Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

The Human Digestive System

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

The digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids in humans

Mouth
1. Physical and chemical digestion occurs here.
2. Physical digestion involved chewing and grinding.
3. Only carbohydrates (starch) are digested
4. Food mix with saliva will form bolus.
Oesophagus
1. No digestion and no absorption take place here.
2. But there is some mucus being secreted by the epithelial cells of the
mucosa.
3. Wave of muscular contraction of the oesophagus, called peristalsis
propels the food bolus downward to the stomach.

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Stomach
1. Very little starch digestion and no lipid digestion occur in the stomach.
2. Chemical digestion of proteins starts:
(a) Gastric glands at the stomach epithelium secrete gastric juice
containing pepsin, rennin, mucus and hydrochloric acid
(b) Pepsin hydrolyses proteins into peptides:
pepsin
Protein + water

polypeptides

(c) Rennin transformed caseinogen (found in milk) into insoluble

casein to be hydrolysed by pepsin.
rennin
Caseinogen
Casein

casein
pepsin
polypeptides

3. Hydrochloric acid:
(a) stop the catalysing action of salivary amylase on carbohydrate
(b) prepare an acidic medium for pepsin to function
(c) kill all microorganisms
4. Mucus protects the stomach wall from the digestive actions of pepsin and
HCl.
5. The food becomes a creamy fluid called chyme (after 3-5 hours).

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Small intestine
1. Small intestine consists of:
(a) duodenum
(b) jejunum
(c) ileum
2. In the duodenum, chime is mixed with bile and pancreatic juice.
3. Digestion of proteins:
(a) pancreatic juice contains trypsinogen, which is converted to trypsin
by enterokinase.
enterokinase
Trypsinogen

trypsin

(b) Trypsin can further digest protein into small amino acids called
peptides.
Protein

trypsin

Polypeptides

polypeptides

trypsin

peptides

(c) Erepsin (peptidase) completes the hydrolysis of polypeptides and

peptides to their component amino acids.
Peptides + water

erepsin

Polypeptides + water

amino acids

erepsin

amino acids

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Digestion of lipids:
(a) Bile is added into the small intestine when lipid is present.
(b) Bile breaks up the lipids into small droplets which increase the
surface area for lipase to act on.
(c) Lipase acts on the small droplets of lipids, hydrolyzing them into
glycerol and fatty acids.
Lipids + water

lipase

glycogen + fatty acids

4. Digestion of carbohydrates:
(a) Pancreatic amylase hydrolyses starch, glycogen and smaller
polysaccharides to maltose (disaccharide).
Starch + water

amylase

maltose

(b) Maltase hydrolyses maltose to glucose

Maltose + water

maltase

glucose + glucose

(c) Lactase hydrolyses lactose to glucose and galactose

Lactose + water

lactase

glucose + galactose

(d) Sucrase hydrolyses sucrose to glucose and fructose

sucrase
Sucrose + water

glucose + fructose

(e) Maltase, lactase and sucrase are found in the intestinal juice.
5

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Digestion in Ruminants and Rodents

The Digestive System of a Ruminant
1. Digestive process:
(a) Food mixed with saliva and then digested by symbiotic
microorganisms.
(b) Fatty acid and glucose produced are absorbed into rumen, then to
the reticulum and form cud.
(c) Cud is regurgitated into the mouth to be re-chewed then reswallowed into omasum and water is absorbed.
(d) It is then passed into the abomasums.
(e) In abomasum, hydrochloric acid and protease are secreted to digest
the proteins of the grass and also of the microorganisms.
(f) Chyme from abomasums enter small intestine where the rest of the
digestion continues.
(g) Absorption takes place in the lower half of the small intestine.
(h) In large intestine, water, some vitamins and minerals are
absorbed.

