL
(ADC)
RADAR ALTIMETER
ANTENNA LOWER TCAS MODE S
ANTENNA ANTENNA
6
Functions
z Surveillance of adjacent transponders (range = 14 NM)
z Maximum number of aircraft processed = 30
z Determination of the alerts: TA and RA
z Co-ordination between two TCAS units (through the mode S data-link)
z Aural annunciations
z Display of information on Vertical Speed Indicators (VSI) or on EFIS (ND

+ PFD)
z Processing cycle = 1 second

7
Example of IVSI-type TCAS display
(classic instrumentation)
Intruder target
Other traffic
Proximate traffic
Relative altitude (ft x 100)
Intruding traffic
Threat
Vertical trend arrow
TCAS display centre Vertical speed needle
2-NM radius circle
Resolution advisory
8
the vertical speed scale
MACH ALT HDG AP1
A/THR
FL 310
360
315
340
320 310 40
20
300
305
280
2
.818 STD
The pilot must manoeuvre the aircraft to comply with the specified vertical
speed (here: -1500 fpm)
9
the artificial horizon
SPD L-NAV ALT
M 0.82 31000
380 31400
360
340 31200
5 40
32 310 20
6
320
30800
300
280
30600
240
260 CRS 110
10 11 12
0.818 09 13 STD
08 14
The pilot acts on the aircraft attitude

10
Initiation of alerts
z Horizontal test: time to reach the Closest Point of Approach (CPA)

(or "DMOD" distance if the closing speed is low)
z Vertical test: time to reach co-altitude (or "ZTHR" if the aircraft are
steady)
z The TA/RA threshold values increase with the altitude
z The bearing is not taken into account (only used for the display)
z RA sense selection: objective of safe vertical distance "ALIM",

co-ordination
z If the intruder does not transmit its altitude, there will be no RA

11
Threshold values (TCAS II v7)
Sensitivity-level dependent Layer dependent
Above Altitude Hysteresis Sensitivity VTT TAU DMOD TAU_TA Layer ZTHR ALIM ZTHR_TA
(ft) (ft) level (s) (s) (nm) (s) (ft) (ft) (ft)
42,000 MSL +- 500 7 25 35 1.1 48 6 800 700 1200

20,000 MSL +- 500 7 25 35 1.1 48 5 700 600 850
10,000 MSL +- 500 6 22 30 0.8 45 4 600 400 850
5,000 MSL +- 500 5 20 25 0.55 40 3 600 350 850
2350 AGL +- 200 4 18 20 0.35 30 2 600 300 850
1000 AGL +- 100 3 15 15 0.2 25 1 600 300 850
-6000 AGL 2 20 1 600 300 850
TAU Time to CPA 1550’ (+-100’) AGL and below TCAS inhibits INCREASE DESCEND RAs
CPA Closest Point of Approach 1100’ (+-100’) AGL and below TCAS inhibits DESCEND RAs
DMOD Distance Modifier 1000’ (+-100’) AGL and below TCAS inhibits all RAs
Layer Altitude Layer 500’ (+-100’) AGL and below TCAS inhibits all Aural Alerts
ZTHR Fixed Threshold (RA)
ZTHR TA Fixed Threshold (TA)
ALIM Miss Distance
VTT Variable Threshold Test
12
Illustration of the horizontal test
TCAS
Intruder
35 seconds
The collision avoidance criterion is a generally a time parameter
13
RA sense selection
Threat
CPA
ALIM
TCAS
'upward'
ALIM
'downward'
The 'downward' sense will achieve ALIM, the 'upward' sense will not.
The 'downward' option is therefore selected.
14
RA without altitude crossing
TCAS
‘Climb’ RA
issued CPA
Threat
ALIM
ALIM
Both 'downward' and 'upward' senses will achieve ALIM. The 'upward'
sense is selected because it prevents the TCAS aircraft from
crossing through the intruder's altitude
15
Target on-the-ground determination
1,700 feet above ground level

(Threshold below which TCAS checks for targets on the ground)
Barometric Declared
altimeter airborne
Radar
altimeter
value
Declared
on ground 380-foot allowance
Declared
on ground
Ground level
Standard altimeter setting Estimated elevation of ground
16
Miss Distance Filtering
TCAS
Intruder
35 se
cond
s
TCAS A/C
ground speed
HMD Intruder
ground speed
TCAS computes the Horizontal

