Geotechnical Aspects of Underground Construction in Soft Ground, Mair & Ta y/or (eds)

1996 Balkema, Rotterdam. ISBN 90 5410 856 8

Settlement effects of bored tunnels

R.J. Mair
Geotechnical Consulting Group, London, UK
i

ABSTRACT: This Report reviews 35 papers submitted to the Symposium which concern settlement effects of bored
tunnels. The papersare reviewed in three groups: open face tunnelling; closed face tunnelling; and effects on structures,
services and tunnels.

l. INTRODUCTION

competent ground. Many of the papers describe case

histories of tunnelling in London Clay.
Table l lists sin( papers from Session 5 falling into the
category of open face tunnelling, and there are another five

Ground mov.ements and ,settlements are inevitably

caused by bored tunnel construction in soft ground. In

urban areas. the potential effect of settlement is an

important consideration in the design and construction of
tunnels, and is the subject of Session 5 of the Symposium.
In this Report, the papers in Session 5 are divided _into three
groups:

Table 1: Papers on Open Face Tunnelling

Construction Ground Volume

Method Conditions Loss (%)

Session 5

l. Open Face Tunnelling

Bowers et al SCL (NATM) London Clay 1.1-1.5

2. Closed Face Tunnelling

Kimmance et al SCL (NATM) London Clay

- Slurry Shields
- Earth Pressure Balance (EPB) Shields

Marshall et al Shield + Pipejack London Clay

Oteo and SCL (NATM) Stiff clays, marls

Sagaseta, Shield + Segments

3. Effects on Structures, Services and Tunnels

Relevant papers concerning settlement effects of

bored tunnels from other Sessions of the Symposium are

Umney and Shield + Segments London Clay 1.5-1.8

Heath

also reviewed.

The volume loss, sometimes referred to as ground

Standing et al Shield + Segments London Clay 2.9-3.3

loss, is a useful and simple means- of quantifying the

magnitude of ground movements. It is defined as the total
volume ofthe surface settlement trough per metre length of
tunnel (i.e the cross-sectional area) divided by the cross

Other Sessions

Egger SCL (NATM) Gypsum-bearing

claystones

sectional area of the tunnel. This parameter is quoted in

many of the case-history papers in the Symposium.

Farias and Assis SCL (NATM) Porous collapsible

residual soil

2. OPEN FACE TUNNELLING

Grose and Eddie SCL (NATM)

London Clay 1.0

Shield + Segments 0.5

2.1 General
Kavvadas et al

Open face tunnelling describes the types of tunnel

SCL (NATM) Weak rocks 0.2

TBM + Segments ("Athenian Schists")

construction where the face is effectively unsupported

during the excavation process. This means that the face is
generally stable without support, at least in the short term,
and therefore most of the papers placed in this category,
listed in Table 1, concem mainly stiff clays or even more

Negro et al SCL (NATM) Stiff/hard clays,

Shield + Segments Medium dense/
dense sands
SCL (NATM) = Sprayed Concrete Linings (New Austrian Tunnelling Method)

43

concrete. The equivalent diameter of the tunnel was 8.7m

and its depth to axis was 2lm. The volume losses obtained
at the time of construction were between 1.1 and l.5%. The
technique of sprayed concrete linings, which was its first
use in London Clay, clearly demonstrated that good control
of ground movements was possible with the method.
Figure 1 shows the surface settlement measurements above
one of the sections of trial tunnel taken immediately after
construction and 3 years later just before installation of the_
secondary concrete lining. The line through the longer term

papers from other sessions. These other five also contain

interesting data on settlement measurements. The

construction method described 'in each of the papers is
listed in Table 1, together with the ground conditions. The
use of sprayed concrete linings (SCL), often referred to as
the New Austrian Tunnelling Method (NATM), forms the
subject of the majority of the papers. Where the volume
loss is quoted by authors the values are shown in Table l.

2.2 London Clay

data shown as Equation 4 corresponds to an equation

More 'than half of the papers concem tunnel

proposed by the authors to characterize post-construction

time-dependent settlements. It can be seen that there is a
relatively uniform settlement increase across the whole

construction in London Clay. Standing, Nyren, Longworth

and Burland describe the high quality instrumentation

installed on two sites for the construction of the Jubilee

settlement profile in the 3 year period. In particular it

Line Extension' project in London. One site involves EPB

should be noted that there are only very small increases in

tunnelling in dense sands. The other site involves

distortion or deflection ratio. This has important

tunnelling with a mechanized shield and segments in

London Clay. The paper gives a detailed account of the

Figure 2 shows the short and longer term horizontal '

instrumentation used and some ground movement data for

strains at the ground surface above one of the' tunnels. Both

implications for long term settlement effects on buildings.

sets of measurements are in reasonably good agreement

the London Clay_ site. A _particular feature of the

instrumentation is the use of electro-level inclinometers.