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

The Digestive System of Rat, a Rodent

1. The main structures and organs of a rat are:
(a) Oral cavity
(b) Salivary glands
(c) Pharynx
(d) Oesophagus
(e) Stomach
(f) Small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum)
(g) Caecum
(h) Large intestine (colon, rectum, anus)
2. Rodents have a relatively large caecum containing symbiotic bacteria
that help to digest cellulose, releasing nutrients.
3. All nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine and then faeces are
removed for the first time.
4. The faeces are being re-eat again because they still contain a lot of
nutrients and undigested food.
5. Therefore, the faeces will enter the alimentary system for the second time
to be re-digested.

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Comparison Between The Digestive Process in Humans, Ruminants and

Rodents

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Problems of Food Digestion

Incomplete Digestion of Food
1. Incomplete digestion of food causes indigestion.
2. Cause of indigestion:
a) Swallowing food without sufficient chewing
b) Eating too much
c) Intake of too much of fatty and spicy food
d) Excessive consumption of alcohol
e) Underscretion of certain digestive enzymes
f) Insufficient bile salts
3. Effect
a) The absorption of nutrients decreases
b) Uncomfortable in the abdomen such as nausea, bloating and
frequent burping
c) The release of internal toxins which increase the load to the
kidneys, liver and immune system.

10

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Gallstones Preventing the Flow of Bile

1. Bile contains water, cholesterol, fats, bile salts, proteins and bilirubin.
2. If the liquid bile contains too much cholesterol. Bile salts or
bilirubin, it can harden into gallstone.
3. When gallstones get stuck in any of the ducts that carry bile from the
liver to the small intestine, they block the flow of bile.
4. It may also block pancreatic duct causing gallstone pancreatitis.

11

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

ABSORPTION AND ASSIMILATION

Adaptations of the Digestive System for Absorption
1. Absorption of digested food:
(a) takes place in the small intestine
(b) starts in the duodenum and is completed in the ileum
2. The adaptations of the small intestine to absorb digested food are:
(a) A large surface area with
i.

Small intestine is long

ii. wall of the small intestine is folded inwards

iii. the inner surface of the small intestine is covered with
finger-like projections called villi.
iv. the epithelial cells of each villus are covered with microvilli.
(b) the microvilli is one-cell thick
(c) a comprehensive network of blood capillaries (capillary
network) within each villus to transport away absorbed nutrient
molecules all over the body.
(d) the lacteal within each villus transports away fatty acids,
glycerol and oil-soluble vitamins.

12

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

The Structure of Villus

1. A villus is covered with epithelium. In the middle of a villus is a milky

white structure called lacteal. The lacteal is continuous with lymphatic
vessels.
2. Surrounding each lacteal is a network of blood capillaries. The blood
capillaries of all villi drain into a vein called the hepatic portal vein.
3. Water & water-soluble substances such as simple sugars (glucose,
fructose and galactose), amino acids, mineral ions vitamin B and C are
absorbed into the blood capillaries. The hepatic vein then carries these
food substances to the liver.
4. Fatty acids and glycerol diffuse into the epithelial cells of villi where they
combine to form fat droplets. The fat droplets are then deposited into the
lacteal, giving it a milky appearance.
5. Other lipids such as cholesterol and lipid-soluble vitamins such as
vitamin A, D, E and K are also deposited into the lacteal.

13

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Absorption in the Colon

1. The colon:
(a) has no digestive activity
(b) has no villi but the epithelium lining of its mucosa is for
absorption
2. The colon absorbs
(a) water
(b) vitamins, including biotin, folic acid, vitamin K, and several B
vitamins produced by bacteria.
(c) electrolytes/minerals like sodium and chloride
3. Nutrients absorbed are transported to the liver via the hepatic portal
vein.

14

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Functi

ons of the Liver

1. Functions of liver:
(a) Remove and stores iron and vitamins A, D, E, and K
(b) Makes plasma protein (albumin, globulin, fibrinogen, prothrombin
and haemoglobin)
(c) Detoxifies poisonous substances (e.g. alcohol, drugs, traces of
insecticides, herbicides and other toxic chemicals)
(d) Maintain a constant blood glucose level at 80mg/100ml of blood
(convert glucose to glycogen or vice versa)
(e) Converts amino acids to glucose (when body runs out of glucose)
(f) Maintain a constant blood amino acid level (excess amino acid is
converted into urea, while remainder of amino acid is changed into
carbohydrate)
(g) Regulation of lipids (excess lipids are removed from the body,
changed into carbohydrates or sent to fat storage sites)