Miss Distance (HMD).
If the HMD is "sufficient", no RA
17
Alerts: "Traffic Advisory"
z Thresholds:
z vertical: 20 to 48 s (or ZTHR = 850 or 1,200 ft)
z Aural annunciation: "Traffic, traffic”

z Intruder: solid amber circle
z Helps to the visual acquisition of the intruder
z Prepares the crew for a possible RA
z No manoeuvres shall be made in response to TA
z TA shall not be reported to ATC
18
Alerts: "Resolution Advisory"
z Thresholds:
z vertical: 15 to 35 s (or ZTHR = 600 to 800 ft)
z Aural annunciations: "climb", "descend", "increase climb", "increase

descent", "monitor vertical speed", etc.
z Display of a range of vertical speeds or attitudes to avoid
z Objective: a safe vertical distance ALIM varying from 300 to 700 ft
z An RA takes into account all existing threats
z The RA intensity is checked and revised, if necessary, every second
19
Alerts: “Resolution Advisory”
z The pilot must react within 5 seconds

z A vertical speed of +/-1,500 fpm (acceleration = 0.25 g) is generally
required, but may vary according to the event
z Pilots shall never manoeuvre in the opposite sense to the TCAS RA
(RAs are coordinated with other suitably equipped aircraft)
z The pilot must inform ATC as soon as possible
z The "Clear of Conflict" message is issued when the aircraft diverge
horizontally
z The pilot must then resume the ATC clearance
20
TCAS Advantages
z Independent system, which acts as a last resort safety barrier
z Highly accurate distance measurements, with a one-second refresh

rate
z All threats taken into account
z TCAS-TCAS co-ordination
z Detection of all transponding aircraft, including those which are not

displayed on the controller’s screen
z TCAS II reduced the risk of mid-air collision
21
Limitations: General
z No detection of aircraft without or not operating transponders (e.g.

VFRs, military flights)
z No knowledge of the pilot’s intentions and of the ATC separation

minima
z Basic display: no identification, no past positions, no speed vector
22
Limitations: Unnecessary Alerts
z Some alerts seen by the pilots and controllers as unnecessary

(nuisance) alerts, especially 1000-ft level offs
z The alerts are unnecessary only in hindsight
z Limited horizontal tracking – unless ground tracks of both aircraft

remain very straight, an RA can be generated even if the aircraft are
3 NM apart
23
Operational impact: Pilots
z An RA is usually stressful experience: surprise, very rapid

development (around 30 s)
z Consequences:
z frequently excessive deviations (observed average: 650 ft)
z slow returns to the ATC clearance (brief loss of confidence)
z discussions on the frequency and correct phraseology not always used
z Crews often use the TCAS display as a surveillance tool: high risk of
misinterpretation
z Air crew training is essential
24
Operational impact: Controllers
z Consequences of an RA:
z Disturbance to the tactical control plan
z Possibility of an induced conflict, although TCAS has a multiple threat
processing
z Frequency overload, initial lack of understanding
z In practice:
z Controller will not know about the RA until notified by the pilot
z If the RA event is known, the controller must cease issuing any
instructions, but should provide traffic information
z The controller must not consider the TCAS equipment of the aircraft to
establish and maintain spacing (ICAO)
25
Doc. 8168 (1/3)
Airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS) indications shall be used by pilots in the
avoidance of potential collisions, the enhancement of situational awareness, and the active
search for, and visual acquisition of, conflicting traffic.
Pilots should use appropriate procedures by which an aeroplane climbing or descending to

an assigned altitude or flight level, especially with an autopilot engaged, may do so at a rate
less than 8 m/s (or 1 500 ft/min) throughout the last 300 m (or 1 000 ft) of climb or descent to
the assigned altitude or flight level when the pilot is made aware of another aircraft at or
approaching an adjacent altitude or flight level, unless otherwise instructed by ATC. These
procedures are intended to avoid unnecessary airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS II)
resolution advisories in aircraft at or approaching adjacent altitudes or flight levels. For
commercial operations, these procedures should be specified by the operator.
Doc. 8168, part VIII, para. 3.3
26
Doc. 8168 (2/3)
Nothing in the procedures specified in 3.2 hereunder shall prevent pilots-in-command from exercising
their best judgement and full authority in the choice of the best course of action to resolve a traffic
conflict or avert a potential collision.
Note 1.— The ability of ACAS to fulfil its role of assisting pilots in the avoidance of potential collisions is
dependent on the correct and timely response by pilots to ACAS indications. Operational experience
has shown that the correct response by pilots is dependent on the effectiveness of initial and recurrent
training in ACAS procedures.
Note 2.— ACAS II Training Guidelines for Pilots are provided in Attachment A to Part VIII.
27
Doc. 8168 (3/3)
In the event of an RA, pilots shall:

