Cogniie, Creier, Comportament / Cognition, Brain, Behavior

Copyright 2008 Romanian Association for Cognitive Science. All rights reserved.
ISSN: 1224-8398
Volume XII, No. 1 (March), 57 - 69

COUNSELING IN SCHOOLS.
A RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOR THERAPY
(REBT)
BASED INTERVENTION
- A PILOT STUDY Sebastian VAIDA*, va KLLAY & Adrian OPRE
Department of Psychology, Babe-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

ABSTRACT
During the last five decades, Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) (Ellis,
1955) clearly revealed its efficiency and flexibility beyond the clinical settings. An
adapted form of the clinical model in educational environment is the Rational
Emotive Behavior Education (REBE). By its structure and strategies, REBE strongly
emphasizes the prophylactic value of the entire paradigm. In the present pilot study
we addressed the matter of such an educational program and tested its efficiency in
the Romanian high schools. We intended to decrease students irrationality and offer
them the chance to develop a more adaptive life philosophy, by changing the way
they see and perceive things. To reach this goal, we used an experimental design
with repeated measures. The results clearly confirm our hypotheses and sustain the
possibility of achieving significant changes in the belief systems, emotions and
behaviors, by using an REBE intervention.

KEYWORDS: rational emotive behavior education; school counseling; rational and

irrational thinking style.

REBT stands for Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, a form of

psychological counseling first developed by Albert Ellis in the late 1950s. Its
foundations may be found in the writings of Stoics as Epicure and Epictetus.
Around 500 B.C., Epictetus stated that It's not what happens to us, but how we
react to it that matters (Epictet, 2002). In other words, it is not an event that
*

Corresponding author:
E-mail: sebastianvaida@psychology.ro

S. Vaida, . Kllay, A. Opre

58

troubles us, but our perception and the interpretation we give to that particular
event. The basic idea of this form of therapy is that we are the only ones
responsible for the way we (decide to) feel, thus suggesting that we have, to a
considerable degree, control over our thoughts (Ellis, 1979b). In a very simple, yet
effective model called the ABC, Ellis (1979a, 1985) outlined an application for his
theory, so that anyone could use it to identify and control his/her thoughts and then
change them, thus achieving more adaptive and functional emotions, and
behaviors. On the one hand, ABC stands for the first letters of the alphabet, thus
proving its simplicity and clarity, and on the other hand, it is an abbreviation. A
stands for the Activating Event (it refers to any real, external event, imaginative or
internal event, or even an inference about an event) (Dryden, 2002) that might
occur and trigger an idea or a series of thoughts or beliefs. B stands for Beliefs,
and it represents the evaluations and interpretations of the particular event. These
beliefs may be Rational (Self Helping) or Irrational (Self Defeating). They are
considered to be rational when (i) they help us in achieving our goals, (ii) they can
be verified in reality, and (iii) they are logical. By the same token, thoughts are
considered to be irrational when they dont meet these criteria. Last but not least,
C stands for the consequences that might appear due to the thoughts and beliefs
that one has. These consequences are observable through the individuals emotions
or behaviors, and can be adaptive or maladaptive. An irrational thinking pattern,
once stabilized may lead to different forms of severe intra- and inter-personal
functioning (depression, anxiety, uncontrollable anger, conflict, etc.) (Martin &
Dahlen, 2004).
The basic idea of the REBT theory is that by changing ones irrational
beliefs into more flexible and rational ones, one may achieve a significant change
in the emotional and behavioral consequences, by changing them into more
adaptive ones (Davies, 2006). In a simple scheme, the ABC model can be
presented as follows (see Figure 1). For a more detailed description of the ABC
model and the REBT, see Dryden and Giuseppe (1990).

A
Activating event
External

Internal

Beliefs
Rational or functional

Consequences

(preference, objective evaluation,

self-acceptance, moderate frustration
tolerance)

Emotional or behavioral
Adaptive

Irrational or dysfunctional
(demandingness, awfullising, selfdowning, low frustration tolerance)

Figure 1.
The ABC model (Ellis, 1979).