15

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

(h) Removes haemoglobin molecules that are old or die (haemoglobin

is converted into bile pigments while the iron is saved up)
(i) Produce bile
(j) Produce heat
(k) Produce cholesterol

16

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Assimilation of Food
The Process of Assimilation in the Liver
Amino Acids
Amino acids have to pass through the liver before they reach the blood
circulatory system.
The liver synthesizes plasma proteins from amino acids.
Plasma proteins have various functions, for example, blood clotting and
osmoregulation.
When a short supply of glucose and glycogen occurs, the liver converts
amino acids into glucose.
Excess amino acids connot be stored in the body and are broken down in
the liver through a process called deamination.
During deamination, urea, the common nitrogenous waste product of
humans, is produced and transported to the kidneys to be excreted.

17

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Glucose
Glucose in the liver is used for respiration. According to the needs of the
body, excess glucose is converted into glycogen and stored in the liver.
When the blood sugar level falls and the body, the stored glycogen is
converted back into glucose.
Once the glycogen store in the liver is full, excess glucose is converted
into lipids by the liver.
Lipids
Lipids which enter the heart through the subclavian veins are transported
in the bloodstream to body cells.

18

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

The Process of Assimilation in the Cells

Amino acids
Amino acids which enter the cells are used for the synthesis of
new protoplasm and the repair of damaged tissues.
They are also important building blocks in the synthesis of
enzymes and hormones.
Amino acids are also used in the synthesis of proteins of plasma
membrane.
Glucose
When the glucose molecules reach the body cells, they are oxidized
to release energy during cellular respiration.
Energy is required for the various chemical processes which take
place in the cell, for example, in muscle contraction and synthesis
of proteins.
Excess glucose is also stored as glycogen is a long-chained
carbohydrate molecule that is insoluble in water.
Lipids
Lipids such as phospholipids and cholesterol are major components
of plasma membranes
Fats that are stored around organs act as cushions that protect
organs from injuries.
Excess fats are stored in the adipose tissue underneath the skin as
reserve energy.
When the body lacks glucose, fats are oxidized to release energy.

19

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

FORMATION OF FAECES AND DEFECATION

Colon
1. The intestinal contents consist of a mixture of water, undigested food
substances, dead cells and dead bacteria and indigestible fibre.
2. Movement of undigested materials is helped by peristalsis.
3. The colon reabsorbs almost 90% of water and minerals into the
bloodstream.
4. The remaining will form the faeces.
Rectum
1. The faeces pass to the rectum for temporary storage.
2. As the faeces accumulate, pressure in the rectum increases, causing a
desire to expel the faeces from the body.
Defecation
1. The elimination of faeces is known as defecation.
2. The muscles around the anus, the opening of the rectum will contract
and eject the faeces via the anus.

20

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Defecation Related Problems

1. Three most common defecation related problems are:
(a) constipation
(b) colon cancer
(c) haemorrhoids
2. Constipation
Condition where faeces becomes hard, dry, and difficult to pass and
bowel movements do not happen very often.
3. Colon cancer
A type of cancer that develops in the tissues of the colon. It is cause
by carcinogens and eating a high fat, low fibre diet.
4. Hemorrhoids
Condition where the veins around the anus or lower rectum is
swollen and inflamed. It can be caused by prolonged constipation or
diarrhoea.
5. The importance of high fibre diets:
(a) prevents constipation, colon cancers and haemorrhoids
(b) stimulates peristalsis
(c) helps in weight control through the stomach-full feeling
(d) reduces heart disease
(e) absorbs and eliminates toxic substances
(f) regulates glucose absorption for diabetics
(g) prevents cancers of the colon and of the rectum

21

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

The Role of Microorganisms in the Colon

The colon plays host to two groups of bacteria:
(a) Beneficial or good bacteria
(b) Pathogenic or bad bacteria
Beneficial Bacteria
1. Examples

of

beneficial

bacteria are

Bacteroides,

Lactobacillus

acidophilus and Escherichia coli.