Unusually high volume losses of 3.3% for the first tunnel
and 2.9% for the second tunnel were obtained. The reason

with the derived horizontal strain predicted from the

classical Gaussian distribution based on the short-term
settlement data. As in the case of distortion or deflection

for this is not yet fully understood. The authors also present
valuable subsurface settlement data.
Subsurface settlement data are also the subject of the
paper by Umney and Heath. The data were obtained during

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construction of a 5.4 m diameter tunnel in London Clay.

The tunnel was excavated using a mechanized shield and
lined with segments. Although it must be recognized as
approximate, the volume loss deduced by the authors from
the subsurface data is l.5%. At another location described
by the authors, where subsurface data were also obtained,
the deduced volume loss is stated to be 1.8% for a 7.8m
diameter station tunnel.

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Subsurface ground movement measurements were also

presented by Marshall, Milligan and Mair in their paper on

o Long term data - - Equation 4

+ Short temr data ------ - Fitted Gaussian

a 1.8m diameter pipe jack in London Clay. The

Fig. 1. Immediate and post-construction surface

settlements above tunnel in London Clay (Bowers et gl)

construction method was hand excavation within a shield.

The pattems ofrsurface and subsurface ground movement
data were found to be very similar to those obtained for
larger tunnels in London Clay. Changes in ground stresses
due to construction of the tunnel are also presented, and
these are compared with simple elastic solutions.

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Grose and Eddie describe tunnel construction in

London Clay at Heathrow. The paper quotes a maximum
volume loss of 1% for a 4.5m diameter tunnel constructed
with a mechanised shield and expanded linings. Some of

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the length of tunnels were constructed using sprayed

concrete linings (NATM) and the quoted volume loss in the
paper for these tumrels is 0.5%. This is significantly lower

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than obtained for the Heathrow Express Trial Tunnels

(Bowers et al) using sprayed concrete linings.

Horizontal offset from centreline (m)

0 Short term data >< long term data

Bowers. Hiller and New describe the Heathrow

- - Derived strain (see text)

Express Trial Tunnels in London Clay and focus on the

Fig. 2. Immediate and post-construction horizontal strains

above tunnel in London Clay (Bowers et al)

post-construction settlement measurements. Three different

excavation sequences were used, all employing sprayed

44

ratio for the settlement profiles, there is very little change

in horizontal strain in the 3 year period. This too has

,_

important implications for buildings.

2.3 Other stifclays, marls and weak rocks

, Oteo and Sagaseta present data of horizontal ground

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movements at the surface, as well as settlements. The case

8_

histories given are for tunnels in Madrid, in which the

10'
12'

ground conditions are primarily stiff clays and marls. One

case history involves the use of sprayed concrete linings,
but the remaining case histories are for shield tunnels. The

authors compare the data with results of elastic finite

element analyses and with solutions for incompressible

14

0 50 1(1) 150 2(1)

Settfenent (rrm)

fluid flow.

Kavvadas, Hewison, Laskaratos, Seferoglou and

Michalis describe tumiel construction for the Athens metro

in weathered rocks, known as "Athenian schists", using

sprayed concrete linings and also TBM construction with
segments. The "Athenian schists" are a complex sequence

Qf thinly bedded clayey .and calcareous sandstones,

altemating with siltstones, slates, marls and limestones.
Sprayed concrete lining techniques were used to _construct
the 16.5m wide station tunnels; the maximum volume loss
for these is stated to be 0.2%. On one of the TBM drives
face instabilities occurred, Withlarge settlements occurring.

The authors highlight the difficulties of sampling and

characterizing the behaviour of complex weathered rocks
in what in reality is a soft ground tunnelling project.
Negro. Sozio and Ferreira present comprehensive
data on 25 case histories of tunnels in Sao Paulo, Brazil.

Most of these were constructed with sprayed concrete

linings although some were constructed with shields. The
majority of the tunnels are in over consolidated tertiary

Fig. 3. Surface and subsurface settlement above tunnel in

porous collapsible residual soil (Farias and Assis)

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soils, which 'are principally stiff/hard clays or medium

dense/dense sands. The volume losses generally obtained
were between 0.5 and 2%.

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2.4 Unusual Soils

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Another tunnel iri.Brazil, this time in Brasilia, is

described by Farias and Assis. This tunnel, 9.6m in

Fig. 4. Settlements above tunnel in leached

gypsum-bearing claystones (Egger)

diameter and constructed with sprayed concrete linings

(NATM), is in a porous collapsible residual soil.