Cognition, Brain, Behavior 12 (2008) 57-69

Maladaptive

S. Vaida, . Kllay, A. Opre

59

Rational Emotive Behavior Education represents a psycho-educational

preventive intervention program addressed to students. The program lies its
foundations in the ideas of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy.
An REBE system is characterized by a remarkable flexibility, which
allows it to be relatively easy to adapt and use in counseling diverse populations.
Thus, the program has proved its efficiency in counseling adolescents, students,
youth in general, both overgifted students and students with special needs
(intellectual deficiency, orphans, juvenile delinquency, etc.). An REBE program is
composed of modular sequences of psychological education intended to develop
students cognitive and behavioral competencies that will allow them to become
more productive and happier at the same time. Back in the origins, the program
was designed in the purpose of mental health optimization through group
counseling; nevertheless, properly adapted, it can be just as efficient when used in
individual therapy and counseling with children, adolescents and adults. Analyzing
the diversity and severity of some of the problems adolescents deal with in schools,
we have to agree that implementing such efficient programs has become nowadays
more necessary than ever (Opre & David, 2006).
We started this study with the intent of seeing whether Rational Emotive
Behavior Education (REBE), derived from Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy
(REBT), could be used as an efficient educational counseling method within the
Romanian cultural norms. This is due to the fact that the current Romanian
undergraduate educational system either does not offer any viable counseling
method, or the presently used ones are not efficient enough (Opre, 2006).
Nevertheless, the REBE is a very useful method, because it can be easily learned,
taught, and then applied to virtually any student within and outside the educational
system. It is also very direct, time and cost-efficient, for it takes a very short time
to teach it, understand it, and then apply it in all sorts of environments (Bernard &
Ellis, 1983).
The first problem that we encountered after we had begun working with
students was their lack of familiarity with argumentative discussions and polemics.
Romanian students are usually used to obey to their teachers instructions, and
reproduce what has been said (unconditionally accept whatever the teachers tell
them, without asking any explanations for their unanswered questions). However,
the reasons for using REBE go far beyond this issue, because the irrational ideas
that REBE attempts to change relate precisely to many of the problems students
have to deal with nowadays: egocentrism, uncertainty, a global evaluation of
themselves, in terms of the achieved performance, exaggerating (awfullising)
events, self-defeating behaviors (Nucci, 2002). If we really want to help young
adults overcome their practical or emotional problems, one has to teach them how
to successfully change their dysfunctional thoughts and beliefs, thus changing
behaviors as well; otherwise, any prevention efforts are almost useless (Ellis,
2005).
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60

In sum, we can present the purposes of REBE as it follows: helping

students become more aware of their inner dialogue by teaching them how to think
more rationally; teaching students to evaluate their own thoughts so they get less
disturbing emotions; teaching students how to use rational emotive principles so
they can more easily reach their objectives (Gonzales et al., 2004). And, last but
not least, help them achieve a more adaptive life philosophy (Robb & Harold,
2001).
The major aim of our study is to investigate the possible benefic effects of
an REBE intervention on 11th grader Romanian students, by changing their
irrational thinking patterns into more adaptive rational ones, thus achieving a better
emotional and overall functioning. More precisely, we intended to evaluate the
possible positive consequences of a program built on the tenets of cognitive
restructuring on emotional and behavioral experiences.
Consequently, we formulated the following hypotheses: by applying an
REBT based intervention, participants in the experimental group would experience
lower levels of irrationality than participants in the control group; more
specifically, significantly lower levels of (1) demandingness, (2) awfullising, (3)
low frustration tolerance, and (4) self-downing.
METHOD
Participants
Our study comprised an experimental and a control group, both consisting
of 11 graders from two different high schools in the same city (Cluj-Napoca,
Romania). The experimental group consisted of 48 participants (24 males, 24
females), aged 17 19 (mean age =18.02 years, while the control group consisted
of 24 participants (11 males, 13 females), aged 17 19 (mean age =18.14 years),
both groups belonging to urban areas. All the participants gave their consent for
participating in this study.
th