2. Functions are:
(a) digesting fragments of carbohydrate, protein and lipid that were
not digested in the small intestine
(b) fermenting cellulose fibres that were indigestible in the stomach and
in the small intestine
(c) producing amino acids and vitamins K and B-complex.
(d) producing antibiotic that controls the growth of pathogenic bacteria
3. Specific example:
(a) Escherichia coli feed on undigested material, producing gases and
vitamins K and B-complex (which are absorbed by the body).
(b) Lactobacillus acidophilus excretes the antibiotic acidophillin,
protecting us against the bad bacteria.

22

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Pathogenic Bacteria
1. Pathogenic bacteria of the large intestine:
(a) cause disease that make us sick
(b) putrefy undigested protein
(c) produce carcinogens
2. Carcinogens increase the risk of contracting colon cancer.
3. Examples of bad bacteria are certain strains of Eschericia coli and
Clostridia, which produce carcinogens.

The Effect of Antibiotics on Microorganisms in the Colon

1. Antibiotics are a group of drugs commonly taken to treat bacterial
infections.
2. Antibiotics kill bad bacteria, but good bacteria as well.
3. If beneficial bacteria is completely killed, pathogenic bacteria will
repopulate the colon rapidly, bringing about an infection.

23

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Health Problems Related To Eating Habits

A) Gastritis
1. Gastritis is the inflammation of the lining of the stomach wall.
2. There are various causes of gastritis:
a) Irregular meals when a person skips a certain meal the stomach
will be empty. The aciic gastric juice produce by the stomach will
act on the lining of the stomach instead, gradually corroding it.
Sometimes gastric ulcers are also formed.
b) Excessive smoking
c) Alcoholism
d) Stress
e) Insufficient chewing if food is not chewed properly, the stomach
wall will be burdened to churn food more thoroughly to break up
the food.
f) Prolonged intake of drugs such as painkillers.
g) Helicobacter pylori bacteria which break down the mucus on the
surface of stomach lining, exposing the lining to the direct action of
gastric juices.
3. Gastritis can be treated by antacids. Antacids contain alkalis which
can neutralise the hydrochloric acid in gastric juice.

24

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

B) Obesity
1. When a person eats more than the body needs, excess food will be stored
in the body as fats. This can lead to obesity.
2. A person is said to be obese if his/her body weight exceeds the right
weight for his/her height by 20% or more.
3. BMI (Body Mass Index) can be calculated using the following formula:
BMI =

masskg
2
height m

A BMI of 18.5 24.9 is considered ideal. A person is said to be obese if

his BMI is 30 or more.
4.

Obesity predisposes a person to various health problems such as high

blood pressure, heart diseases and disbetes mellitus. However, obesity
can be overcome by watching ones diet and exercising regularly to help
burn off fat.

25

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

C) Anorexia nervosa
1. Anorexia nervosa is characterised by the loss of the desire to eat, due to
an obsession of maintaining a slim body. It is more common among
young single females.
2. An anorexic intentionally starves herself and will therefore become
emaciated over time. She has a low basal metabolic rate and her
mentruation may stop
3. If untreated, an anorexic patient may ultimately die of severe
undernourishment and malfunctioning of organ systems.
4. Treament consists of psychological therapy and regulation of diets.

26

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

D) Bulimia
1.

Like anorexia nerosa, bulilia typically affects young females.

2.

It is characterised by uncontrollable overeating followed by forced

purgin or vomiting.

3.

Out of fear of being overweight, a bulimic patient who has been binging
may induce voiting by digging into her throat or by taking purgatives.
Bulimia can cause undernourishment. It can aso lead to kidney and liver
problem and hormonal imbalance.

4.

Stress and depression are among the underlying factors. Thus, the
treatment of bulimia includes medical treatment coupled with
counselling.

