The FUEL OIL Calculation Program

Heavy fuel oils

Heavy fuel oils consist largely of residues from crude oils refining. These
residues are blended with suitable gas oil fractions in order to achieve the
viscosity required for convenient handling. Since the sulfur contained in the
crude oil is concentrated in the residue material, heavy fuel oils sulfur level
naturally is rather high. Furthermore, heavy fuel oils may contain large
quantities of heavy metals such as nickel and vanadium and also sediments
and water. For these reasons it is outmost important that the engineer easily
can calculate the fuel oils appropriate operation temperature, its energy and
its ignition quality.

The FUEL OIL Calculation Program

Fuel oil calculations are important for anyone responsible for the efficient
operational management of heavy fuel oil fired boilers, fired heaters and
diesel oil power stations. The program is designed to help with the calculation
necessary for the quantity measurement of oil products and for the efficient
handling and use of marine heavy fuels. While intended principally for ships
staff it should also be found useful by those ashore in ship owners
organizations, engine and equipment manufacturer, ship builder etc.
The basic idea with The FUEL OIL Calculation Program is that anyone should
be able to easily get the most important informations about their fuel oil. If you
download the latest version of the program, unzip it and run the setup-file,
then you can calculate the following values for your fuel oil:
Density at 15 C
Viscosity at 40 C
Viscosity at 50 C
Viscosity at 80 C
Proportion of ash by mass
Proportion of water and sediments by mass
Proportion of sulphur by mass
Operation temperature
Density at operation temperature
Viscosity at operation temperature
Dynamic Viscosity at operation temperature
Calculated Carbon Aromaticity Index
Specific energy, megajule per kilogram
Specific energy, megajule per liter
Temperature for ready pumpability

kg/m
mm/s
mm/s
mm/s
%
%
%
C
kg/m
mm/s
mPas
CCAI
MJ/kg
MJ/dm
C

Normal m of air per kg of fuel for stoichiometric combustion

nm/kg

This is not a free software. If you use this software after a 30 day evaluation
period
a registration fee of US$20 is required.
Commercial site license for the use of the FUEL OIL Calculation Program.
2 to 9 computers US$15 for each computer.
10 to 24 computers US$11 for each computer.
25 to 49 computers US$9 for each computer.
50 to 99 computers US$7 for each computer.
100 or more computers, one time fee US$600
Please send your
Lars Josefsson
Please add your e-mail
check to:
Prstslttsvgen 18
address and I will send the
SE 374 40 Karlshamn
code to omit the ending
Sweden
picture from the program.

Campuran Bahan Bakar Waste Plastic Disposal (WPD) dan

Orimulsion sebagai Alternatif Bahan Bakar Motor Diesel
Agung Sudrajad
Mahasiswa Program Doktor pada Energy Engineering Research Laboratory,
Kobe University
Pengajar pada Fakultas Teknologi Kelautan Universitas Darma Persada
Jakarta
Email: 021d801n@y04.kobe-u.ac.jp , agung_sudrajad@lycos.com

1. Pendahuluan
Peningkatan jumlah produksi mesin diesel ditambah dengan meningkatnya harga bahan bakar minyak
di seluruh dunia memaksa kita untuk mencari bahan bakar terbarukan sebagai bahan bakar alternatif
bagi motor diesel. Dilain sisi isu lingkungan begitu gencar disuarakan oleh badan-badan dunia sebagai
isu utama memasuki abad baru ini, mengingat dampak teknologi yang sekarang sedang kita nikmati
ternyata memberi dampak buruk terhadap lingkungan. Khususnya di perkotaan, dampak polusi udara
dari gas buang motor/mesin sangat terasa sehingga beberapa badan dunia mensyaratkan tingkat emisi
gas buang, atau sering disebut ambang batas maksimum polusi. Keadaan ini mendorong kita untuk
mengadakan penelitian tentang penggunaan bahan bakar alternatif yang rendah polusi dan murah.
Saat ini, sekitar 129 juta ton plastic setiap tahunnya diproduksi, dan 60% dari jumlah itu diproduksi dari
bahan minyak bumi. Jika dari jumlah tersebut dapat diolah kembali maka akan diperoleh sebesar 69
juta minyak bumi yang dapat dimanfaatkan. Jepang sendiri telah menerapkan undang-undang
pengolahan sampah sejak 1997 dan khususnya bagi sampah plastik sejak tahun 2000 [5]. Hasil dari
pengolahan sampah plastik (banyak digunakan untuk pembungkus di super market dan sisa minuman)
yang diproses pada tungku proses pada suhu 400-5000C telah menghasilkan bahan bakar baru yang
diberi nama Waste Plastic Disposal Fuel (WPD Fuel) [5]. Bahan bakar yang disingkat WPD ini di
beberapa negara maju sedang dilakukan penelitian secara intensif sebagai bahan bakar alternatif pada
berbagai mesin. Penelitian terdahulu menunjukkan hasil yang memuaskan untuk penggunaan WPD
pada apliaksi mesin diesel [1]. Pada penelitian lanjutan ini, penulis meneliti penggunaan bahan bakar
WPD yang dicampur dengan bahan bakar Orimulsion untuk aplikasi motor diesel baik untuk
penggunaan pada alat transportasi darat maupun laut. Bahan bakar Orimulsion adalah bahan bakar
dari Orinoco Tar dicampur dengan air yang mempunyai kekentalan >10.000 cP pada 300C dan
mempunyai bahan campuran hydrocarbon yang tinggi. Bahan bakar Orinoco tar ini diproduksi di
Venezuela. Percobaan dilakukan dengan memakai motor diesel jenis NF19SK 4 langkah yang
beroperasi konstan pada putaran mesin 2200 rpm. Tujuan utama pada penelitian awal ini adalah
mengetahui pengaruh penggunaan WPD yang dicampur dengan Orimulsion Fuel serta perbandingan
penurunan emisinya terhadap penggunaan A Oil (High Speed Diesel Oil) dan C Oil (Heavy Fuel Oil).
Adapun emisi yang di analisa adalah CH4, NO2, NO, NOx, CO2, CO, SO2, Particulate Matter dan Dry
Soot.

2. Spesifikasi Bahan Bakar

Pada Tabel 1, 2, dan 3 dapat dilihat spesifikasi dari bahan bakar Heavy Fuel Oil (A Oil), WPD dan
Orimulsion yang digunakan dalam penelitian. Gambar 1 menunjukkan hasil analisa bahan bakar
dengan menggunakan LC-Mass Spectrometer model LC-VP, Shimadzu. Hasil penelitian laboratorium
menunjukkan pula kenaikan nilai CCAI sebesar 3% dari 858 menjadi 880, kinematic viscosity menurun
dari 500cSt menjadi 20cSt pada 200C. Density dan sulfur menurun dari 0.999 menjadi 0.9853 dan 3.05
menjadi 1.98%(m/m) secara berurutan [2].