Materials
In order to measure the general level of irrationality and other specific
aspects such as the level of tolerance, the level of self-esteem, etc., we used the
Attitude Beliefs Scale II (ABS II) adapted to Romanian population (Macavei,
2002). The scale consists of 72 items (36 of them measures rational beliefs and the
other 36 irrational beliefs). The items are arranged in a matrix consisting of three
factors: (1) cognitive processes, with four levels of irrational thinking
(demandingness, awfullising, low frustration tolerance, and self-downing), (2)
content areas (approval, achievement and comfort), and (3) items formulating
rational and/or irrational thoughts. For the intervention stage we used Vernons
Emotional Curriculum for Adolescents.

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61

Experimental design and procedure

After the pretest phase (assessment with ABS II), we moved on to the
introductory phase, which meant presenting the students the basics of Rational
Emotive Behavior Therapy and Rational Emotive Behavior Education (rational vs.
irrational thinking styles, the ABC model, activating events, rational vs. irrational
beliefs, emotional or behavioral consequences, functional vs. dysfunctional
negative emotions, etc; for more information on this matter, see Ellis, 1972; Ellis,
1979). After explaining and verifying their understanding of the ABC model and
the REBT foundations, we moved further to the applications, based on several
resources: Vernons Emotional Curriculum for Adolescents (Vernon, 1989),
Bedells Handbook for Communication (Bedell & Lennox, 1997). The posttest
(assessment with ABS II) has been done 6 months after the intervention.
In fact, the experimental method consisted of a basic experimental design,
with repeated measures. The independent variable was the REBE program, and the
dependent variable was the level of irrationality. The intervention itself consisted
of a 6 months educational program developed in two 1 hour meetings every week.
Before implementing a selective, adapted REBE program, we first assessed all
students basic level of irrationality, as defined by REBT. The program was
structured similar to an alternative curriculum, inspired from Vernons application
to REBT (Vernon, 1989, 1993, 1997). We called it Rational Emotive Behavior
Education. For a more detailed example, see Appendix 1 and 2.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
For the pre-intervention homogeneity of the two groups (1 - experimental
and 2 - control) we have conducted an independent sample t-test on the four levels
of irrationality as measured at T1, as well as on the general level of irrationality
(see Table 1).
Table 1.
Independent samples t-test for homogeneity at T1
SCALES

Group

Mean

St. dev.

Sig.

Demandingness

1 (48)
2 (24)
1 (48)
2 (24)
1 (48)
2 (24)
1 (48)
2 (24)
1 (48)
2 (24)

27.52
30.37
31.10
31.29
22.08
20.95
28.22
30.87
107.93
113.50

8.19
12.61
8.83
11.05
11.92
8.68
8.34
10.02
29.52
36.26

- 1.15

.251

- .49

.632

.43

.664

- 1.18

.240

-.68

.488

Low frustration tolerance

Self downing
Awfulizing
Overall irrationality

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62

Since there have not been found any significant differences between the
experimental (1) and control (2) groups regarding the levels of different aspects of
irrationality, we have proceeded to investigate the possible effects of the
experimental intervention by conducting a paired sample t-test regarding the posttest results (see Table 2).
Table 2.
Paired samples t-test for sub-scales of irrational beliefs and overall irrationality at T1-T2
Group

SCALES

GR 1
(N=48)

Demandingness
Low frustration
tolerance
Self downing
Awfulizing
Overall irrationality

GR 2
(N=24)

Demandingness
Low frustration
tolerance
Self downing
Awfulizing
Overall irrationality

Pre-test
Post-test
Pre
Post
Pre

Mean

St. dev.