27

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Photosynthesis
A) Macronutrients and Micronutrients for Plants

Macronutrients
Mineral
elements

Functions

Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen

Effects of deficiency

Stunted growth (deficiency is

rare)

These elements are the components are the

components of carbohydrates in plants
Oxygen is needed for respiration

Nitrogen

For the synthesis of proteins

For building protoplasm
For the synthesis of chlorophyll
For the synthesis of nucleic acids

Yellowing of leaves
(chlorosis)

Magnesium

For the synthesis of chlorophyll

Activates respiratory enzymes

Chlorosis
Death of parts of or entire
leaf

Phosphorus

For the synthesis of proteins, ATP and

nucleic acids
Needed for cell division
For growth and maturation
For ripening of fruits

Dark green leaves with red

spots
Stunted growth and slow
maturation
Slow fruit ripening

Needed for the synthesis of proteins and

starch
Stimulates cell division
Activates enzymes

Chlorosis
Death of leaf margin and tip
Stunted growth
Soft stem

For the synthesis of proteins and nucleic

acids
For cell division

Pale leaves
Leaves fall off easily
Stunted root growth

Potassium

Sulphur

28

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Micronutrients
Mineral
elements

Functions

Effects of deficiency

Needed for carbohydrate metabolism

For normal cell division in meristems
Helps in the translocation of sugars in
plants

As a component of enzymes in
photosynthesis and respiration
Needed for nitrogen metabolism
Needed for flower formation

Ferum

For the synthesis of chlorophyll

As a component of respiratory enzyme

Manganese

Activates enzymes in photosynthesis and

respiration

Molybdenum

Needed for the synthesis of amino acids

Involved in nitrogen fixation

Boron

Copper

Zinc

29

Needed for carbohydrate metabolism

For the synthesis of auxin which is
needed for plant growth

Stunted and abnormal

growth
Death of shoot tips
Curled leaves which
break easily
Stunted and abnormal
growth
Death of shoot tips
Brown spots on young
leaves
Chlorosis in regions in
between veins of young
Leaves with yellow
patches
Chlorosis in regions
between the veins for
mature leaves
Slightly stunted growth
Stunted growth
Mottled leaves
Leaves with yellow
patches

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

B) Adaptation of leaf for optimal photosynthesis
1. The arrangement of leaves on a plant ensures minimal overlapping, so that each leaf
can receive sunlight. Such an arrangement is called a leaf mosaic.

2. Leaves are usually horizontal and broad for maximum light absorption. This
provides leaves with a large surface area for the absorption of sunlight and carbon
dioxide.
3. Leaves are also typically thin. This allows sunlight and carbon dioxide to reach every
mesophyll cell in the leaf easily.
4. The internal structure of a dicot leaf is as shown.

5. There are openings called stomata on the epidermis, especially the lower epidermis.
Stomata allow gases to enter the leaf since the cuticle is impermeable to gases. The
opening and closing of stomata are controlled by a pair of guard cells.
6. In dicot leaves, the mesophyll is divided into palisade mesophyll and spongy
mesophyll.
a. The palisade mesophyll lies just below the upper epidermis. It receives plenty of
sunlight. Cells of the palisade mesophyll are rich in chloroplasts. They are
cylindrical and are closely packed vertically to enable them to absorb maximum
sunlight.

30

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

b. The spongy mesophyll lies beneath the palisade mesophyll and receive less
sunlight as light has to pass through the palisade mesophyll first. Thus, cells of
the spongy mesophyll contain fewer chloroplasts. The spongy mesophyll cells are
spherical and loosely arranged with intercellular spaces in between them.
7. Stomata and all the spaces in the spongy mesophyll form a ventilation system which
allows gaseous exchange to occur between the leaf and the surrounding air.
8. The midrib and veins also contain vascular tissues, namely xylem and phloem.
a. Xylem - It transports water and minerals to the mesophyll cells for
photosynthesis.
b. Phloem It transports the products of photosynthesis from the leaves to all
parts of the plant