1) respond immediately by following the RA as indicated, unless doing so would jeopardize the safety of the aeroplane;
Note 1. —Stall warning, wind shear, and ground proximity warning system alerts have precedence over ACAS
Note 2.— Visually acquired traffic may not be the same traffic causing an RA. Visual perception of an encounter may be misleading, particularly
at night.
2) follow the RA even if there is a conflict between the RA and an air traffic control (ATC) instruction to manoeuvre;
3) not manoeuvre in the opposite sense to an RA;
Note.— In the case of an ACAS-ACAS coordinated encounter, the RAs complement each other in order to reduce the potential for collision.
Manoeuvres, or lack of manoeuvres, that result in vertical rates opposite to the sense of an RA could result in a collision with the threat aircraft.
4) as soon as possible, as permitted by aircrew workload, notify the appropriate ATC unit of any RA which requires a deviation
from the current air traffic control instruction or clearance;
Note.— Unless informed by the pilot, ATC does not know when ACAS issues RAs. It is possible for ATC to issue instructions that are
unknowingly contrary to ACAS RA indications. Therefore, it is important that ATC be notified when an ATC instruction or clearance is not being
followed because it conflicts with an RA.
5) promptly comply with any modified RAs;
6) limit the alterations of the flight path to the minimum extent necessary to comply with the RAs;
7) promptly return to the terms of the ATC instruction or clearance when the conflict is resolved; and
8) notify ATC when returning to the current clearance.
Note.— Procedures in regard to ACAS-equipped aircraft and the phraseology to be used for the notification of manoeuvres in response to a
resolution advisory are contained in the PANS-ATM (Doc 4444), Chapters 15 and 12, respectively.
Doc. 8168, part VIII para. 3.2.c
28
Doc. 4444 (1/2)
When a pilot reports an ACAS resolution advisory (RA), the controller shall not attempt
to modify the aircraft flight path until the pilot reports “Clear of Conflict”.
Doc. 4444, para. 15.6.3.2
29
Doc. 4444 (2/2)
Once an aircraft departs from its ATC clearance or instruction in compliance with an RA, or a
pilot reports an RA, the controller ceases to be responsible for providing separation between
that aircraft and any other aircraft affected as a direct consequence of the manoeuvre induced
by the RA. The controller shall resume responsibility for providing separation for all the affected
aircraft when:
a) the controller acknowledges a report from the flight crew that the aircraft has
resumed the current clearance; or
b) the controller acknowledges a report from the flight crew that the aircraft is resuming
the current clearance and issues an alternative clearance which is acknowledged by the flight
crew.
Note.— Pilots are required to report RAs which require a deviation from the current ATC
clearance or instruction (see PANS-OPS, Volume I, Part III, Section 3, Chapter 3, 3.2 c) 4)).
This report informs the controller that a deviation from clearance or instruction is taking place
in response to an ACAS RA.
Doc. 4444, para. 15.6.3.3
30
RA Phraseology (Doc. 4444)
... after a flight crew starts to deviate from any ATC clearance or instruction to comply with an ACAS resolution advisory (RA)
(Pilot and controller interchange):
PILOT: [callsign] TCAS RA;

... after the response to an ACAS RA is completed and a return to the ATC clearance or instruction is initiated (Pilot and

… after the response to an ACAS RA is completed and the assigned ATC clearance or instruction has been resumed (Pilot and

… after an ATC clearance or instruction contradictory to the ACAS RA is received, the flight crew will follow the RA and inform
ATC directly (Pilot and controller interchange):
PILOT: [callsign] CLEAR OF CONFLICT (assigned clearance) RESUMED;

31 Doc. 4444, para. 12.3.1.2 r- y
RA & Aural Alerts (TCAS II version 7.0)
Upward sense Downward sense
Required vertical Required vertical

RA Aural RA Aural
rate (fpm) rate (fpm)
Climb 1500 Climb, climb Descend – 1500 Descend, descend
Climb, crossing climb; Climb, Descend, crossing descend;

