Theory and Design of Structures

ARCH 1182

CHAPTER 5
Introduction to concrete design
1.1 Properties of reinforced concrete
Concrete
Concrete is stone like material obtained artificially by hardening of the
mixture of cement, inert-aggregate materials (fine & course) and water in
predetermined proportions.
A wide range of strength properties can be obtained by appropriate
adjustment of the proportions of its constituents but it is known that it has
enough strength in compression, little tensile strength which makes it weak in
bending, shear and torsion.
Thus, for common structures such as beams, slabs, etc, concrete requires steel
bars to be placed at tensile zone of the structure which may be concreted.

Important factors contributing to strength of concrete:

water cement ratio
curing of concrete
temperature

Advantages of concrete
It is moldable in to any desired shape.
It does not deteriorate with time.
It is fire, weather and corrosion resistant.
It is monolithic

Disadvantage of concrete
It is difficult to dismantle
It requires formwork (expensive)
It is difficult to supervise after pouring.
Due to crack, large portion of section not efficiently used.

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Compressive Strength of concrete:

Water-cement ratio is the main factor affecting the strength of concrete,

as shown in figure below.

Compressive
Strength of
Concrete

Water-cement ratio

It is the main measure of the structural quality of concrete.

Test for this property is made either on cylinder specimen (6x12 in (or) 150 x 300
mm) or on a cube of 150mm to obtain the cylinder compressive strength or cube
compressive strength respectively.

These tests are generally made on the 28th day from the date of preparation of
specimens. The later measurement, (cube), is used in the Ethiopian standard where
concrete is graded as C5, C10, C15, C20, C25, C30, C40, C50, in which the number
indicate strength in MPa.

The performance of materials of structure under load best is represented by

stress-strain diagram. A typical set of such curve are obtained at normal, moderate
testing speed on concrete of 28days old are as shown in figure below, for various
compressive strength of concrete.

fc3

fc3>fc2>fc1

Concrete
comp.
fc2
Strength
fc1

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Modulus of elasticity of concrete may be defined as, ratio of Stress of concrete to

strain of concrete at a point.
whenever E is used without further designation, it is usually meant the secant
modulus, EC, in MPa (N/mm2).

Tensile strength of concrete

Concrete is weak in tension but its tensile strength is important in a variety of items

Shear and torsion resistance of RC members primarily depend on tensile

strength of concrete..

the conditions under which cracks form and propagate on tension zone of RC
flexural members depend strongly on the tensile strength of concrete.

Two methods are used to determine tensile strength of concrete. These are
beam-test and split-cylinder test method.

Important Features of Concrete

Characteristic Strength of Materials

For both concrete and reinforcement the Code uses the term characteristic
strength instead of 28-day works cube strength and yield stress.

The characteristic strength for all materials has the notation fk and is defined as
the value of the cube strength of concrete (fcu), the yield or proof stress of
reinforcement (fy), below which 5% of all possible test results would be expected
to fall.
The value is therefore:
fk = fm 1.64s
Where: fm is the mean strength of actual test results determined in accordance
with a standard procedure,
s is the standard deviation, and
1.64 is the value of the constant required to comply with 5% of the test

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results falling below the characteristic strength, as indicated in

Fig. 1.2.1.

Fig. 1.2.1 Characteristic strength

Compressive Strength
-

The strength of concrete for design purposes will be based on compressive tests
made on cubes at an age of 28 days unless there is satisfactory evidence that a
particular testing regime is capable of predicting the 28-day strength at an earlier
age.
The 28-days characteristic strengths determine the grade of the concrete and it is
important to select the correct grade appropriate for use.
The concrete has to provide the durability for the environmental conditions as well
as adequate strength for the loading requirements.