Instrumentation was installed to measure subsurface and

surface movements. Figure 3 shows the very unusual

road tunnel was constructed using sprayed concrete linings

(NATM). Figure 4 shows that the ground movement data
obtained by the instrumentation indicated almost constant

pattem of settlements obtained above the centre line of the

ground movement with depth, and indeed considerable

tunnel. In most cases, less settlement is obtained at the

ground settlements to the side of the tunnel and beneath it.

ground surface than at the tunnel crown, but in this case the
reverse was measured. A ground settlement of 70mm was
deduced at the tunnel crown but at the ground surface a
much larger settlement of 170mm was measured. This is a
feature of the particular porous collapsible clay.

The explanation given by the author for these unusual

Unusual ground movement behaviour is also

measurements is the consolidation of the leached ground

due to drawdown of groundwater caused by the tunnelling
operation.

2.5 Surymary

reported by Egger in another difficult type of ground, this

time in Stuttgart, where the tunnel was constructed in

gypsum-bearing claystones ("Gipskeuper"), which were

The following key points can be concluded from the

papers on open face tunnelling:

leached near the ground surface. A 16m diameter three lane

l. In London Clay the volume losses obtained are

generally between 1 and 2%. An exception to this

was the significantly higher ground losses of around

3% obtained at the St James's Park measurement

site for the Jubilee Line Extension project.
2. Construction with sprayed concrete linings (NATM)
is effective in controlling ground movements in stiff
.clays, including London Clay. This may not be of
great surprise to those who have long experience of
sprayed concrete linings, but their use in London is

relatively recent and there was initially some

scepticism as to how effective the technique would
be in controlling ground movement.
3. Significant post construction settlements may occur

above tunnels in clay, but in the case of London

Clay measurements indicate that there are only very

small increases in deflection ratio and horizontal

Table 2: Papers On Closed Face Tunnelling

Construction Ground Volume Loss

Method Conditions (%)

Session 5

Atahan et al SS Sands/gravels `1.5

Dyer et al EPB Loose sands 20

Hashimoto et al EPB Soft clays

Hou et al SS Soft clays <2.0

Hwang et al EPB Silty sands/
soft clays

Kastner et al SS Sands/clays 0.8

Moh et al EPB Silty sands/ 1.3
soft clays

Simic and Gittoes EPB Sands/ 0.8-1.2

strain.

4. Large settlements can occur above tunnels in

unusual ground such as gypsum-bearing or
collapsible soils.

3. CLOSED FACE TUNNELLING

3.1 General
.Closed facetunnelling methods are used in unstable
ground conditions where the face requires support at all
times. This principally applies to permeable ground below
the watertable (i.e. mainly sands or mixtures of sands and

soft clays

Other Sessions

Forbes and Finch EPB Firm clays

Kuzuno et al SS Sands/clays
Linney and EPB Dense sands/ 1.0

Friedman stiff clays

Phienwej EPB Soft clay

Shirlaw et al EPB Dense sands/ <l.0

silts

Steiner SS Dense silts/ 0.4

sands/gravels

clays) or soft clays. '

SS= Slurry Shield, EPB= Earth Pressure Balance

Table 2 lists 8 papers from Session 5 on closed face

tunnelling, and there are another 6 papers from other

sessions. The case histories of slurry shield construction
involved tunnelling mainly in sands (with the exception of
the paper by Hou, Liao and Zhao dealing with soft clays in
Shanghai). Earth pressure balance machines are used more
universally for all types of unstable ground conditions, as
can be seen from Table 2. Where the volume loss is quoted

by the authors (or where there are sufficient data to

calculate it) the values are shown in Table 2.

3.2 Slurry Shields

Kastner, Ollier and Guibert describe comprehensive
instrumentation for three experimental sections for twin

6.3m diameter slurry shield tunnel construction for the

Lyons metro. The tunnels are in alluvial deposits, which
mainly comprise fine silty' sands and soft clays, as shown
in Figure 5. The development of ground settlements
immediately above one ofthe tunnels (VI) is shown in

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Figure 6. The authors identify four components of

particular tunnel. This was near the beginning of the whole

tunnel drive, and 78 hours lapsed during the passage of the

movement:

shield past the measuring section. Even including the

1. Approach of the shield

2. Passing of the shield (there was a 30 mm bead)
3. Passing of the tail ofthe shield and grouting of the
linings (heave is detectable)
4. Consolidation
It is relevant to note the slow progress rate for this

subsequent further consolidation settlements, the volume

losses (calculated in terms of the observed surface

settlements) were found to be 0.8% at the start ofthe tunnel
drive, decreasing to values well below 0.5% later on in the
drive. This illustrates how well ground movements can be
controlled by a slurry shield.

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A much larger slurry shield is described by Steiner.

