The author describes the advantages of an integrated treatment of the application of

electromagnetic theory, based on Maxwell's equations, to electrical machines. Dr.

Nasar is Assistant Professor of Electrical Engineering with the East Pakistan
University of Engineering and Technology.

Unified theory of electrical machines

S. A. NASAR, B.SC, M.S., PH.D.
Electrical machines have often been treated as lumpedparameter networks, and have been analysed by the techniques, such as matrixes and tensors, applicable to lumpedparameter linear systems. Based on this method, a generalised
and unified theory for electrical machines has evolved.
An alternative approach to the analysis of electrical
machines is through the discipline of the continuum, such
as the application of classical electromagnetic theory. The
lumped-parameter circuit analysis and the continuousmedium field analysis both have their merits, and one cannot
be substituted for the other. A survey of the literature on
electrical machines indicates that the bulk of the work relates
to network-theory methods. In my paper, an attempt is
made to present an integrated treatment of the application
of electromagnetic theory to electrical machines, thereby
obtaining a unified machine theory. Such an approach to
electrical machines has definite advantages, which are discussed later.
The basic laws of electricity, which govern all electromagnetic phenomena, can be expressed as a set of equations,
called Maxwell's equations. These equations are, naturally,
also applicable to electrical machines. The object of analysing
electrical machines, through the use of Maxwell's equations,
may be one or more of the following:
for purely academic and educational reasons
to unify the apparently different theories for different
machines
to simplify, with rigour, the otherwise complicated and
less rigorous methods
to obtain the solution to problems that cannot be solved
by other methods
to determine the parameters of the machine, which may
be treated subsequently by circuit theory.
The advantages of such an approach lie in the objectives
just enumerated.
The field-theory methods of predetermining the performance of electrical machines can be roughly classified as:
energy-storage methods
energy-transfer methods
methods derived from the analogies between field theory
and circuit theory
certain special techniques, such as the method of images
and conformal-transformation and graphical methods.
An outline of these methods is now presented.
Energy-storage methods
In order to make a machine problem amenable to field
analysis, a model is chosen. The actual slotted structures
are replaced by smooth structures, and the actual windings
are replaced by infinitely thin current sheets. It is assumed
that all the magnetic energy is stored in the air gap of the
machine and the energy stored in the iron is negligible. The
actual air-gap length is replaced by the effective air gap. The
boundary-value problem is then solved, and the fields in the
air gap are found by solving Laplace's equation for the magnetic vector or scalar potential. The fields may also be
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obtained directly, without the use of the potential functions.

In any case, having determined the fields, the energy stored
in the air gap is calculated. This yields the inductance
coefficients and the equations of motion of the machine.
The method is especially suitable for induction and synchronous machines.
Energy-transfer methods
An alternative method of obtaining the machine characteristics is by calculating the magnetic energy crossing the
air gap of the machine. This is determined by obtaining the
electric and magnetic fields, by solving Maxwell's equations,
and then calculating the power density through the use of
the Poynting vector. The losses can then be subtracted from
the total energy crossing the air gap to obtain the output at
the shaft. This method has been shown to be applicable to
d.c. machines and synchronous and induction machines.
Correlation between field theory and circuit theory
An analogy has been made between field theory and
circuit theory. The concept of wave impedance has been used
in the analysis of transformers and induction motors. An
appropriate model is chosen for which the characteristic
impedance and the propagation constant are defined. The
transmission-line theory is then used to determine the current
and voltage distribution along an analogous transmission
line. This yields the corresponding current density and flux
density in the motor. The application of the Lorentz force
equation gives the torque developed by the machine.
Methods of images and conformal transformations
The methods of images and conformal transformations have
very important applications in electromagnetic theory. With
regard to electrical machines, the method of images is useful
in determining the end-connection leakages. A suitable model
is chosen to replace the actual end connections. The equipotentials are then replaced by images, and the resultant fields
are calculated. Several published papers are available on this
topic.
The method of conformal transformations is suitable to
a machine problem where an irregular surface, such as salient
poles, is to be reduced to a smooth surface to facilitate the
solution of the boundary-value problem, so that energy
methods may be applicable.
Finally, the effects of space harmonics can be conveniently
taken into account. It can be shown, from field analysis,
that the different harmonics in the air-gap fields of a machine
do not interact to produce any torque. The electromagnetic
theory has a wide range of application to machine problems,
and it leads to a unified machine theory. For instance, for
a single-phase induction motor, the double-revolving-field
theory and the crossfield theory can be blended into one
via the field theory. Other applications include the analysis
of d.c. machines; polyphase induction machines; salientand nonsalient-pole synchronous machines; sleeve-rotor,
solid-rotor and eddy-current machines; hydromagnetic d.c.
Paper 4479
convertors; and liquid-metal pumps.
Electronics and Power June 1964