31

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

C) Adaptation of plants from different habitats to carry out photosynthesis

Type of
Example of
Distribution of stomata
Distribution of chloroplasts
habitat
plant
Terrestrial
Hibiscus
Stomata found mostly on the lower
Most chloroplasts are found
habitat with
epidermis which is shaded from
in the palisade mesophyll for
sufficient
direct sunglight.
maximum light absorption.
water supply
This allows the plant to absorb
Spongy mesophyll has
carbon dioxide without losing too
chloroplasts too, but less than
much water
polisade mesophyll as it
receives less light compared
to palisade mesophyll
Floating on
Water lily
Stomata are found on the upper
Most chloroplasts are found
water
epidermis as lower epidermis is in
in the palisade mesophyll,
water.
and less in the spongy
mesophyll
Leaves are broad and hence have a
larger number of stomata.
The upper epidermis is covered with
a thick culticle to prevent loss of
water from epidermal cells
Total
Hydrilla
No stomata on leaves
Chloroplasts are evenly
immersion in
distributed among the cells in
Leaves have no cuticle as the plant is
water
the leaves.
in water and there is no risk of
Chloroplasts are also found in
water loss
the stems for additional light
Gaseous exchange can occur
absorption
throughout the leaf surface. Hence
there is no need for stomata
Dry areas such Cactus
Most of the leaves are modified to Chloroplasts are found in the
as deserts
form thorns to reduce loss of water
cells of the stem.
Most of the stomata are found on the Chloroplasts are also found on
stem. The stem is covered with a
green thorns
thick cuticle.
Some desert plants have a few
Many desert plants have sunken
leaves. In these leaves, the
stomata to reduce the loss of water
chloroplasts are distributed
by transpiration.
mainly in the palisade
mesophyll and less in the
Desert plants open their stomata at
spongy mesophyll.
night to absorb carbon dioxide and
store it in the plant. During the
day, they close their stomata and
use the stored carbon dixiode for
photosynthesis.

32

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

The Mechanism of Photosynthesis

33

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

The light reaction
1. During the light reaction, chlorophyll in the grana absorbs light energy. The absorbed
energy activates chlorophyll and causes it to release high energy electrons.
2. At the same time, the absorption of light energy also causes water in the chlorophyll
to dissociate to hydrogen ion and hydroxide ion.
3. Each hydrogen ion receives an electron from the chlorophyll to become a hydrogen
atom. The hydrogen atom will enter the dark reaction.
4. ATP is produced during this reaction.
The dark reaction
1. In the dark reaction, carbon dioxide which has diffused into leaves combines with
hydrogen from the light reaction. After a series of reaction catalyzed by enzymes,
glucose is formed. The energy needed for this process is provided by ATP, which is
formed during the light reaction.
2. Combining all the equations above into a single equation, we get:
24H2O + 6CO2

34

C6H12O6 + 18H2O + 6O2

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

1.

2.

35

The three main factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis are:

(a) light intensity
(b) carbon dioxide concentration
(c) temperature
The factor which is the shortest supply and affects the overall rate of
photosynthesis is called the limiting factor.

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

36

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

37

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

1.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

The Rate of Photosynthesis throughout the Day

When the sun rises, light intensity and the temperature of the surroundings gradually
increase, peaks at midday and gradually decrease until sunset.
Generally throughout the day, the rate of photosynthesis is:
(a) much higher on hot sunny day (A) than cool cloudy day (B)
(b) because of a higher rate of enzyme reaction (due to the higher temperature) and a
higher light intensity (required for the light reaction)
In the morning, both graph A and B increase in the rate of photosynthesis.
Then, both gradually slow down and the maximum is reach sometime after sunrise.
The maximum rates are constant between late morning, midday and early afternoon.
The maximum rate of photosynthesis for A may be caused by either of these limiting
factors: temperature, light intensity and CO2 concentration.
For B, the limiting factor is either temperature or light intensity.
A few hours before sunset, the rates of photosynthesis of A and B gradually drop, then
decrease rapidly and ending gradually until after sunset (X).
The portion X indicates that the dark reaction of photosynthesis is still taking place,
although there is no more sunlight.

38

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Increasing the Productivity of Crops
1. Countries which experiencing four seasons, light intensity and temperature that are
not constant affecting the crop production in these countries.
2. Therefore, they use the knowledge of how the factors affect the rate of photosynthesis.
Hence, greenhouses are introduced.
3. It can prevent damage brought about by strong winds, rain and hailstorms.