Crossing climb 1500 Crossing descend – 1500
crossing climb Descend, crossing descend
Maintain vertical speed,
Maintain climb 1500 to 4400 Maintain descend – 1500 to – 4400 Maintain vertical speed, maintain
maintain
Maintain crossing Maintain vertical speed, Maintain crossing Maintain vertical speed, crossing
1500 to 4400 – 1500 to – 4400
climb crossing maintain descend maintain
>0 <0
> – 500 < +500
Reduce climb Adjust vertical speed, adjust Reduce descent Adjust vertical speed, adjust
> – 1000 < +1000
> – 2000 < +2000
Climb, climb NOW; Climb, climb Descend, descend NOW;
Reversal climb 1500 Reversal descent – 1500
NOW Descend, descend NOW
Increase descent, increase

Increase climb 2500 Increase climb, increase climb Increase descent 2500
descent
Preventive RA No change Monitor vertical speed Preventive RA No change Monitor vertical speed
RA Removed — Clear of conflict RA Removed — Clear of conflict
32

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Overview of ACAS II / TCAS II

Maastricht ATC 2006

z ACAS: Airborne Collision Avoidance System

z ACAS is a set of standards defined by ICAO:

z Only ACAS II standards have been defined and approved

• The standards are established by ICAO

z TCAS: Traffic alert and Collision Avoidance System

z TCAS II v7.0 is the current in-use system for Europe

z TCAS II v6.04a is still in-use in some countries, notably USA

z Intended as a last resort protection against risk of collision

• TCAS II function depends upon the interrogation of the transponders of

z ICAO has recommended world-wide mandatory ACAS II carriage

RADAR ALTIMETER AIR DATA TCAS + SSR

z Surveillance of adjacent transponders (range = 14 NM)

z Maximum number of aircraft processed = 30

z Determination of the alerts: TA and RA

z Co-ordination between two TCAS units (through the mode S data-link)

z Display of information on Vertical Speed Indicators (VSI) or on EFIS (ND

z Processing cycle = 1 second

TCAS display centre Vertical speed needle

2-NM radius circle

The pilot acts on the aircraft attitude

z Horizontal test: time to reach the Closest Point of Approach (CPA)

z The TA/RA threshold values increase with the altitude

z RA sense selection: objective of safe vertical distance "ALIM",

z If the intruder does not transmit its altitude, there will be no RA

Sensitivity-level dependent Layer dependent

42,000 MSL +- 500 7 25 35 1.1 48 6 800 700 1200

The collision avoidance criterion is a generally a time parameter

1,700 feet above ground level

TCAS computes the Horizontal

• TCAS II tries to estimate HMD as it triggers an RA.

z Aural annunciation: "Traffic, traffic”

• Aircraft manoeuvres in response to TA are prohibited because of the high risk

z Aural annunciations: "climb", "descend", "increase climb", "increase

z The pilot must react within 5 seconds

• The vertical acceleration required to comply TCAS deviations should be hardly

z Independent system, which acts as a last resort safety barrier

z Highly accurate distance measurements, with a one-second refresh

z All threats taken into account

z Detection of all transponding aircraft, including those which are not

z TCAS II reduced the risk of mid-air collision

z No detection of aircraft without or not operating transponders (e.g.

z No knowledge of the pilot’s intentions and of the ATC separation

z Basic display: no identification, no past positions, no speed vector

• The potential dangers of some “normal” controlling practices, with the

z Some alerts seen by the pilots and controllers as unnecessary

z The alerts are unnecessary only in hindsight

z Limited horizontal tracking – unless ground tracks of both aircraft

z An RA is usually stressful experience: surprise, very rapid

z Air crew training is essential

• The concern of a conflict induced by an aircraft responding to an RA is

Pilots should use appropriate procedures by which an aeroplane climbing or descending to

Doc. 8168, part VIII, para. 3.3

Doc. 8168, part VIII, para. 3.1.2

In the event of an RA, pilots shall:

Doc. 8168, part VIII para. 3.2.c

Doc. 4444, para. 15.6.3.2

PILOT: [callsign] TCAS RA;

PILOT: [callsign] CLEAR OF CONFLICT, RETURNING TO (assigned clearance);

PILOT: [callsign] CLEAR OF CONFLICT, RETURNING TO (assigned clearance);

PILOT: [callsign] CLEAR OF CONFLICT (assigned clearance) RESUMED;

Required vertical Required vertical

Climb 1500 Climb, climb Descend – 1500 Descend, descend