Gambar 1. Hasil analisis Orimulsion (a), WPB (b) dan Orimulsion 70-30%
WPD (c) dengan LC-Mass Spectometer

Tabel 1. Spesifikasi Bahan Bakar HFO

Unit

Unsur

Jumlah

Density (150C)

g/cm3

0.982

Reaction Degree

Neutral

Flash Point

0C

74.0

Kinematic viscosity (500C)

m m2/s (cSt)

177.0

Pour point

0C

-10.0

Carbon Residue

Wt. %

12.3

Sulfur

Wt. %

2.56

Water

Wt. %

0.00

Ash

Wt. %

0.020

Nitrogen

Wt. %

0,25

Gross Calorific Value

MJ/kg

42.780

Vanadium

m g/kg

58

Aluminium

m g/kg

Magnesium

m g/kg

Silica

m g/kg

13

Tabel 2. Spesifikasi bahan bakar WPD

Satuan

Unsur

Jumlah

Density

g/cm3

0.939

Kinematic Viscosity (300C)

m m2/s (cSt)

1.189

Ignition Point

0C

30.5

Styrene monomer

63.9

Styrene dimmer

11.5

Styrene trimer

5.7

Toluene

2.2

Ethyl Benzene

1.4

Alpha methyl styrene

2.2

Others

13.1

K
O
M
P
O
N
E
N

Tabel 3. Spesifikasi bahan bakar Orimulsion

Satuan

Unsur

Jumlah

Density

g/cm3

1.013

Kinematic Viscosity (500C)

mm2/s (cSt)

181

Carbon Residue

% (m/m)

12.1

Sulfur

% (m/m)

2.79

Nitrogen

% (m/m)

0.39

Ash

% (m/m)

0.28

Vanadium

mg/kg

340

Natrium

mg/kg

11

Magnesium

mg/kg

410

Gross Calorific Value

MJ/kg

28.3

Tabel 4. Spesifikasi motor diesel

Type Engine

Horizontal single cylinder 4 stroke diesel engine

(YANMAR NF19-SK)

Cylinder bore x stroke

110 x 106

Maximum Volume

1007 cm3

Clearance Volume

61.78 cm3

Maximum Power

19.0 PS / 2400 rpm

Rated Continuous Power

16.0 PS / 2400 rpm

Compression ratio

16.3

Effect. compression ratio

14.5

wirl ratio

2.20 + 0.1

Nozzle

0.33mm, 4 direction injection

Nozzle Injection Angle

1500

Injection timing

190+1 BTDC

Injection valve opening pressure

19.6 - 20.1 Mpa (200 - 205 kgf/cm2)

Cooling type

Radiator

Weight

192 kg

3. Langkah Percobaan
Gambar 2 menunjukkan alur penelitian yang dilakukan. Percobaan dilaksanakan dengan tiga bahan
bakar yg berbeda, yaitu bahan bakar WPD yg dicampur dengan Orimulsion (WPD 30% + Orimulsion
70%), Bahan bakar High Speed Diesel Oil (A Oil) dan Heavy Fuel Oil (C Oil),. Putaran mesin diatur
tetap pada 2200 rpm (dipilih karena pada putaran ini adalah putaran kerja, MCR) dengan beban yang
berubah yaitu 25%, 50%, dan 75% beban penuh, dimana beban penuh adalah 16 HP. Data yang
diamati adalah suhu gas buang, emisi gas buang berupa CH4, NO2, NO, NOx, CO2, CO, SO2,
Particulate Matter dan Dry Soot serta pemakaian bahan bakar spesifik (Spesifik Fuel Oil Consumption).
Untuk memperoleh data emisi NOx, CO, O2 digunakan alat chemiluminescent analyzer (HORIBA 350),
sementara CO2, NO2, digunakan alat gas analyzer of content potential electric type (Testo33,
Testoterm). Untuk mengetahui kandungan SO2 digunakan infra-rad ray analyzer (Testo 350M) dan CH4
dengan CmHn analyzer (HCM-1B, Shimadzu). Data selanjutnya yang diambil adalah PM dan DS
diperoleh dengan cara mengambil sampel pada glass fiber filter yang mulanya filter tersebut di
keringkan pada suhu 400C selama 2 jam lalu ditimbang , setelah itu filter dipasang pada pipa gas
buang untuk memperoleh hasil emisi. Setelah itu filter disimpan dalam larutan Dichloromethane Solvent
selama 24 jam, dan dikeringkan lagi selama 2 jam dengan alat yg sama dengan pertama. Selisih berat
filter sebelum diambil sampel dengan sesudah diambil sampel itulah yang digunakan untuk
menganalisa jumlah emisi PM dan DS. Dari data yang diperoleh kemudian dibuat dalam bentuk grafik
seperti dapat dilihat pada bagian Hasil dan Pembahasan.

Gambar 2. Diagram Ekperimen

1a WPD+Orimulsion Tank 1b DO/HFO Fuel 2 Pressure Analyzer 3 Filter 4 Diesel Engine 5 Water
Hydraulic 6 Exhauts Pipe 7 EG Temperature Analyzer 8 NOx CO, O2 Analyzer 9 SO2 Analyzer 10 Flask
11 Water Cooler 12 Vinyl Bag 13 CmHn Analyzer 14 PM Analyzer

4. Hasil dan Pembahasan

Dari hasil percobaan di laboratorium diperoleh data yang kemudian dibuat dalam bentuk grafik.

Gambar 3. Diagram Pressure

Gambar 3 menunjukkan diagram pressure bahan bakar WPD-Orimulsion yang digunakan, dimana kerja
diesel relative stabil terutama pada saat perubahan beban kerja mesin.
Gambar 4 memperlihatkan pemakaian bahan bakar orimulsion 70% dan WPD 30% menghasilkan emisi
CH4 yang tertinggi namun dengan peningkatan beban sampai 75% akan berangsur menurun
mendekati emisi CH4 dari bahan bakar C Oil. Pada saat beban rendah pembakaran molekul C dan H
pada bahan bakar WPD-Orimulsion ini sedikit tidak sempurna sehingga menghasilkan emisi CH4 yang
tinggi, namun pada beban tinggi pembakaran bahan bakar terlihat kian sempurna.

Gambar 4. Diagram Perubahan CH4

Gambar 5. Diagram Perubahan NO2

Gambar 5, 6, dan 7 menunjukkan emisi NO2, NO, dan NOx meningkat linier dengan peningkatan
beban. Namun konsentrasi emisi NOx (yg diatur dalam Marpol 73/78 Annex 6) masih dibawah ambang
batas yang tentukan (17 gr/KwH), dengan menggunakan bahan bakar WPD-Orimulsion maksimum
konsentrasi emisi NOx yang dihasilkan adalah sebesar 7 gr/kWh pada beban 75%.

Gambar 6. Diagram Perubahan NO

Gambar 7. Diagram Perubahan NOx

Gambar 8. Diagram Perubahan CO2

Gambar 9. Diagram Perubahan SO2

Gambar 8 menunjukkan konsentrasi emisi CO2 menurun pada beban 50% namun meningkat kembali
pada beban 75%. Sementara untuk nilai SO2 (Gambar 9) menunjukkan penurunan untuk peningkatan
beban hingga mencapai rata-rata 55,5%, nilai sulfur bahan bakar WPD-Orimulsion menyebabkan
besarnya konsentrasi emisi SO2 [4], namun lebih rendah jika dibandingkan dengan nilai konsentrasi
untuk bahan bakar C Oil. Pada temperatur tinggi dan konsentrasi oksigen ideal bagi proses

pembakaran, sulfur berkombinasi dengan karbon, hydrogen dan oksigen membentuk SO2, SO3, SO,
CS, CH, COS, H2S, S dan S2. Pada kondisi tersebut kandungan sulfur bahan bakar akan dominan
membentuk SO2 (90%) dan hanya sedikit yang berubah menjadi SO3 [2]. Gambar 10 memperlihatkan
bahwa emisi CO bahan bakar WPD-Orimulsion masih berada di bawah konsentrasi CO bahan bakar
HFO. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa proses pembakaran yang baik, dapat mengurangi emisi CO yang
sangat berbahaya bagi manusia dan atmosfer.