Sig.

27.52
23.12
30.10

8.19
11.39
8.83

3.07

.00

3.42

.00

Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre

25.06
22.08
16.79
28.22
20.93
107.93
85.91
30.37
30.41
31.29

12.18
11.02
10.38
8.34
10.07
29.52
37.75
12.61
9.42
11.05

4.20

.00

6.08

.00

5.41

.00

-.20

.98

.74

.46

Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post

29.70
20.95
23.12
30.87
31.166
113.500
113.29

9.43
8.69
11.88
10.02
12.19
36.26
37.60

-.96

.34

-.14

.88

.03

.97

As seen, only in the case of the experimental group did the different levels
of irrationality significantly lower. Demandingness has lowered significantly in the
aftermath of the REBE intervention (t = 3.07 at p<.01), as well as Low Frustration
Tolerance (t = 3.42 at p<.00), Self-downing (t = 4.20 at p<.01), Awfulizing
(t = 6.08 at p<.01). The overall level of irrationality has as well significantly
lowered as a result of this specific type of intervention (t = 5.41 at p<.01). In the
case of the control group the levels of irrationality have not significantly changed.
This means that our counseling program really had a reasonable effect.
The literature has established cut-off points for different levels and
severities of irrationality. Thus, scores on the ABS between 0-91 represent very
low levels of irrationality; between 92-107 low levels, 108-121 moderate levels,
between 122-127 high levels and between 136-288 very high levels of irrationality
(Macavei, 2002).
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63

Since we wanted to see who would most benefit from this specific kind of
intervention, we have a-posteriory divided our experimental group into two
subgroups: those with initial (T1) ABS scores below moderate (108) group 1, and
those with initial (T2) ABS scores above moderate (108) group 2.
Thus, next we have proceeded to paired samples t-test for scores obtained
at T2 (see Table 3) within the experimental group, divided depending on the initial
levels of general irrationality.
Table 3.
Paired-samples t-test for participants with low and high levels of initial irrationality
Group

SCALES

GR 1
(N=24)

Demandingness
Low frustration tolerance
Self downing
Awfulizing
Overall irrationality

GR 2
(N=24)

Demandingness
Low frustration tolerance
Self downing
Awfulizing
Overall irrationality

Pre-test
Post-test
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post

Mean
22.33
16.83
22.83
18.50
16.83
12.45
21.75
15.00
83.75
62.79
31.70
29.41
37.37
31.62
27.33
21.12
34.70
26.87
132.12
109.04

St. dev.
6.24
8.33
5.60
7.27
7.96
6.75
5.46
6.93
15.69
24.43
6.48
10.63
4.19
12.66
11.29
11.64
4.99
9.27
17.72
34.64

Sig.

3.34

.00

3.03

.00

3.22

.00

4.08

.00

4.28

.00

1.91

.06

2.21

.03

2.91

.00

4.45

.00

3.55

.00

As the data suggest, the intervention was successful in both groups,

significantly reducing levels of General Irrationality, as well as the sub-dimensions
of LTF, Self-downing, and Awfulizing (p<.05), except Demandingness, which in
the case of the second group (those students who had a higher level of initial
irrationality), where this sub-dimensions has not significantly changed (t = 1.91, at
p>.05). Even if on this dimension (Demandingness) we have not found significant
changes, a future research might highlight the reasons for such a result.
And finally, we compared whether the differences at T2 between the
groups with lower and higher levels of initial irrationality are significant or not,
with independent samples t-test (see Table 4).

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64

Table 4.
Independent samples t-test for results at T2 in participants with low and high initial levels
of irrationality
SCALES

Group

Mean

St. dev.

Sig.