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Table 1.2.1 Grades of Concrete

Class

Permissible Grades of Cocrete

C5

C15

C20

II

C5

C15

C20

C25

C30

C40

C50

C60

In accordance with Ethiopian Standards, compressive strength of concrete is

determined from tests on 150mm cubes at the age of 28 days.
Cylindrical or cubical specimens of other sizes may also be used with conversion
factors determined from a comprehensive series of tests.
In the absence of such tests, the conversion factors given in Table 1.2.2 may be
applied to obtain the equivalent characteristic strength on the basis of 150mm
cubes.
Table 1.2.2 Conversion Factors for strength
Size and Type of Test Specimen

Conversion Factor

Cube (200 mm)

1.05

Cylinder (150mm diameter 300mm height)

1.25

The characteristic cylinder compressive strength fck are given for different grades of
concrete in Table 1.2.3.
Table 1.2.3
Grades of Concrete and Characteristic Cylinder Compressive Strength fck.
Grades of
C15

C20

C25

C30

C40

C50

C60

12

16

20

24

32

40

48

Concrete
fck

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In selecting an appropriate grade of concrete, the designer has to determine the

environment and exposure conditions to which the members of the structure will be
subjected.

1.2

Reinforcing Steel

Steel reinforcements are available in the form of round bars and welded wire fabric.

Deformed bars are the most commonly used bars which have projected ribs on the
surface of bar. The ribs of deformed bar improve the bond between steel and the
surrounding concrete in RC members by providing mechanical keys.

A wide range of reinforcing bars is available with nominal diameter ranging

6mm to 35mm. Most bars except 6mm diameter are deformed one.
Some of the common bar size with their application in concrete works are given in
table below.
For stirrups

For beams &

columns

For slabs

Diam.
(mm)

10 12

14 16

18

20

22 25 28

Area
(cm2)

0.28

0.50

0.785 1.13

1.54

2.01

2.52

3.14

3.8

4.9

6.2

Weight
(kg/m)

.222

.395

.617

1.21

1.57

2.0

2.47

3.0

3.9

4.8

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Strength of reinforcing steel

-

Reinforcing steel is capable of resisting both tension and compression.

Compared with concrete, it is a high strength material. For instance, the strength
of ordinary reinforcing steel is about 10 & 100 times, the compressive & tensile
strength of common structural concrete.

1.3

Reinforced Concrete (as a composite material)

It is known that plain concrete is quite strong in compression, weak in tension. On the
other hand, steel is a high cost material which able to resist both tension & compression.
The two materials (plain concrete & reinforcing steel) are best be utilized in logical
combination if steel bars are embedded in the plain concrete in tension zone close to the
surface. In this case, plain concrete is made to resist the compressive stresses and
reinforcing steel resists the tensile stresses. Both plain concrete & reinforcing steel bar
together assumed to act as one composite unit and it is termed as reinforced concrete
(RC). The tensile stresses developed in the section are transferred to reinforcing steel

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by the bond between the interfaces of the two materials.

In all RC members, strength design is made on the assumption that concrete does not
resist any tensile stresses. All the tensile stresses are assumed to be resisted by the
reinforcing steel imbedded in tension zone. Sometimes if necessary, reinforcing steel is
provided in compression zone to assist the concrete resisting compression in addition to
reducing creep deformation.

Reinforcing steel & concrete may work readily in combinations due to the following
reasons.
1. Bond between the bars & the surrounding concrete prevents slip of the bars
relative to the concrete. Adequate concrete cover for steel bar and embedment
length of bar are required to transfer stress between steel and concrete
without slipping.
2. Proper concrete mixes provide adequate impermeability of concrete against bar
corrosion.
3. Sufficiently similar rates of thermal expansion (0.00001/0C to 0.000013/0C for
concrete and 0.000012/0C for steel) introduce negligible stresses between
steel and concrete under temperature changes.

Advantages of Reinforced Concrete:

1. It is monolithic. This gives it more rigidity.
2. It is durable. It does not deteriorate with time.
3. While it is plastic, it can be moldable into any desired shape.
4. It is fire, weather and corrosion resistant.
5. By proper proportioning of mix, concrete can be made water-tight.
6. It maintenance cost is practically nil.

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Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete:

1. It is difficult to demolish in case of repair of modification.
2. It is too difficult to inspect after the concrete has been poured.