Gambar 10. Diagram Perubahan CO

Gambar 11. Diagram Perubahan SFOC

Gambar 12. Diagram Perubahan PM

Gambar 13. Diagram Perubahan DS

Specific Fuel Oil Consumption (SFOC) seperti yg ditunjukkan oleh Gambar 11, dengan menggunakan
bahan bakar WPD-Orimulsion ini konsumsi bahan bakar motor diesel dapat dikurangi sampai 60% pada
beban rendah. Proses pembakaran yang baik dengan menggunakan bahan bakar WPD-Orimulsion
menghasilkan konsumsi bahan bakar yang baik pula. Gambar 12 dan 13 menunjukkan konsentrasi PM
(particulate matter) dan DS (dry soot) yang diukur dengan menggunakan glass-fiber filter dan electric
drier pada suhu 400C menunjukkan nilai terendah dibandingkan dengan penggunaan bahan bakar A Oil
dan C Oil pada beban 25%. Penurunan nilai PM rata-rata 45% sedang DS adalah rata-rata 33%. Dari

percobaan yang dilakukan dapat juga diamati bahwa kerja mesin diesel NF 19SK beroperasi dengan
stabil selama percobaan berlangsung. Sehingga secara umum dari hasil analisa bahwa emulsi
Orimulsion dan WPD dengan komposisi 70:30 (WPD 30% + Orimulsion 70%) menunjukkan performa
mesin diesel yang baik dan ramah lingkungan.

5. Kesimpulan
Percobaan ini bertujuan untuk menganalisa performa emisi mesin diesel dengan penggunaan bahan
bakar terbarukan yaitu pencampuran antara bahan bakar Waste Plastic Disposal (WPD) dengan
Orimulsion (Emulsified of Orinoco Tar) yang dibandingkan dengan penggunaan A Oil dan C Oil.
Berdasarkan hasil percobaan dapat disimpulkan sebagai berikut:
1. Secara teknis bahan bakar WPD-Orimulsion dapat digunakan untuk aplikasi pada motor diesel
baik di darat maupun di laut. Dari percobaan diperoleh bahwa bahan bakar WPD dapat
menurunkan emisi CO2, CO, SO2, PM dan DS. Sementara untuk emisi CH4, NO2, NO, dan
NOx mengalami peningkatan untuk setiap kenaikan bebannya.
2. Pencampuran bahan bakar WPD dan Orimulsion menyebabkan penurunan kadar sulfur bahan
bakar sehingga emisi SO2 dapat dikurangi.
3. Selama percobaan berlangsung motor diesel penguji NF19SK beroperasi dengan baik dan
stabil pada suhu kerja 25.20 C.
4. Untuk menurunkan emisi SO2 dan NOx dapat digunakan teknologi exhaust gas after
treatment, seperti exhaust gas recirculating atau menggunakan katalis.

6. Daftar Pustaka
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

Hai Vu, P., , et al, 2001, Reduction of NOx and PMs from Diesel Engines by WPD Emulsified
Fuel, SAE Conference.
Luis Javier Molero de Blas. Pollutant Formation and Interaction in the Combustion of Heavy
Liquid Fuels, Doctoral Thesis, University of London.
Nishida, O., H. Fujita, W. Harano, T. Egashira, S. Okawa, M. Kawabata, T. Nakatsukasa, Y.
Sumitani, D. Suzuki, 1998, Proceeding of 60th Symposium of The Marine Engineering Society
in Japan, pp.156-163.
Nishida, O., Agung Sudrajad, PH. Vu, H. Fujita, W. Harano, 2001, Exhaust Emissions of Diesel
N2O by various Fuel Oil Condition. JIME Proceeding, pp. 36-43.
Okaya, Y., 1997, Development of new Technique for Reprocessing of Waste Plastic Materials,
Technical report, pp.1-3.

Heavy Fuel Oil (DIN 51 603-3)

Parameters

Method

Required
Sample
Size
ml

Density at 15 C

DIN 51 757

ISO 3675

50

Flash point Pensky-Martens

DIN 51758

100

Kinematic viscosity at 40 C

DIN 51562-1

100

Pourpoint

DIN ISO 3016

100

Carbon residue CCR (from original)

DIN 51 551

50

Sulfur content

DIN 51 400-3

100

Water content

DIN ISO 3733

100

Sediment content

DIN ISO 3735

500

Calorific value (incl. H2O-, N- und Scorrection)

DIN 51 900-2

50

Ash content

DIN EN 7

100

Nitrogen content

ASTM D 4629

50

Asphaltenes

DIN 51595

100

Cetane number

FIA 100/3

200

Additional parameters:

Diesel fuel (EN 590, Stand 1999-02) / Synfuel

Parameter

Method

Required
sample
size
ml

Ash content

EN ISO 6245

20

Cetane number

EN ISO 5165

3000

Cetane index (incl. Density and

Destillation)

EN ISO 4264

250

CFPP

EN 116

100

Cloud point

EN 23015

100

Distillation curve

prEN ISO 3405 -

250

Density at 15 C

DIN EN ISO
12185

50

Flash point Pensky-Martens

DIN EN ISO
22719

100

Total Contamination

EN 12662

500

HFFR (wear scar diameter) at 60 C

ISO 12156-1

Kinematic viscosity at 40 C

EN ISO 3104

100

Carbon residue CCR (from 10%

Dist.residue)

EN ISO 10370

100

Corrosivity to Copper

EN ISO 2160

100

Oxidation stability

EN ISO 12205

100

Sulfur content

EN 24260

100

Water content

prEN ISO

500

12937

Aditional parameters
Nitrogen content

ASTM D 4629

100

Sulfur conten (<= 10 ppm)

ASTM D 5453

100

Status: 2003-07-17

Heating Fuel (DIN 51 603-1)

Parameter

Method

Required
Sample
Size
ml

Density at 15 C

DIN 51 757

50

Calorofic value (incl. H2OCorrection)

DIN 51 900-1

10

Flash pointPensky-Martens

DIN EN 22
719

100

Kinematic viscosity at 20 C

DIN EN ISO
3104

100

Distillation characteristics

DIN 51 751

ISO 3405

250

Cloudpoint

DIN EN 23 015

100

CFPP

EN 116

100

Carbon residue CCR (from 10 %

Dist.residue)

DIN EN ISO
10370

100

Sulfur Content

DIN EN 24 260

100

Water Content

ISO DIS 12
937

DIN 51 777-1

100

Total contamination

DIN EN 12 662

500

ASTM D 4629

50

Additional Parameters
Nitrogen content

Status: 2003-07-18

Fuel oil
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

(Redirected from Heavy fuel oil)

Jump to: navigation, search
Fuel oil is a fraction obtained from petroleum distillation, either as a distillate
or a residue. Broadly speaking, fuel oil is any liquid petroleum product that is
burned in a furnace for the generation of heat or used in an engine for the
generation of power, except oils having a flash point of approximately 100 F
(about 40 C) and oils burned in cotton or wool-wick burners. In this sense,
diesel is a type of fuel oil. Fuel oil is made of long hydrocarbon chains,
particularly alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatics. Factually and in a stricter
sense, the term fuel oil is used to indicate the heaviest commercial fuel that
can be obtained from crude oil, heavier than gasoline and naphtha.