An 1l.6m diameter tun_nel was constructed in dense silts,
sands and gravels below the water table for the Grauholz

tunnel in Switzerland. The tunnel was at very shallow

depth (approximately 12m to axis level) at the section for

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which a full surface settlement profile is reported. The

volume loss obtained was 0.4% or even less. To achieve

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good control of ground movements the author emphasises

the need to carefully control face support and the grouting

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Kuzuno. Takasaki. Tanaka and Tamai describe a

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Fig. 6. Development of surface and subsurface

settlements above slurry shield (Kastner et al)

Atahan. Leca and Guilloux describe an

instrumentation project for construction ofa 3.4m diameter
tunnel constructed with a slurry shield, at shallow depth in
alluvial sands and gravels below the water table,.as shown
in Figure 7. The segmental linings were also instrumented.

The maximum volume loss expressed in terms of the

observed surface settlements can be calculated as

approximately 1.5%. The authors also give data on
horizontal ground movements at depth, and they
demonstrate a relationship between ground movements and
face pressures.

remarkable method o_f construction of a 17m wide station

tunnel complex close beneath a building in clays and sands
below the water table, as shown in Figure 8. A triple
circular face slurry shield machine was constructed for this
purpose, so that the entire cross section was simultaneously
constructed. The ground above the tunnel and the building
were well instrumented. The maximum settlement of the

building amounted to only 7 mm, which is an excellent

achievement.
Hou Liao and Zhao describe a slurry shield of l 1.2m
diameter in the soft clays of Shanghai, China. Details ofthe
ground movement measurements are given and the volume
loss obtained was less than 2%. The paper also presents a
comparison of the slurry shield with a previous tunnel of

similar size -in the same soft clay, using a face grid to
maintain stability. In this latter case the volume loss was
about 15%. The authors identify the same four components
of ground movement as identified by Kastner et al, listed
earlier in this Report.

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~ _ (and at a depth of 18.5m to tunnel axis level) for the Taipei
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/ S" ' _ ~ Rapid Transit System. The instrumentation was designed

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identify similar components of ground movement as

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described by Kastner et al for slurry shield construction.

This is illustrated in Figure 9, from which it can be seen
that some settlementidevelops as the shield advances past

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the measuring point, and then significantly more settlement

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occurs as the tail passes, followed by a consolidation

component. In this case the volume loss associated with
tunnel construction (ignoring consolidation) was found to
be 1.3%. It was also found that there isa substantially
wider trough width at depth (measured in terms of the
distance to_the point of inflexion) than would be obtained
by applying a constant trough width parameter K to give
i = K (zo -z), as .shown on Figure 10. This conclusion is
similar to the results of recent analysis of measurements on

tunnels in clays (Mair et al, 1993), which shows the

parameter K to increase with depth below the ground
surface.

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Also for the Taipei Rapid Transit System, Hwang,

Moh and Chen present interesting and detailed pore

pressure measurements for two tunnels, one in silty sands,
the other in silty clays. The authors demonstrate that the
predominant cause of excess pore pressures induced in the
ground is the grouting for filling the tail void. This has
implications for the control- of subsequent consolidation
settlements for tunnels in clays.
Hashimoto. Hayakawa, Kurihara, Nomoto, Ohtsuka

-5.00
Transverse Distance to Point of Infiection, i, m
Fig. 10. Variation of trough width above EPB tunnel
construction in silty sands (Moh et al)

and Yamazaki review Japanese experience with earth

pressure balance machines in soft -alluvial ground

conditions and compare. these with slurry shields. A
statistical study appears to show that greater surface
settlement tends to be associated with earth pressure
balance machines than with slurry shields, but this may be

because the former tend to be more often employed in

alluvial clays. Their paper, which is a sequel to the paper

by Nomoto et al (1995), deals with various ground

displacement mechanisms, and compares field

measurements with data from centrifuge model tests.

Phienwe|` presents a review of experience of

construction of small diameter tunnels (between 2 and
3.5m) using earth pressure balance shields and other
techniques in the soft clay of Bangkok, as well as in the
stiff clay and sand strata. Ground movement measurements
are presented.

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Fig. 9. Development of surface and subsurface settlement

above EPB shield in silty sands (Moh et al)

Linney and Friedman describe earth pressure balance

shield construction in the very stiff clays and dense sands

of the Woolwich and Reading Beds in London. The

tunnels, 4.8m in diameter, were part of the Jubilee Line
Extension project. The volume loss was estimated to be
about 1%. The authors highlight the need for good control
of face pressures and steerage of the shield in order to
properly control ground movements.
Simic and Gittoes describe construction of a 9.7m
diameter tunnel for the Lisbon metro in Miocene sands
below the water table. The volume losses obtained were
between 0.8 and 1.2%. The authors give details of their
approach to settlement prediction when_ tunnelling in soft
alluvial clay, and the method adopted for assessment of risk

to buildings. `

Dyer, Hutchinson and" Evans present subsurface

ground movement measurements made during construction

of a 1.4m diameter tunnel in loose sands below the water

table. An earth pressure balance shield combined with

pipejacking was used. As shown on Figure 11 they found
an increase in the trough width parameter K with depth, as
found by Moh et al for the tunnels in Taipei sands, which
is very similar in principle to the behaviour of tunnels in
clays (Mair et al, 1993). The authors highlight the large
volume losses obtained as a result of the jacking of the
"pipe, causing the loose sands to compact. .Tacking of the
'pipe resulted in an additional volume loss of 14%, leading
to a total volume loss of 20%. These large volume losses
are partly a result of the very small tunnel diameter being
used in the calculation.