39

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Technology Used in Food Production

A) Direct seeding for rice
1. Seed are sown directly into the paddy field using special drills. No transplanting
is needed later on.
2. The advantages of direct seeding include:
i.
Less damage to the paddy plants as the method does not involve
transplanting.
ii.
Shorter maturation time, allowing planting of more than one crop in a
year.
iii.
Saves labour and the cost of production.
B) Hydroponics and aeroponics
1. Hydroponics and aeroponics are two methods are two methods of planting
without using soil. They are usually used for growing vegetables.
2. In hydroponics, the plants are placed in special containers, with their roots
immersed in a culture solution to provide all the macro- and micronutrient needed
by the plants.

3. The plants are supported by sand or pebbles in the containers. The culture
solution in the containers is replenished constantly as minerals are gradually
depleted by the plants and must be aerated to supply oxygen for plant roots to
respire.
4. In the aeroponics, the vegetables are supported by some framework with their roots
suspended in mid-air in an enclosed chamber.
5. The exposed roots are sprayed with complete culture solution and water alternately
from time to time. The complete culture solution provides all the mineral nutrients
needed by the plants.

40

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

6. The advantages of hydroponics and aeroponics are

a) No soil or land is needed
b) Space-saving since the vegetable can be planted close together.
c) Temperature, light intensity and pests can be easily monitored and controlled.
d) Vegetables are provided with all the mineral nutrients they need. Hence, they are
likely to produce better yield.

41

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

C) Selectively Breeding
1. Selective breeding is a method of producing good crop plants or farm animals by
crossing parent plants or animals of desirable characteristics.
2. Desirable characteristics include high yield, shorter maturation time, resistance to
pests and diseases, and higher nutritional value.
3. An example of selective breeding of crop plant is seen in the breeding of oil palm.

4. In oil palm, desirable characteristics include a thick mesocarp and big kernel (oil-rich
parts of the fruit), and a thin shell (which makes cracking easier).
5. The Dura oil palm fruit has a thin mesocarp (undesirable), a big kernel (desirable) and
a thick shell (undesirable). On the other hand, the Pisifera oil palm fruit hasa thick
mesocarp (desirable), thin shell (desirable) but a small kernel (undesirable).
6. The two varieties were successfully crossed to produce a new and ideal variety called
the Tenera. The Tenera oil palm fruit has a thick mesocarp, a thin shell and a big
kernel.

D) Tissue culture
1. In this technique, plant cells or tissues are stimulated to divide mitotically to form
entire crop plants (clones) which are identical to the parent plant.
2. All the plants produced by tissue culture are identical to one another and to the parent
plant because they are the result of mitosis.

E) Genetic engineering
1. Genetic engineering is a technique whereby a gene which codes for a certain
desirable characteristic is inserted into the DNA of organisms, so that it possesses
that desirable characteristic. For example, a gene which codes for resistance to
diseases can be inserted into the DNA of a crop plant so that it will become resistant
to diseases. Other desired good characteristics include high yield and short maturation
time.
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Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

2. Genetic engineering has successfully produced a variety of wheat which contains
high-quality proteins, soy beans which contain all essential amino acids, and golden
rice which is rich in beta-carotene.
3. Genetically engineered organisms (organisms which have received foreign genes) are
known as transgenic organisms. Foods produced by means of genetic engineering are
called genetically-modified food (GMF).

F) Biological control
1. Biological control is the control of pests by using their natural enemies or
predators. For example, rats in oil palm estates can be controlled by rearing owls or
snakes to eat them. Biological control does not pollute the environment. It is also costeffective.

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Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Technological Development in Food Processing

A) The necessity for food processing
1. Food processing means physically and/or chemically treating food and altering their
natural state.
2. There is necessity to process food.
a) To prevent spoilage and wastage of food.
b) To make food last longer so that it can be transported over long distances.
c) To ensure that food is available the whole year round.
d) To prevent food poisoning caused by consumption of spoil food.
e) To make food more attractive to consumers and hence increase its commercial
value.
f) To diversify the users of food. For example, milk can be made into cheese,
yoghurt, butter and chocolate; while soy bean can be made into beancurd, soya
bean powder and soy sauce.