Six Classes
Fuel oil is classified into six classes, according to its boiling temperature, composition
and purpose. The boiling point, ranging from 370 to 600 C, and carbon chain length,
20 to 70 atoms, of the fuel increases with number. Viscosity also increases with fuel
oil number and the heaviest oil has to be heated to get it to flow. Price usually
decreases as the fuel number increases. No. 1 fuel oil, No. 2 fuel oil and No. 3 fuel
oil are referred to as distillate fuel oils, diesel fuel oils, light fuel oils, gasoil or
just distillate. For example, No. 2 fuel oil, No. 2 distillate and No. 2 diesel fuel oil are
the same thing. Distillate fuel oils are distilled from crude oil. Gas oil refers to the
process of distillation. The oil is heated, becomes a gas and then condenses. It
differentiates distillates from residual oil. No. 1 is similar to kerosene and is the
fraction that boils off right after gasoline. No. 2 is the diesel that trucks and some cars
run on, leading to the name "road diesel". It is the same thing as heating oil. No. 3 is
rarely used. No. 5 fuel oil and No. 6 fuel oil are called residual fuel oils or heavy
fuel oils. However, since No. 6 is far more common than No. 5, the terms heavy fuel
oil and residual fuel oil are sometimes used as synonyms for No. 6. They are what
remains of the crude oil after gasoline and the distillate fuel oils are extracted through
distillation, but No. 5 contains a little distillate fuel oil and even No. 6 may contain a
small amount to get it to meet specifications. No. 4 fuel oil is usually a blend of
distillate and residual fuel oils, such as No. 2 and 6, however, sometimes it is just a
heavy distillate. No. 4 may be called classified as diesel, distillate or residual fuel oil.
Residual fuel oils are sometimes called light when they have been mixed with
distillate fuel oil, while distillate fuel oils are called heavy when they have been mixed
with residual fuel oil. Heavy gas oil, for example, is a distillate that contains residual
fuel oil.
Bunker fuel is technically any type of fuel oil used aboard ships. It gets its name
from the containers on ships and in ports that it is stored in, called bunkers. Bunker A
is No. 2 fuel oil, bunker B is No. 4 or No. 5 and bunker C is No. 6. Since No. 6 is the
most common, "bunker fuel" is often used as a synonym for No. 6. No. 5 fuel oil is
also called navy special fuel oil, or just navy special.

This article is in need of attention from an expert on the subject.

Please help recruit one, or improve this page yourself if you can.

Table of fuel oils

Name

Alias

Alias

Type

Chain
Length

No. 1 fuel
No. 1 distillate
oil

No. 1 diesel fuel Distillate

9-16

No. 2 fuel
No. 2 distillate
oil

No. 2 diesel fuel Distillate

10-20

No. 3 fuel
No. 3 distillate
oil

No. 3 diesel fuel Distillate

No. 4 fuel
No. 4 distillate
oil

No. 4 residual
fuel oil

Distillate/Residual 12-70

No. 5 fuel No. 5 residual

oil
fuel oil

Heavy fuel oil

Residual

12-70

Heavy fuel oil

Residual

20-70

No. 6 fuel No. 6 residual

oil
fuel oil
[edit]

Uses
Diesel has many uses. It heats homes and businesses and fuels trucks, ships
and some cars. A small amount of electricity is produced by diesel, but it is
dirtier and more expensive than natural gas. It is often used as a backup fuel
for peaking power plants in case the supply of natural gas is interrupted or as
the main fuel for small electrical generators.
Residual fuel oil is less useful because it is so viscous that it has to be heated,
which requires a special heating system, before use and it contains relatively
high amounts of pollutants, particularly sulfur, which forms sulfur dioxide upon
combustion. However, its undesirable properties make it very cheap. In fact, it
is the cheapest liquid fuel available. Since it requires heating before use,
residual fuel oil cannot be used in road vehicles, boats or small ships, as the
heating equipment takes up valuable space and makes the vehicle heavier.
Heating the oil is also a delicate procedure, which is inappropriate to do on
small, fast moving vehicles. However, power plants and large ships are able
to use residual fuel oil.
Residual fuel oil was used more frequently in the past. It powered boilers,
railroad locomotives and steamships. Locomotives now use diesel,
steamships are no longer in use, and most boilers now use heating oil or
natural gas. However, some industrial boilers still use it and so do a few old
buildings, mostly in New York City. Residual fuel's use in electricity generation
has also decreased. In 1973, residual fuel oil produced 16.8% of the electricity
in the United States. By 1983, it had fallen to 6.2%, and as of 2005, electricity
production from all forms of petroleum, including diesel and residual fuel, is
only 3% of total production. The decline is the result of price competition with
natural gas and environmental restrictions on emissions. For power plants,
the costs of heating the oil, extra pollution control and additional maintenance
required after burning it often outweigh the low cost of the fuel. Burning fuel

oil, particularly residual fuel oil, also produces much darker smoke than
natural gas, which affects the perception of the plant by the community.
[edit]

Maritime
In the maritime field another type of classification is used for fuel oils:
MGO (Marine gasoil) - roughly equivalent to No. 2 fuel oil, made from
distillate only
MDO (Marine diesel oil) - A blend of gasoil and heavy fuel oil
IFO (Intermediate fuel oil) A blend of gasoil and heavy fuel oil, with less
gasoil than marine diesel oil
MFO (Medium fuel oil) - A blend of gasoil and heavy fuel oil, with less
gasoil than intermediate fuel oil
HFO (Heavy fuel oil) - Pure or nearly pure residual oil, roughly equivalent
to No. 6 fuel oil
It is important to note that marine diesel oil contains some heavy fuel oil,
unlike regular diesels. Also, marine fuel oils sometimes contain waste
products such as used motor oil.
[edit]

Transportation
Fuel oil is transported using fuel oil barges and pipelines. The major physical
supply chains of Europe are centered around the Rhine, Germany.

WVU's NAFTPC -CNG Review Part 1

CNG Review - Part2

INTRODUCTION
The origin of natural gas derives from the decomposition of plants and animals over a long
period of time and under tremendous heat and pressure. When natural gas comes out of the
ground, it commonly mixed with water, liquefied hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide and other
solid matter. The gas is cleaned of the water and solid matter, then the other gases and
liquids are stripped away. Because water content in natural gas would cause formation of ice
or hydrates in the pipeline. Likewise, the amount of available hydrocarbons heavier than
ethane should be taken into account to reduce the risk of blocking the pipeline due to
accumulation of condensable liquids
Natural gas is a naturally occurring mixture of combustible hydrocarbon gasses found in
porous formations beneath the earth's surface, usually in association with crude petroleum.
When it is found, it can be

Nonassociated gas--Free gas not in contact with significant amounts of crude oil in
the reservoir
Associated gas--Free gas in contact with crude oil in the reservoir.
Dissolved gas--Gas in solution with crude oil in the reservoir.