K=i/(Zo-Z)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

3.4 Summary

0 _ | | | '| | | The following major points emerge from the papers

on closed face tunnelling:

| 02 ' 1. There is potential for a high degree of settlement

R 0.6 - 2.
O 0.4

0_8

I..
Fig. 11. Variation of trough width settlement parameter
with depth for tunnel in loose sands 1Dyer et al)
Shirlaw. Pennington and Yi describe construction of
a 3m diameter tunnel in dense sands and silts below the

water table in Toronto, Canada using an earth balance

machine. Figure 12 clearly demonstrates the "leaming
curve" experiencedduring the early stage of construction.
After about 100m of the' tunnel u had been driven, very
small surface settlements were_obtained, corresponding to
volume losses of between 0 and 1%, but at the beginning of

the tunnel. drive very high settlements were obtained,

corresponding to volume losses in excess of 10%. This
highlights the importance of getting the leaming curve
under control rapidly with earth pressure balance machines
before tunnelling beneath zones where settlement control

is critical. , p

Difficulties with the learning curve are also' described

by Forbes and Finch in their paper on the St Clair River

Tunnel. A 9.2m earth pressure balance shield was used in
firm clays. It was found that the settlements were very
sensitive to the face pressures. In one instance 25mm of
heave was obtained, whereas 85mm of settlement occurred
at another location, but in general good settlement control
was achieved. The authors refer to the initial difficulties in
controlling the face pressures.

control, and volume losses are often as low as

0.5%.
Provided that there is a high degree of control on

face pressure, the principal causes of ground

movement are (a) the shield passage (which may
lead to settlement through closure of the soil onto
the shield due to the overcut, and also shearing of
the soil may lead to settlement), and (b) the tail
void. An additional cause can be grouting of the

tail void causing excess pore pressures in the

ground.

3. A key element in control of ground movements

with slurry shields or earth pressure balance

shields is the provision of the appropriate face
pressure. It is clear that there is often a significant
learning curve in achieving this, particularly in the
case of earth pressure balance shields.

4. EFFECTS_ ON STRUCTURES, SERVICES AND

TUNNELS

4.1 General
There are seven papers to Session 5 which relate to
settlement effects of bored tunnels on structures, services
and other tunnels, and four papers from other sessions.
Excluded from this group of papers are those conceming

the use of ground treatment, such as compensation

grouting, to protect structures from the effects of
tunnelling. These are reviewed in the report for Session 3.

4.2 Structures

-25 -_.___._i6 ...... _-sz .......... _ ...... ___._- .__ ...... __ ._ .... _ ............... _.-- ............... _ .... _.-.___

Forth and Thorley present a case history of the effects

of tunnel construction in Hong Kong on a piled building.
Two 7.9m diameter tunnels were driven adjacent to the
piles using open face tunnelling shields and compressed
air. The ground was completely weathered granite, below
the water table. The maximum recorded settlement of the

5 _75 ___.12 _ .__. _.____._. .._.._ _ ._ _......._.._....._ _Q ...._..._._..._..._. -.-.-._.

building at the side nearest to the tunnels was 12 mm,

presumably largely due to negative skin friction effects

.
;
i
_
E
i
.
_
E _ V _ Q

2.

. as -5-46
48._ 450 53 '67-70
0 `I24` _36
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28 37 ` 7 1 54 59 5

.50_
__.-____
I ._.........._.. 1
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1_
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E -100 .___ ___... _._ ._.__. LEGEND: _-_

3 ,125 _ ._'..._. _ _.._._ Da|a point .... _

.150 - ......_ as rdenrinearion nurnber

5II s3_. _e

3 of setllemenl poinl
0 100 200 300 400 500

.115 ...._..._..... __..___.___.._... ______.___..._.._. ._._

200

Chainage (m)

Fig. 12. Surface settlements above EPB tunnel in very

dense sands and silts (Shirlaw et al)

caused by the tunnelling. There are generally very few case

histories in the literature of the effects of tunnels on piled
buildings, and there is a need for more measurements.
An unusual example of a structure affected by a tunnel
is given by Eggg. A 10m diameter tunnel was constructed
in weathered claystones using sprayed concrete beneath an
ice skating rink in Stuttgart. The maximum settlement was
l7mm, and the resulting settlement profile was equivalent
to a volume loss of 0.5%. Unlike many structures, the ice
rink behaved in a fully flexible manner. Nevertheless it was
particularly sensitive to differential settlements, and very
careful control was exercised in construction of the tunnel.