B) Methods used in food processing

Methods
Technique to prevent food spoilage
Cooking
High temperature in cooking kills microorganisms
and denatures enzymes needed to break down food.
Foods should be cooked thoroughly to ensure all the
microorganisms in them are killed
Using salt,
The addition of sugar or salt gives rise to a
sugar or
hypertonic solution. Any microorganisms present in
vinegar
the food will lose water to the hypertonic solution
by osmosis and die of dehydration. Vinegar contains
acetic acid. Its low pH can kill microorganisms that
may be present in food.
Fermentation Yeats is added to food to cause fermentation, which
produces ethanol that kills other microorganisms.
Drying
When food is dried, the microorganisms in it are
either killed or will form spores which are inactive.
Drying can be down under the hot sun or through
mechanical means like in an oven.
Pasteurization Milk is either heated at a temperature of 63oC for 30
minutes, or 72oC for 15 seconds, followed by
immediate cooling. Pasteurization is better than
boiling because it helps preserve the nutrients in
milk, pasteurized milk has a limited lifespan or
shelf-life. Pasteurized foods can be kept for about a
week in a refrigerator.
Canning
In the canning process, food is first sterilized at a
high temperature of 121oC under high pressure and
44

Can be used on
Meat, fish

Salt: Fish, eggs and

vegetables
Sugar: Fruits
Vinegar: Onion and ginger

Tapioca, soya beans

Drying by hot sun:
anchovies, shrimps and
squids
Drying by oven: milk and
flour
Milk, yoghurt and fruit
juices.

Meat, fish, fruits and

vegetables

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

Refrigeration
Irradiation

Ultra-heat
treatment

Vacuumpacking or
packing in
nitrogen
The use of
antioxidants

45

then sealed. The high temperature kills

microorganisms and destroys their spores. Hence,
canned foods have a long shelf-life of up to three
years
Low temperatures make microorganisms which can
cause food spoilage to be inactive
Food is exposed to ionizing radiation to destroy any
microorganism or insects that may be present in the
food. Irradiation damages the DNA of
microorganisms and insects, preventing
proliferation. It also helps delay the ripening of
fruits, reducing spoilage during transportation.
Milk is heated to an ultra-high temperature of 132oC
or higher for 2 seconds. All the microorganisms as
well as their spores are killed. UHT foods need no
refrigeration as they have been completely sterilized.
However, this method alters food flavor and
decreases the nutritional value of food
Food is packed in vacuum or in nitrogen gas to
prevent oxidation. Nitrogen is an inactive gas and
does not cause chemical changes to the food.
Aerobic microorganisms are unable to proliferate in
the absence of oxygen.
Antioxidants are chemicals such as BHA (butylated
hydroxyanisole) that prevent oxidation in food.

Meat, fish and fruits

Fruits

Milk

Nuts and potato chips

Cheese spread and soup

mixes

Form 4 Chapter 6 Nutrition (b)

1.

2.

3.
4.
5.

6.

C) The effects of processed food on health

Food processing methods such as ultra-heat treatment and canning can decrease the
nutritional value of food since vitamins and some other nutrients in the food are
destroyed by high temperature.
Additives used in food processing can be harmful to health as shown by many
laboratory tests. Nitrates and nitrites that are used in bacon, ham and sausages have
been found to be carcinogenic.
Eating too much of foods preserved in salt or sugar can lead to high blood pressure
and diabetes mellitus.
BHA has been found to raise blood cholesterol level, leading to cardiovascular
diseases. It has also been found to produce tumors in rats.
The coloring tartrazine, used in soft drinks has been found to induce allergic
reactions such as asthma and rhinitis. Sunset Yellow, used in biscuits, has been found
to damage kidneys and adrenal glands in some animals.
Monosodium glutamate has been associated with headaches, asthma and chest pain.

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