The main component of natural gas is methane (CH4) with minor amounts of heavier
hydrocarbons and some nonhydrocarbons, Table1

Table 1. Natural Gas Components in mass and volume percent.

Component Volume (percent) Mass (percent)

Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butanes
Pentanes
Hexanes
CO2
Nitrogen
Water
Total

92.29

84.37

3.6

6.23

0.8

2.06

0.29

0.99

0.13

0.53

0.08

0.39

2.52

1.8

2.89

0.01

0.01

100

100

Source: [16]
There is growing interest in using natural gas in vehicles in the U.S and worldwide, Table 1.
The main factors which stimulates interest in NGVs in U.S.

1. U.S energy security encourages use of alternative transportation fuels in order to

decrease national dependence on volatile foreign oil markets.

2. Environmental pollution in urban areas attracts the use of cleaner-burning fuels.

3. Countries with abundant supplies of natural gas finds the use of NGVs in order to
reduce trade imbalances due to oil imports.
The use of natural gas as a transportation fuel reduces operating cost and emissions. It is
very accessible in countries where there are existing distribution infrastructures.
Table 2. Countries with the Greatest NGV Populations (1992)

Country

Number

Former Soviet Union 300,000

Italy

235,000

Argentina

100,000

New Zealand

60,000

U.S

30,000

Canada

26,100

Brazil

700

Australia

626

Netherlands

303

Source: [16]
The U.S has a huge natural gas resource base and nationwide underground storage as well
as 1.2 million mile pipeline/delivery systems already in place. Natural gas is also in abundant
supply around the world.
A survey in U.S.A showed that the composition of natural gas varies significantly. According to
this survey average natural gas contains 92.3 % methane in volume.

Figure 1. Average Natural Gas Composition in U.S.A

FUEL COMPONENTS
CNG is a mixture of several gases. Methane is the dominant component , but ethane and "
heavier hydrocarbons" such as propane butanes, etc. are in natural gas up to a maximum of
their equilibrium vapor pressure. Only saturated hydrocarbons ( alkane, in other word
paraffins) are found in gas. The general formula for this series is CnH2n+2.

Table 3. Properties of Natural Gas Components

Component

Formula

Molecular
Weight

Density
kg/m3)

Specific
Gravity

Boiling
Point(C)

Autoign.
Temp.(C)

Flamm.
Limits

Methane

CH4

16.04

0.68

0.554

-161.5

537

5-15

Ethane

C2H6

30.07

1.286

1.049

-88.6

515

3-12.5

Propane

C3H8

44.09

1.915

1.562

-42

450

2.1-9.5

n-Butane

C4H10

58.12

2.534

2.067

-0.5

405

1.8-8.5

n-Pentane

C5H12

72.11

3.05

2.487

36.1

260

1.4-7.8

n-Hexane

C6H14

86.17

3.642

2.97

68.7

234

1.2-7.5

Nitrogen

N2

28.02

1.192

0.972

Oxygen

O2

32

1.355

1.105

Carbon
Dioxide

CO2

44.01

1.874

1.528

Source: [16]
Paraffins are unable to combine with additional hydrogen atoms. They are also called
"saturated". If the paraffin has more than three carbons, there is possibility of having more
than one arrangement of the carbon and hydrogen atoms in molecule. Molecules which
contain the same number and some kind of atoms, but differ in structure are called isomers.
For example, three structural isomers of pentane (C5H12) are possible, Table 4.

Table 4 Isomers of Pentane

n-pentane isopentane neopentane

Boiling Point

36.1

27.9

9.5

Melting Point

-129.7

-159.9

-16.5

Density (20 C)

0.6262

0.6201

0.6135

Alkenes (olefins) and alkynes are not normally present in natural gas. Olefins are among the
most photochemically reactive components of automotive hydrocarbon emissions. Other
compounds present in natural gas include: nitrogen (N2), sulfur (H2S), and odorants such as
ethyl mercaptan (C2 H5 SH), carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), Table 3.
The composition of natural gas has impact on emission, performance and safety. In terms of
this issue, the effect of gas composition can be outlined as follows:

Knock tendency of the fuel

Fuel stratification in the storage cylinder
Fuel metering which is primary effect on engine performance and emissions.
Corrosion occurrence due to impurities in the fuel.

Water, sulfurcompounds, carbon dioxide, oxygen and other impurities in natural gas cause
storage tank and fuel system corrosion and corrosion-fatigue cracking of the materials. The
limitations of this impurities are important in terms of minimizing of corrosion and acceptable
service life of the storage tank. Ice occurance in regulators and lines due to condensation of
water content in natural gas should be considered. Besides this, clogging in fuel injectors and
fuel filters cause rough engine operation.
The dew point indicates the point at which gas to become saturated with water vapor. At dew
point, the mixture contains maximum amount of water. Relative humidity is 100 % at this
temperature. When the natural gas is compressed from pipeline pressure of approximately 50
psi to tank pressure of 3600 psi, this increase causes higher dew point which is the function of
pressure. Liquid water would precipitate out of the gas with the consequence of this increase.
Dryers or desiccants are used to remove the water. Another method is the methanol injection
in order to decrease the freezing point of the gas. Pipeline quality natural gas has a dew point
of -28 F at 50 psi which corresponds 52 F at 3600 psi. In order to prevent occurrence of
corrosion problems in vehicles, natural gas must be dried to a dew point under the minimum
ambient temperature in which the vehicle run. Regarding this matter the dew point of the gas
at the maximum operating pressure to be at least 10 F below the winter design dry bulb
temperature will be required by the proposed regulations.[4]
Fuel stratification in the cylinder should be considered when the natural gas contains heavy
hydrocarbons. At low ambient temperatures, as fuel draws from the storage tank, the
pressure decreases. This decrease changes the composition of liquid and vapor states. For
instance, propane/air peak shaving gas is not suitable for natural gas vehicles due to the
variation of propane concentration more than 10 percent during the operation. Obviously, the
variation of the fuel composition has a primary impact on engine performance, knock
tendency, emissions and fuel economy. In order to handle the variation of fuel composition,

Combustion systems
Exhaust catalysts
Engine controls

can be taken into consideration for natural gas vehicles

INTERNAL ENGINE FUEL CHARACTERISTICS
OCTANE NUMBER
The high octane number of natural gas allows high compression ratio in optimized natural
gas engine which means an increase in power and efficiency. However, an antiknock rating
higher than that required for knock-free operation does not improve performance.
CETANE NUMBER
Cetane number is of primary importance in overall efficiency of diesel engine. For a given
diesel engine, a fuel with higher cetane number provides shorter ignition delay period and
smaller amount of fuel is collected in the combustion chamber when ignition occurs. As a
result , high cetane number fuels generally provide lower rates of pressure rise and lower
peak pressure which mean less combustion noise and more control in combustion. In other
word, this characteristic defines engine efficiency and power output. In addition to these,

easier starting especially in cold weather and faster warm-up are realized with high cetane
number fuel.
CNG has a very poor cetane number . Because of this, some modifications are necessary in
diesel engine for CNG applications.

Figure 2. Comparison of Octane and Cetane properties.