Demandingness

1 (24)
2 (24)
1 (24)
2 (24)
1 (24)
2 (24)
1 (24)
2 (24)
1 (24)
2 (24)

16.83
29.41
18.50
31.62
12.45
21.12
15.00
26.87
62.79
109.04

8.33
10.63
7.27
12.66
6.75
11.64
6.93
9.27
24.43
34.64

- 4.56

.00

- 4.40

.00

- 3.15

.00

- 5.02

.00

- 5.34

.00

Low frustration tolerance

Self downing
Awfulizing
Overall irrationality

As the above-mentioned table shows, even if the overall and subdimension levels of irrationality in both groups have significantly lowered (see
table 3), the differences at T2 between the two groups are still significant (p <.00).
Namely, the group with lower initial level of irrationality still maintains a
significantly higher level of rationality after the intervention. This result may
suggest the fact that higher initial levels of irrationality might need longer, a more
focused, personalized and need-oriented form of intervention, might reduce the
initial level of irrationality to the post-test level of the other (1) group.
Resuming, the main purpose of the present pilot study was to teach the
participants how to effectively identify and change their irrational thinking patters
so that they might develop a more adaptive life philosophy. Thus, the intervention
mostly targeted the cognitive level, mainly based on the cognitive ABC model. The
other two dimensions of intervention (emotional and behavioral) will be addressed
in a future research that will continue this pilot study. Our future studies will focus
other dimensions of functioning as well, where changes in thinking patterns might
have significant benefits (e.g., levels of affectivity, depression, school
performance, interpersonal relationships, etc.).
The change of irrational thinking patterns was achieved by implementing a
Rational Emotive Behavior Education program on a period of 6 months, on a
weekly basis, in two 1 hour meetings every week. Unlike other similar educational
programs, the effectiveness of the present one is given by the fact that once taught
and understood it can be successfully applied to virtually any daily situation, so
that participants wont just feel better but they will also get better (Broder, 2001).
Furthermore, the basic ideas underneath this theory are so simple that they can be
taught to any individual (Weinrach et al., 2006).

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65

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

The main hypothesis concerning the decrease in the general level of
irrationality among the participants was validated, proving that a medium to a long
time intervention may be very helpful in laying the foundation for a (more) rational
life philosophy and a more adaptive life style. The other (more) specific
hypotheses were also validated, meaning that we achieved a decrease in the level
of self-downing, demandingness and awfullising, as well as slight changes in the
levels of frustration tolerance. Nevertheless, a drastic change in the level of
frustration tolerance would also be unwanted, because it would mean a shift to the
other extreme. On a continuum where at one end we would be aggressivity and at
the other end passivity, assertiveness would be the desired attitude and behavior
(Rakos, 1991). In other terms, a very low frustration tolerance could be compared
to aggressivity and a very high frustration tolerance would equal passivity, whereas
a moderate and context specific frustration tolerance could lead to a desired
assertive behavior and attitude.
Further research is needed to identify other specific aspects to better adapt
this form of educational method to the Romanian teaching system. Nevertheless,
we consider this pilot study one of the first steps to be taken towards achieving a
positive change in the attitude of high school students and their teachers in
Romanian schools.
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APPENDIX 1
The main themes in the Curricula and some title examples
MAIN THEMES
SELF ACCEPTANCE
Deleting the Past
What Matters to Me
Critics
Compliments
Success
Increase Your Chances of Success
EMOTIONS
BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS
PROBLEM SOLVING AND DECISION MAKING
INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

APPENDIX 2
Activity Example
INCREASE YOUR CHANCES OF SUCCESS
Objective: Developing a set of well established techniques for overcoming failure.
Materials: Pen and paper
Time needed: 1 hour
Procedure:
Review the objectives from the former activity and
Ask the students to identify a particular situation that they failed to

Discussion
Content Questions:
How difficult was to establish a specific objective?
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Personal Questions:
What can you do to increase success and minimize failure?
Suggestions (for the coordinator):
It is very important to help students establish themselves specific and achievable
objectives

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