A methodology for the assessment of risk of damage

to masomy buildings from bored tumrelling is presented by
Mair, Taylor and Burland. If a building is fully flexible, it
will confonn to the' "green field site" settlement trough as

depicted in Figure 13. The deflection ratios (Ah/Lh or

A S/LS, corresponding to the hogging or sagging part of the
structure), together with the horizontal strain induced in the
building will determine the potential degree of cracking in

the masonry. Having estimated the deflection ratios and

the horizontal strains likely to be induced in the building,
the potential damage can then be assessed, based on the
classification of damage to masonry developed at the
Building Research Establishment in the UK.
The important assumption that is frequently made in

assessments of potential damage is that the building

-_ 0.6.2
0; | | I 1 p,
`|

V
_ 0.4 _
-_ e/B=0
0.4 '

MDRsag:

1_

0io'i I 26 I "4 I i '2 -0 if

J $2/B<0.2

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M Rhogi

follows the profile of the ground as if it were a green field

site. This is in many cases conservative, because buildings
frequently do not behave as perfectly flexible structures.

Fig. 14. Modification factors for deflection ratio

(Potts and Addenbrooke]

The actual settlement profile of a building can be

the relative bending stiffness (p*), which expresses the

relative stiffness between the building and the underlying
ground, and the corresponding relative axial stiffness. In

considerably wider and shallower than the corresponding

"green field site" Gaussian settlement trough, with

correspondingly much lower deflection ratios and
distortions.

The difference . "between the actual building

performance and the' predicted performance based on
perfectly flexible behaviour is of major importance and is
the subject of a collaborative research programme being

undertaken during construction of -the Jubilee Line

Extension project, described by Burland, Mair, Linney,

Figure l4,\.modification factors to the deflection ratios that

would be obtained from the "green field site" settlement
profiles are presented as different curves for ratios of the
eccentricity of the tunnel (e) from the centre line of the
building (e/B), where B is the width of the building. These
vary with the relative bending stiffness, p*. Many buildings
have p* values exceeding 10'2. Figure 14 indicates that in

Jardine and Standing in Session 6 of this' Symposium.

these cases the modification factor will be in the range of

0.1 - 0.2, i.e. the deflection ratio that would be predicted

The influence of building stiffness on settlement

profile has been studied parametrically by Potts and

reduced to only 10-20% of that value by the stiffness of the

Addenbrooke using finite element analyses. About l_00

analyses were undertaken of different configurations of
tunnel and building dimensions. Two important
dimensionless parameters are introduced by the authorsi

building. This has major significance on our methods of

prediction and understanding of how buildings actually
behave in response to tunnelling.
There is a pressing need to monitor_buildings and

assuming the building performs perfectly flexibly is

record their detailed behaviour during tunnelling. _

Wardle and de Rossi describe the use of electrolevels to

HogglngZone
Sagglng
Zone

` |14 Building :

monitor buildings and structures during tunnel

construction. Electrolevels are comparatively new devices
and have been used with great success_, although there are
a number of potential difficulties which can be overcome

with care. One problem is the influence of temperature

2 A~f'~~

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ii

5N111
Ln 2 A~ "

change on electrolevels, and this is discussed by the

authors.
4. 3. Services

Settlement effects on services are often neglected until

a rather late stage in a proposed tunnelling project.

Bracegirdle. Mair, Nyren and Taylor set out a simple
methodology for evaluating potential damage to buried cast
iron pipes from tunnelling operations.
Another paper relating to services is that by Chapman,

which is a review paper on the ground movements

associated with pipe jacking operations. In many cases of
Fig. 13. Deformation of flexible building due to
tunnelling Mair et al)

small diameter pipe jacking the effect of ground

movements is of most relevance to adjacent services. The

author illustrates the heavy dependence on workmanship,

and highlights the occurrence of heave which is often

change in diameter
(% fi1iti='1 Value) . side-by-side;horizionta1 diameter

associated with pipe jacking operations.