HEATING VALUE
The heating value in another word, (heat of combustion, calorific value,) of a fuel is the
amount of heat produced when the fuel is burned completely. There are two values for the
heating value. They are higher heating value and lower heating value. The difference between
them is that higher heating value exceeds the lower heating value by the energy supplied by
the water vapor in condensing.
A fuel with low heating value provides less heat on combustion which means less power than
the same amount of fuel with high heating value. In order to maintain power output with lowheating value fuel , more consumption of it would be necessary. If natural gas is used in
optimized engine, better fuel consumption will be obtained
Energy content based on volume, determines the vehicle range. To increase the range, a
high density fuel is preferred because heating value per unit volume of fuel is greater. This
explains why the liquid state is of primary interest for storage problem. According to this data
vehicle running on CNG can travel only 26 % as far as it could on gasoline.
VAPOR PRESSURE
Vapor Pressure of a fuel is a prime importance of drivebility of vehicles under all conditions.
One of the most common method to measure fuel volatility is Reid Method. In this method,
the vapor pressure of liquid fuel is measured at 100 F in a chamber having 4:1 air to liquid
ratio. There is no need to vaporize CNG, contrarily liquid fuels have to be vaporized before
they are introduced into the engine. This characteristics of CNG makes the cold start
problems and low temperature emissions due to the cold enrichment, minimum.
SPECIFIC ENERGY
It defines the fuel energy delivered to the combustion chamber per unit mass of air inducted.
In other words the lower A/F ratio means that chemical energy released per kg of
stoichometric mixture burnt during combustion is greater. It is calculated by dividing the

lower heating value of the fuel by the air/fuel ratio. This explains why gasoline has a greater
heat release although it has a lower heat of combustion.
HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
The heat of vaporization of a fuel effects the volumetric efficiency positively by decreasing
the temperature of the fuel-air mixture which means makes the mixture dense. Although
natural gas has a higher heat of vaporization, it is already in gaseous state when it is inducted
into engine and it does not provide this cooling effect. On the other hand cold starting
problems would occur with higher heat of vaporization in IC engines.
FLAME TEMPERATURE
Thermal efficiency increases with lower flame temperature due to the reduced heat losses
from an engine. The lower flame visibilty (luminosity) also decreases heat loss by radiation.
Flame temperature is also a parameter in NOx . Lower flame temperature reduces NOx
emission.
FLAME SPEED
Flame speed defines the relative motion of the flame front towards the unburned mixture.
Stoichometric A/F ratio strongly determines the flame speed. The fast combustion rates
provides more efficient torque development. On the other hand , the increasing thermal and
mechanical burdens along with increased combustion temperatures cause higher thermal
losses, combustion noise and NOx emissions.
FLAMMABILITY LIMITS
Wide flammability limit allow intense lean operation with extremely reduced NOx emissions.
Also high diffusion coefficient affect lean operation positively by providing homogeneous
charges. Wide flammability limits also may be useful because rich air / fuel ratios can be used
when needed to maximize power by delivering more fuel per charge. However operating at
higher levels in this way reduces efficiency. Gaseous fueled engines which operate in lean
side suffer from low fuel conversion rates. Low quenching distance offers some
improvement in this manner . It characterizes the penetration of a flame into smallest
crevices. Flame of a fuel with lower quenching distance reaches to difficult chamber zones
like quenching areas with high surface to volume ratios.
CLOUD POINT
The temperature at which the precipitation occurs is called cloud point. At this point wax
settles out and blocks the fuel system lines. The cloud point of a fuel indicates the
temperature at which it may clog filter systems and restrict flow. More paraffinic fuel means
the higher precipitation temperature and the less suitable the fuel for low temperature
operation. Cloud point is especially important for fuels used in high speed diesel engines due
to the trend towards finer filters. The finer filters more easily become clogged due to the small
quantities of precipitated wax.
FLASH POINT
Flash point defines the temperature to which the fuel must be heated to produce an ignitable
vapor-air mixture above the liquid fuel when exposed to an open flame. The flash point of a
fuel does not affect the performance in an engine. Auto-ignition temperature, fuel injection and
combustion performance are not influenced by the flash point. Flash point especially has an
importance in point of safety. A low-flash point may be the reason of fire hazard subject to
flashing , and possible continued ignition and explosion.

WOBBE NUMBER
Wobbe number is especially an important parameter in open loop control system. Wobbe
number defines the chemical energy that will flow through an orifice with a given pressure
drop. It is calculated by dividing the heating value of the fuel by the square root of specific
gravity.
To describe natural gas characteristics on the basis of its energy content, Wobbe number is
used. Wobbe number is computed by dividing square root of the ratio between CNG and air
specific gravity ; it represents the energy flow rate resulting from a certain pressure drop.
Wobbe number increases when the content of the non-methane hydrocarbon increases. This
increase results from the higher densities of the non-methane hydrocarbons. The Wobbe
number decreases when the inert gases concentration rises.
In an open loop engine, different Wobbe number causes change in stoichometric A/F ratio
which effects equivalence ratio. Equivalence ratio is of primary importance in engine
operation.
In closed loop control engine, the affection of variations in Wobbe number is negligible.
Because, engine control module responds the signal from the exhaust oxygen sensor and
corrects for equivalence ratio change.
CONVERSION SYSTEMS
There are basically two types of conversion systems available, mechanical (carburetted) and
electronic (fuel injected) types. Mechanical systems work on the same principles as gasoline
carburetor do. The fuel is mixed with the intake air in a fuel/air mixture (carburetor). In
electronic systems, injectors or flow control valves are used to meter the fuel into the intake
air.

Fig 3. Comparison of Fuel Metering System Responses

Source:[4]
A) Mechanical Conversion System :

Mixer

Gaseous fuel is introduced into intake manifold. The mixer is placed upstream of the throttle
valve in order to respond to manifold pressure to provide the adequate amount of fuel
introduced into the manifold for engine load. Some mixers have air valve to control the air
flowrate. Needle valve adjustments provide appropriate fuel / air mixture.
Air flow capacity requirement for the range of the necessary engine operation conditions is
the selection criteria of mixers. The power obtained from engine is dependent of the size of
mixer. The selection of small size of mixer causes the restriction of air entering to intake
manifold after a certain point. Consequently engine is not be able to achive the desired
operation with respect to increased throttle opening. Engine starting and low speed running
will be problem with the oversize mixer due to inadequate and poorly controlled manifold
vacuum. The engines which can not run with wide open throttle will probably operate with
smaller size mixer. The advantage of slightly oversize mixer appears on over-the road
applications. Because it achieves optimum performance at higher engine speeds. The
formula which is below can be used in order to estimate required air flowrate.

Regulator:

In order to provide necessary control in CNG conversions, pressure regulations are achived in
two stages. A single regulator with two stages or two separate regulators can be used for this
purpose.
In first stage, the pressure is reduced from tank pressure to approximately 100 psi. It is
necessary to reduce the pressure to a few inches of water to meter the fuel through the mixer
and into intake manifold. There are two kind of two stage regulators available.
The piston regulators compared to diaphram type provides better control in terms of outlet
pressure with varying tank pressure. In mechanical conversion, this pressure variation is
compansated by the precise control of second stage regulator with respect to varying inlet
pressure. However, for an electronic conversion without second stage regulator this pressure
variation is of importance in the amount of fuel that meters through the injector.