3. 1.4 Design Philosophies (Methods)

The object of reinforced concrete design is to achieve a structure or part structure
that will result in a safe and economical solution. For a given structural system, the
design problem consists of the following steps:
1. Idealization of structure for analysis (dimension of members, support condition of
structure and etc.)
2. Estimation of loadings.
3. Analysis of idealized structural model to determine stress-resultants (axial
forces,

shear

forces,

torsions

&

bending

moments)

and

their

effects

(deformations).
4. Design of structural elements (if assumed dimensions are adequate).
5. Detailed structural drawings and schedule of reinforcing bars.

To achieve safe and economic structures, three philosophies of design had been adopted
by codes of practices.
These are:

Working Stress Design (WSD) or Elastic Design Method

Ultimate Strength Design (USD) Method, and

Limit State Design (LSD) Method.

Working Stress Design (WSD) method: -WSD is the oldest and simplest method of
design used for reinforced concrete structures. It is based on the assumption that
concrete is elastic, steel & concrete together act elastically. Also, the stresses
developed in concrete & steel are not exceeded the respective allowable stresses any

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where in the structure when structure is subjected to the worst combination of

service design loads. The allowable stresses of materials are determined dividing
material strengths by a factor of safety. Safety factors specified by British
standard are 3 for concrete and 1.8 for reinforcing steel. These safety factors are
obtained from many years of practical experience and engineering judgment. The
safety factors specified by codes are assumed to cover all uncertainties existing in
estimations of service design loads and material strengths.
The sections of members of structure are designed in accordance with elastic theory of
bending assuming that both materials obeying Hookes law. The elastic theory assumes a
linear variation of strain & stress from zero at neutral axis to a maximum at the extreme
fibers of section of member; and the maximum stress developed anywhere in properly
designed element of structure not to exceed the allowable stress of the materials.
Thus, design format used in WSD method may be expressed as:
f (stress due to service design loads) fallow (material strength)

The main drawbacks of WSD method are as follows:

1. Concrete is not elastic material. The inelastic behavior of concrete starts right
from very low stresses. The actual stress distribution of concrete in section
cannot be described by a triangular stress diagram.
2. Since factor of safety is applied on the strength of materials, there is no way to
account for different degrees of uncertainty associated with different types of
loadings.
3. It is difficult to account for creep and shrinkage by computations of elastic
stresses.

Beside these drawbacks, the method does not ensure consistence safety of
structure and also provide
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uneconomical section.

Ultimate Strength Design (USD) method: -Design of structure or part of structure

in USD method is based on ultimate load theory; and it is made to resist the desired
ultimate (collapse) loads using idealized strength model (either parabola or parabolarectangle stress block) just before failure of section plastically. In ultimate load
theory, it is assumed that the section of member of structure failed plastically when
the maximum compressive strain of concrete reaches the ultimate compressive strain
of concrete specified by codes (may be about 0.3 to 0.35%). The desired ultimate
loads are obtained by increasing sufficiently the service loadings using specified
factors. These factors are called over-load factors. Separate over-load factors are
applied for different loadings considering uncertainties existing in estimation of
different loadings. Design format used in USD method may be expressed as:
strength provided
(stress block)

action due to ultimate

loads
(analysis of structure)

A major advantage of USD method over WSD method is that total safety factor of
structure thus found to be nearer to its actual value. Further, structures designed by
USD method require less reinforcement than those designed by the WSD method.
The main draw backs of USD method are as follows:
1. Since load factor is used on the service loads, there is no way to account for
different degrees of uncertainty associated with variation in material strengths.
2. There is complete disregard for control against excessive deflections.

Limit State Design (LSD) method: -Limit state design method has developed from
ultimate strength design method in order to apply in service load and ultimate load
conditions. Design of structure in limit state is made to achieve an acceptable
probability that structure or part of it will not become unfit for use for which it is

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intended during expected life. That is, it will not reach any of the specified limit
state. The limit state of structure is the condition of its being not fit for use. A
structure with appropriate degrees of reliability should be able to withstand safely all
possible combinations of design loads that are liable to act on it throughout its life
and it should also satisfy the serviceability requirements, such as, limitations on
deflection and cracking. Further, it should be able to maintain the required structural
integrity during and after accidents such as fires, explosions and local failure. In
other words, all relevant limit states must to be considered in design to ensure an
adequate degree of safety and serviceability. These limit states which must be
examined in design are broadly classified in to two major limit states. These are:
- Ultimate strength limit state (Limit state of collapse), and
- Serviceability limit state