0_3_ 0 side-by-side; vertical diameter '

4.4 Tunnels
Kimmance, Lawrence, Hassan, Purchase and Tollinger

give useful measurements made on the Jubilee Line

Extension project when new tunnels passed adjacent to or

close beneath existing tunnels. The measurements

presented are of value to tunnelling engineers

contemplating similar construction in the future. The clear

distance between the invert of existing tunnels and the

crown of a new 5.4m diameter tunnel constructed in
London Clay using sprayed concrete linings range from 2m

to as little as 0.4m. Even in the case where the clearance

was only 0.4m, the settlement of the invert of the existing
tunnel was only 15 mm and no visible distress of the cast
iron linings was observed; the corresponding increase in
vertical diameter was only 2 mm. The authors also present
valuable data on the effect of tunnelling alongside existing
tunnels. They show that the increase inhorizontal diameter
of the existing tunnels amounted to less than 0.1%.
A parametric study of the influence of twin tunnel
construction has been undertaken by Addenbrooke and
1295. They undertook finite element analyses of a number
of geometric configurations, modelling construction of a
running tunnel of 4m in diameter in London Clay either

above or alongside an existing tunnel. The authors

expressed the results of the response of the existing tunnel
lining to the passage of adjacent tunnels in terms of change

lengthening n piggy-back; horizontal diamater

02__ , piggy-baek;ver1ica1'diameter ,
, side~by-side data

_ (Ward, 1969)

0.l-

.' 0`

0 ` 0 Kimmarrce et al

0 P ,ifI: 2 ae-+ .9 9 e
-0.1- Q
-0.2-0

_ shortening

0 2 4 8 10

-0.3-| s | I | I | | | A |
pillar dimension (multiple of diameters)

Fig 15. Predicted response -of tunnel lining to passage of

adjacent tunnel (after Addenbrooke and Potts)
\.

Both tunnels lay partly in the sands and partly in the clays
of the Woolwich and Reading Beds in London. The reason

for the acid attack is complex: generation of the acid

required the presence of both oxygen and water, so that
oxidation of pyrites present in the soil could occur. The
only part of the tunnels that were affected was in a sand
filled valley in the clays, where there was a relatively small

in diameter. Figure 15 shows the predicted effect of

amount of perched water. Elsewhere along the tunnel

length, the sands were relatively dry and no acid attack

"piggyback" tunnels (constructed above an existing tunnel)

occurred.

as well as "side by side" tunnels. Given that I a 0.05%

diameter change is usually very small, and in many cases
hardly measurable, this parametric study indicates that the
influence of one side by side tunnel in London Clay on the
other tunnel becomes negligible when the clear spacing
exceeds about two tunnel diameters.

4. 5 Summary

Theoretical parametric studies demonstrate the

importance of soil-structure interaction and demonstrate

how the building stiffness plays an important role in

The data from _Kimmance et al (expressed as

modifying "green field" settlement troughs. Little is known

percentage diameter changes) are shown on Figure 15.

about the extent to which services might modify

Taken with the measurements by Ward (1969), which are

also shown on Figure 15, these are in 'reasonable agreement
with the predictions by Addenbrooke and Potts.
Kim. Burd and Milligan describe an ingenious set of
model tests in the laboratory investigating the influence of
construction of a tunnel in soft clay on an adjacent tunnel.
Their results are broadly consistent with the conclusions

reached in the theoretical studies by Addenbrooke and

Potts, in that negligible effects are implied if the clear
spacing between the tunnels exceeds about two diameters.
Bracegirdle, Jefferis, Tedd, Crammond, Chudleigh and
Burgess describe an unusual case history where a pair of
tunnels were subject to acid attack which led to excessively
high deformations ofthe tunnel linings. The tunnels are of
cast iron construction built in the early part of this century.
Over part of their length considerable inward horizontal
movements of the linings took place with severe cracking.

"greenfield" settlement troughs and, more importantly, the

horizontal ground movements. `

Measurements show that tunnel construction close to

existing tunnels in stiff soils such as London Clay lead to
relatively small changes in diameter. These observations
are consistent with theoretical and model studies.
It is often the effects on structures, services and other
tunnels which are of paramount importance in any urban
soft ground tunnelling scheme. Despite this, it is noticeable
that of the 116 papers submitted to this Symposium, there
are very few case records of the detailed performance of
structures, services and tunnels subjected to movements

induced by tunnelling. As is so often stated, there is a

pressing need for more field measurements, and many of
these are now being obtained on buildings affected by the
Jubilee Line Extension project (Burland et al). With such
field measurements and data on other tunnelling projects it

is to be hoped that engineers will soon be better equipped

to make more realistic predictions of the effects of bored
tunnels on structures, services and tunnels.

ground movements and assessment of risk of building

damage due to bored tunnelling.

Marshall, M. A., Milligan, G.W.E. and Mair, R.J

Movements and stress changes in London Clay due to

REFERENCES

the construction of a pipe jack. _ I I

Moh, Z. C., Ju, D. H. and Hwang, R. N. Ground

Mair, R.J., Taylor, R.N. and Bracegirdle, A. (1993).

Subsurface settlement profiles above tunnels in clay.
Geotechnique 43; 2; 315-320.

Nomoto, T., Mori, H. and Matsumoto, M. (1995).