Shut-off valve:

It stops the flow of the natural gas when the engine does not run. The valve provides fuel flow
from the tank to regulator when the engine runs. A filter can be available with this equipment
to filter the fuel before entering the regulator.
It is a solenoid type valve which is controlled from the fuel selector switch in the vehicle. This
valve shuts off the gasoline supply when the alternative fuel is selected. It is also required to
cut the power to gasoline injectors when the engine runs on alternative fuel.

Control Valve:

It responds to outputs from the conversion system computer in order to provide a richer or
leaner fuel / air fuel mixture. In some applications control valve operates with the second
stage regulator make the fuel / air ratio leaner during deceleration. The control valve is driven
by the conversion system computer in order to determine fuel / air ratio by receiving outputs
from oxygen sensor which is placed in engine exhaust.

Figure 4. Oxygen Sensor

Source:[19]
Oxygen sensor is installed into exhaust manifold. ZrO2 is coated with a platinum films on both
sides. ZrO2 acts as a solid electrolyte, its output is strogly dependent of oxygen content of the
exhaust gas. Small voltage is generated on the platinum surfaces due to difference between
the oxygen content in atmosphere and exhaust. Measured value of the oxygen content in
exhaust provides conversion system computer keep the A/F ratio within 0.05 tolerance.

Refueling Receptacle:

The refueling receptacle should provide safe and easy using with minimum trapped gas or
vapor release when disconnected. It must be a quick disconnect type. They are constructed
of non-sparking material, usually brass with corrosion resistant iternal parts. NGV-1 (ANSI
Standard) is available for receptacles. According to this :

The nozzle and receptacle shall not be used for any other fuel
Standards shall be uniform throughout the U.S and Canada.
Receptacles shall be non-sparking
They should allow interchangeability between different manufacturers.
They should be designed to prevent the loading of a vehicle with a lower
service pressure
They should have a non-contact integral check valve.

Check valve leakege appear the common reason which is relaed to receptacle problems.
Particulate contamination and ice or hydrate build up usually cause the problems with
receptacles.

Electronic Control Units:

Electronic control units with mechanical conversion systems vary from the simple type device
which mainly eliminate false Electronic Control Module (ECM) malfunction codes to smart
equipments with adaptive memory which dynamically control the A/F ratio and ignition.

Basic type device provides prevent false EGR, knock and oxygen sensor malfunction codes
by using open loop control strategy together with the Original Equipmenr Manufacturer
(OEM).
Advanced type devices evaluate data from all the engine sensors to adjust A/F ratio, spark
timing and other controllable parameters by using feedback control (closed loop control)
strategy.This type devices also have a feature in order to achieve open loop control method
for some conditons like cold starting and wide open throttle (WOT)
B) Electronic Conversion System:
The main difference in the application of electronic conversion method with respect to
mechanical conversion is the use of solenoid driven injectors or proportional metering valves
to supply the fuel into intake manifold instead of fuel air mixture. Fuel injection provides
significant advantages over the use of mixer. These are:

Nonrequirement of second stage regulator.

Better emission control.
Easy starting, particularly in cold weather.
Better Brake Spesific Fuel Consumption (BSFC).
Quick throttle response.
Accurate fuel control.
Possibility of flowrate control on deceleration.
Pulse Width Modulated (PMW) control strategy

When solenoid injectors used, the amount of fuel introduced into engine can be adjusted by
varying the pulse width (the period which is valve open.). In case of proportional flow control
valves are used instead of solenoid injectors, the fuel flowrate is metered by using a mass
flow sensor which supplies data to to the alternative fuel microprocessor which achieves the
control of the valve. The Alternative Fuel Microprocessor evaluates Original Equipment
Manufacturer (OEM) speed density in order to drive the alternative fuel injectors. Another
approach is to modify the injector actuation signal delivered by OEM Electronic Control
Module. Ignition timing is also one of the parameters controlled by alternative fuel
microprocessor.
The use of injectors or flow control valve provides very accurate and precise control of
mixture ratio which is resulted in optimum operation conditions at all loads. These operation
conditions can not be achieved by mechanical conversion systems. Electronic systems have
first stage regulator to decrease 3600 psi of tank pressure to 50-100 psi of injector pressure.
However, some electronic systems equipped with flow control valve require second stage
regulator.
COMBUSTION STRATEGIES
There are two strategies available in emission control of natural gas engines.
a) A Stoichometric Engine with three way catalyst (TWC)
Stoichometric approach is primarily used in light-duty vehicle engines.Complete combustion is
achived by introducing the chemically correct mixture of fuel and air. A closed loop fuel system
operates on equivalance ratio which is very close to 1. This approach cause high NOX , CO
and HC emissions before the treatment of catalytic convertor. Due to this, Stoichometric
approach is strongly dependent on three way catalytic convertor for the desired emission.
Natural gas has a narrower equivalance ratio window for peak operating efficiency than that
of gasoline. It is set at a slightly richer point compared to gasoline. It is necessary to keep the

equivalance ratio within this window, otherwise catalyst efficiency and emission result
dramatically worsen

TWC achieves the reduction in three products simulteneously. Both NO reduction and CO
and HC oxidization can be achieved in one single catalyst bed. Enough oxygen for oxidizing
the CO and HC and reducing gases for decreasing NO are provided. This type of catalyst is
called three-way catalyst since it removes three pollutants at the same time. In order to
realize high conversion efficiency for all components, it is necessary to monitor equivalance
ratio over a very narrow range.
It is required moderate modifications on the ignition system. It provides very low emissions
along with high Brake Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP) even in naturally aspirated engines.
Engine operation is stable with stoichometric approach. But, the emissions are strongly
dependent of proper working of the oxygen sensor, catalyst and control system. Besides this,
thermal loadings are high with respect to diesel and lean-burn applications. This drawback
causes some restrictions for turbocharging. But excess power and knocking do not effect
stoichometric engine, contarily to lean-burn engine. Slight efficiency penalty can appear with
stoichometric operation comparedto lean-burn operation.
Table 5. Combustion Strategies.

FUEL TYPE

COMBUSTION
STRATEGY

EQUIV.
RATIO

ENGINE TYPE

CATALYST
TYPE

APPLICATION RESULTS

Methane/Propane

Stoichometric

Naturally
Aspirated

Three-way
catalyst

Very Low Emissions

Reasonable power output

Methane/Propane

Stoichometric

Turbocharged

Three-way
catalyst

Very Low Emissions

Complicated engine design

Knock problems with propane

Methane/Propane

Lean-burn

<1

Naturally
Aspirated

Oxidizing
catalyst

Moderate emissions levels

Simple engine design

Low power output
Methane better than propane in
this application

Methane.Propane

Lean-burn

<1

Turbocharged

Oxidizing
catalyst

Reasonable emissions level

High power output

Relatively simple engine design

b) Lean-burn application
Lean-burn application is primarily used in heavy-duty vehicles. Thermal loadings are
moderate with lean-burn application There is also a large power drop, roughly equivalent to
the change in equivalence ratio, this makes turbocharging necessary. Lean-burn natural gas
engines can often be made to run sufficiently lean (equivalance ratio of .55 to .75) in order to
keep NOX emission at low level. Excess of air provides temperature reduction which resulted
in low NOX rate along with low tendency to knocking.
However, when the engine operates close to lean flammability limit in other word misfire limit,
variations in equivalance ratio can result in unstable combustion along with an increase in HC
emission. Oxidizing catalyst is necessary in order to control the HC emission. In case of
running on the rich side of flammability limit high NOX can be obtained due to the change in
equivalance ratio.
Precise fuel metering has a great importance on lean-burn engine operation. Current leanburn engines are turbocharged to provide high power and thermal efficiency, in order to
approach diesel performance. Under these conditions the sensitivity of lean-burn engine to
variation of fuel mixture and spark timing. Intake boost pressure exceeds safe levels in case
of an increase in the equivalance ratio.This increase can lead extra mass air flow along with
more fuel to the engine which causes engine parts failure due to the detonation or preignition.
Knock tendency is also problem with rich fuel metering.