Ultimate strength limit state: -which deals with the strength and stability of the
structure under the maximum over load it is expected to carry. This implies that
whole of the structure or part of it should not fail under any combination of expected
over load. Ultimate load theory is generally applicable for ultimate strength limit
state. Ultimate strength limit state may include ultimate limit state for:

-flexure
-shear
-compression
-torsion
-tension
-stability of structure for over-turning & sliding

Serviceability limit state: -which deals with conditions such as deflection, cracking
of structure under service loads, durability, excessive vibration, fire resistance,

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fatigue, etc. Elastic (working stress) theory is generally applicable for serviceability
limit state.

When dealing with the most economical structure associated with safety and
serviceability requirements, the variability exists between construction materials and
the construction process itself. We should be able to state a design philosophy to
cope with the various criteria required to define the serviceability or usefulness of
any structure in a rational manner.

The various criteria required to define the serviceability or usefulness of any

structure can be described under the following headlines. The effects listed may lead
to the structure being considered 'unfit for use'.
(i). Collapse: failure of one or more critical sections; overturning or buckling.
(ii). Deflection: the deflection of the structure or any part of the
structure adversely affects the appearance or efficiency of the
structure.
(iii). Cracking: cracking of the concrete which may adversely affect the appearance
or efficiency of the structure.
(iv). Vibration: vibration from forces due to wind or machinery may cause discomfort
or alarm, damage the structure or interfere with its proper function.
(v). Durability: porosity of concrete.
(vi). Fatigue: where loading is predominantly cyclic in character the effects
have to be considered. (vii). Fire resistance: insufficient resistance to fire
leading to 1, 2 and 3 above.

When any structure is rendered unfit for use for its designed function by one or

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more of the above causes, it is said to have entered a limit state. The Code defines
the limit states as:
(i). Ultimate limit state: the ultimate limit state is preferred to collapse.

(ii). Serviceability limit states: deflection, cracking, vibration, durability, fatigue,

fire resistance and lightning.
The purpose of design then is to ensure that the structure being designed will not
become unfit for the use for which it is required, i.e. that it will not reach a limit state.
The essential basis for the design method, therefore, is to consider each limit state and
to provide a suitable margin of safety. To obtain values for this margin of safety it was
proposed that probability considerations should be used and the design process should
aim at providing acceptable probabilities so that the structure would not become unfit
for use throughout its specified life.

Accepting the fact that the strengths of construction materials vary, as do also the loads
on the structure, two partial safety factors will now be used. One will be for materials
and is designated m; the other, for loading, is termed f. These factors will vary for the
various limit states and different materials. As new knowledge on either materials or
loading becomes available the factors can be amended quit easily without the complicated
procedures to amend one overall factor used in previous Codes.

The normal procedure is to design for a critical limit state and then to check for the
other limit states are satisfied. The critical state for reinforced concrete structures is
usually the ultimate limit state. However, water-retaining structures and prestressed
concrete is usually designed at the serviceability limit state with checks on the ultimate
limit state.

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The limit states failure criteria can be summarized as follows:

(Design load effects Qd) (Deisgn resistance Rd)

Qn = nominal load
f = partial safety factor for loads
Rd = design resistance = fk/m
fk = characteristic material strength
m = partial safety factor for materials
Each of these terms are discussed in the following sections.
Safety Factors
Partial Safety Factors for Materials at ULS
Design
Situations

Concrete, c

Reinforcing Steel, s

Class I

Class II

Class I

Class II

Persistent and Transient

1.50

1.65

1.15

1.20

Accidental

1.30

1.45

1.00

1.10

Partial Safety Factors for Actions in Building Structures

at ULS

Design Situation

Action

Factor,

Favorabl
e

Persistent and

Permanent

1.00

1.30

Transient

Variable

0.00

1.60

Accidental

Permanent

1.00

1.00

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Unfavorable

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