Overview of ground movement during shield
tunnelling: a survey on Japanese shield tunnelling.
Proc. Int. Symposium on Underground Construction

in Soft Ground, New Delhi, 1994, 345-351,

Balkema.
Ward, W.H. (1969). Deep excavations and tunnelling in
soft ground - discussion of paper by Peck, R.B. Proc.
7th ICSMFE, Mexico, Vol. 3, 320-5.

Symposium papers reviewed in this Report:

movements around tunnels in soft ground.

Oteo, C. S. and Sageseta, C. Some Spanish experiences on
measurement and evaluation of ground displacements
around urban tunnels.

Price, G., Wardle, I. F. and de Rossi, N. Monitoring of

tunnels, surrounding ground and adjacent structures.
Simic, D. and Gittoes, G. Ground behaviour and potential
damage to buildings caused by the construction of a
large diameter tunnel for the Lisbon Metro.
Standing, J _ R., Nyren, R. J ., Longworth, T. I. and Burland,
J _ B.- The measurement of ground movements due to

Extension. `

tunnelling at two control sites along the Jubilee Line

Umney, A. R. and Heath, G. R. Recorded settlements from
the DLR tunnels to Bank.

Session 5
Other Sessions

Atahan, C., Leca, E. and Guilloux, A. Performance of a

shield driven sewer tunnel in the Val-de-Mame,

France.

Bowers, K. -H., Hiller, D.M. and New, B.M. Ground

movement over three years at the _Heathrow Express
Trial Tunnel.
Bracegirdle, A., Jefferis, S. A., Tedd, P., Crammond, N. J .,
Chudleigh, I. and Burgess, N. The investigation of acid
generation within the Woolwich and 'Reading Beds at
Old Street and its effect on tunnel linings.
Bracegirdle, A., Mair, R. J ., Nyren, R. J. and Taylor, R. N.

A simple methodology for evaluating the potential

damage to buried cast iron pipes from ground

movements. I

Chapman, D. N. Ground movements associated with

pipejacking operations.

Addenbrooke, T. I. and Potts, D. M. Twin tunnel

construction - _ground movements and lining
behaviour.

Burland, J. B., Mair, R. J., Linney, L. F., Jardine, F. M.

and Standing, J. R. A collaborative research

programme on subsidence damage to buildings:
prediction, protection and repair.

Egger, P. Tunnel construction in Stuttgart: problems of

settlements and swelling rock.
Farias, M. M. and Assis, A. P. Numerical simulation of a
tunnel excavated in a porous collapsible soil.
Forbes, J. and Finch, A. P. Application of compensation
grouting to the St Clair River Tunnel Project, North
America.
Grose, W. J _ and Eddie, C. M. Geotechnical aspects of the

Dyer, M. R., Hutchinson, M. T. and Evans, N. Sudden

Valley Sewer: a case history.

construction of the Heathrow Transfer Baggage

Forth, R. A. and Thorley, C. B. B. Hong Kong Island Line

- prediction and performance.
Hashimoto, H., Hayakawa, K., Kurihara, K., Nomoto, T.,

Kavvadas, M., Hewison, L. R., Laskaratos, P. G.,

Ohtsuka, M. and Yamazaki, T. Some aspects of

Kim, S. H., Burd, H. J _ and Milligan, G. W. E. Interaction

between closely spaced tunnels in clay.

ground movement during shield tunnelling in Japan.

Hou, X. Y., Liao, S. and Zhao, Y. Field measurements

from two tunnels in Shanghai.

Hwang, R. N., Moh, Z-C. and Chen, M. Pore pressure

induced in soft ground due to tunnelling.
Kastner, R., Ollier, C. and Guibert, G. In situ monitoring of
the Lyons Metro D Line extension.
Kimmance, J .P., Lawrence, S., Hassan, G., Purchase, N.J.

and Tollinger, G. Observations of deformations

created in existing tunnels by adjacent and cross
cutting excavations.
Mair, R. J ., Taylor, R. N. and Burland, J _ B. Prediction of

System tunnel.

Seferoglou, O. and Michalis, I. Experiences from the

construction of the Athens Metro. _

Kuzuno, T., Takasaki, H., Tanaka, M. and Tamai, T.
Driving control and ground behaviour of triple circular
face shield machine.
Linney, L. and Friedman, M. Protection of buildings from

tunnelling induced settlement using perrneation

grouting.

Negro Jr, A., Sozio, L. E. and Ferreira, A. A. Tunnelling

A in Sao Paulo, Brazil.
Phienwej, N. Geotechnical experiences from previous
tunnel projects in Bangkok soils.
Potts, D. M. and Addenbrooke, T. I. The influence of an

existing surface structure on the ground movements

due to tunnelling. _

Shirlaw, J. N., Pennington, B. N. and Yi, X. Monitoring

during the construction of the Allen Sewer Tunnel,
Toronto, Canada.
Steiner, W. Slurry penetration into coarse grained soils and
settlements from a large slurry shield tunnel.