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LNG vs LPG, Kondensat

Oleh Rangkuman Diskusi Mailing List Migas Indonesia - Mei 2003, Publish on 11 /06 /03 10:44:21

Pertanyaan : (Oran Jacob - Jurusan Teknik Perminyakan ITB)

Apa bedanya LNG (Liquified Natural Gas) dengan LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gas)? Apa yang dimaksud
dengan kondensat (dikatakan produk sampingan dari kilang LNG)?

Tanggapan 1 : (Parastryono Adhi - Sun Microsystems Indonesia)

LNG - gas metana (c1) yang dicairkan

LPG - gas propana/butana (c3/c4) yang dicairkan
Kondensat adalah fraksi minyak bumi yang terkandung didalam aliran dari sumur gas, merupakan
mixture dari c1 sampai c(banyak), berhubung jumlahnya relatif sedikit, tidak ekonomis kalau harus
dilakukan refinery & dijual dlm bentuk fraksi minyak tsb.
Tanggapan 2 : (Stephanus Sulaeman - Pertamina UP V Balikpapan)
Berhubung sering ditanyakan oleh banyak orang, saya uraikan secara singkat produk-produk BBM
LNG:
1.
2.
3.
4.

LNG : liquified natural gas ( mayoritas methana - C1 )

LPG : liquified petroleum gas ( umumnya butana - C4 )
CNG : compressed natural gas ( umumnya ethana-propana-butana C2-C3-C4 )
Light naphtha : naphtha ringan ( umumnya berkisar antara C5 - C8 ), menyerupai condensible
gas
5. Heavy naphtha : naphtha berat ( berkisar C8 - C13 ), bahan baku bensin
6. HOMC : high octane mogas component ( minyak pencampur bensin agar oktane numbernya
tinggi, umumnya cracked naphtha )
7. Kerosene : minyak tanah ( berkisar C15-C18 )
8. Avtur : aviation turbine ( bahan bakar kerosene untuk turbin-gas pesawat terbang )
9. Avigas : aviation gasoline ( bahan bakar bensin untuk pesawat terbang bermotor bakar )
10. HSD : high speed diesel ( bahan bakar solar untuk mesin diesel putaran tinggi, terutama
kendaraan transport dan mesin-mesin kecil )
11. MFO : marine fuel oil ( bahan bakar diesel putaran menengah terutama pada diesel kapal atau
diesel berukuran besar )
12. IFO : industrial fuel oil ( minyak bakar ), sangat kental pada ambient temperatur, cocok untuk
pemanas di eropa dan bahan bakar heater, mempunyai kalor pembakaran yang tinggi,
sehingga volume pembakaran spesifiknya tinggi.

Tanggapan 3 : (Sulton Amrullah - PT Sumber Daya Kelola)

Saya cuma ingin menambahkan saja mengenai jenis-jenis LPG, sesuai dengan Keputusan Direktur
Jenderal Minyak dan Bumi No. 25 K/36/DDJM/1990 Tentang Spesifikasi Bahan Bakar Gas Elpiji
memutuskan bahwa Bahan Bakar
Gas Elpiji dapat meliputi :
1.

2.

3.

Bahan Bakar Gas Elpiji untuk kebutuhan Rumah Tangga, Industri dan Komersial yaitu Bahan
Bakar Gas Elpiji campuran Propana dan Butana selanjutnya disebut ELPIJI CAMPURAN. LPG
ini mempunyai vapour pressure pada 100 F sebesar 120 psig, dengan komposisi : % Vol C2
maksimum 0.2, % Vol C3 & C4 minimum 97.5 dan % Vol C5+ (C5 & Heavier) maksimum 2.0.
Bahan Bakar Gas LPG untuk kebutuhan khusus dan Komersial, yaitu Bahan Bakar Gas Elpiji
Propana, selanjutnya disebut ELPIJI PROPANA. LPG ini mempunyai vapour pressure pada
100 F sebesar 210 psig, dengan komposisi: % vol C3 total minimum 95, % vol C4 (C4 &
heavier) maksimum 2.5.
Bahan Bakar Gas LPG untuk kebutuhan komersial yaitu Bahan Bakar Gas Elpiji Butana,
selanjutnya disebut LPG BUTANA. LPG ini mempunyai vapour pressure pada 100 F sebesar
70 psig, dengan komposisi: % Vol C4 minimum 97.5, % Vol C5 maksimum 2.5 dan % Vol C6+
(C6 & Heavier) NIL.

Sedangkan LPG yang kita pakai untuk kebutuhan rumah tangga adalah LPG Campuran antara propan
dan butan den

PURAFUEL OIL FOR HEAVY FUEL OIL (HFO) TREATMENT

When PT-Fuel Oil is added to No 6 (Bunker) fuel oil at the initial rate of 1 liter catalyst
per 500 liters fuel oil, the first action is upgrading the fuel. If any incompatibility

exists, the fuel becomes stabilized. Any water is eliminated through emulsification.
Sludge and other dissolvables in the fuel storage are dissolved and converted into
good usable fuel. The resident time is an important factor, the longer the catalyst
resides in the fuel, the better the results can be expected.
Clogging of fuel lines is reduced. Filters remain cleaner longer with much less
maintenance required. The viscosity of the fuel is lowered to where a significant
lowering of the pre-heat temperature is possible.
The major benefit of using PT-Fuel Oil is in combustion improvement. The flame
changes from a long, lazy, smokey-orange flame to a compact, bright and vibrant
lemon-yellow flame. This is complete combustion occurring for the first time in the
users equipment. The equipment runs better than it did when it was new. There is a
large reduction in the amount of fuel needed compared to the amount needed before
using PT-Fuel Oil. As there is complete combustion occurring, every last drop of the
fuel oil is burned. This ends all air pollution from fuel oil; there is no buildup of soot
deposits. Practically no blowing of tubes is necessary. With time, the heat-transfer
surfaces become clean of deposits and the boiler is restored to a clean condition.
This high efficiency operating condition is maintained with continuous use of PT-Fuel
Oil.
The elimination of soot deposit buildup on the interior surfaces of the boiler provides
for a very efficient heat transfer thereby greatly lowering the overall stack
temperature.
By eliminating soot deposits on the fireside surfaces, vanadium traces still present in
the fuel oil have no place to deposit. This avoids the formation of V2 O5 (vanadium
pentoxide) preventing the catalytic formation of SO3. Also, with fuel oil high in sulfur
content (4%) the improved combustion resulting from use of PT-Fuel Oil prevents
formation of the highly polluting "acid smut".
PT-Fuel Oil reduces sodium content in the stored fuel oil by up to 20 percent.
There is absolutely no other additive type, fuel oil treatment product available,
anywhere, that will provide the improvements seen when using PT-Fuel Oil.