OB

Organization
behavior
INTRODUCTION
UGC NET BY ANUBHAV SINGH
Organizational behavior- it is made out of two words organization and behavior.

What is an organization?
Organization as two or more individuals who are interacting with each other within a deliberately
structured set up and working in an interdependent way to achieve some common objective/s..
What is Behavior?
It is the behavior of the people working in an organization to achieve common goals or
objectives. Organization comprises of people with different attitudes, cultures, beliefs, norms and
values.
So let us understand organizational behavior and what it exactly it means. Organizational
Behavior cam be defined as the study of what people think, feel, and do in and around
organizations. The study of Organizational Behavior facilitates the process of explaining,
understanding) predicting, maintaining, and changing employee behavior in an organizational
setting.
Definition:
Organizational Behavior: OB is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals,
groups, and structure have on behavior within organizations for the purpose of applying such
knowledge toward improving an organizations effectiveness.
Organizational Behavior is an applied field of inquiry that encompasses the study of all aspects
of behavior in and by formal organizations. It treats as units of analysis everything from
individuals acting, feeling and thinking in an organization to groups, larger subunits such as
departments or divisions, the organizations as a whole and even populations of organizations
and their relationship to larger social structure such as state and society.
Organizational Behavior offers a crucial approach in the sense that rather than focusing on the
functional or structural aspects of the organization or giving importance to the quantifiable
elements. Organizational behavior focuses on the human processes within the organizations.
A strategic management approach to effectiveness provides guidelines about how an organization
can achieve its important goals, and fit in to the external environment well financial management
and quantitative techniques such as statistical quality control, project management techniques
and operation research help organization achieve high levels of efficiency in their performance.
Contingency management focuses on a range of alternative styles, preference and choice
available to managers. The appropriateness of each one of them is determined on the basis of
variables of situation.
Organisational behaviour can then be defined as:"The study of human behaviour in
organisational settings, the interface between human behaviour and the organisational context,
and the organisation itself."
ELEMENTS OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
The key elements in the organisational behaviour are people,, structure, technology and the
environment in which the organisation operates.
People: People make up the internal and social system of the organisation. They consist
of individuals and groups. The groups may be big or small; formal or informal; official or
unofficial. Groups are dynamic and they work in the organisation to achieve their objectives.
Structure: Structure defines the formal relationships of the people in organisations.
Different people in the organisation are performing different type of jobs and they need to be
(elated in some structural way so that their work can be effectively co-ordinated.
Technology: Technology such as machines and work processes provide the resources
with which people work and affects the tasks that they perform. The technology used has a
significant influence on working relationships. It allows people to do more and work better but it
also restricts' people in various ways.
Environment: All organisations operate within an external environment. It is the part of
a larger system that contains many other elements such as government, family and other
organisations. All of these mutually influence each other in a complex system that creates a
context for a group of people
Nature of Organizational Behavior (OB)- Organizational behavior is an applied behavioral

science that is built on contributions from a number of behavioral disciplines such as psychology,
sociology, social psychology, anthropology and economics.
Psychology
Psychology is the study of human behavior which tries to identify the characteristics of
individuals and provides an understanding why an individual behaves in a particular way. This
thus provides us with useful insight into areas such as human motivation, perceptual processes or
personality characteristics.
Sociology
Sociology is the study of social behavior, relationships among social groups and societies, and
the maintenance of social order. The main focus of attention is on the social system. This helps
us to appreciate the functioning of individuals within the organization which is essentially a
socio-technical entity.
Social psychology
Social psychology is the study of human behavior in the context of social situations. This
essentially addresses the problem of understanding the typical behavioral patterns to be expected
from an individual when he takes part in a group.
Anthropology
Anthropology is the science of mankind and the study of human behavior as a whole. The main
focus of attention is on the cultural system, beliefs, customs, ideas and values within a group or
society and the comparison of behavior among different cultures. In the context of todays
organizational scenario. It is very important to appreciate the differences that exist among people
coming from different cultural backgrounds as people are often found to work with others from
the other side of the globe.
Economics
Any organization to survive and sustain must be aware of the economic viability of their effort.
This applies even to the non-profit and voluntary organizations as well.
Political Science
Although frequently overlooked, the contributions of political scientists are significant to the
understand arrangement in organizations. It studies individuals and groups within specific
conditions concerning the power dynamics. Important topics under here include structuring of
conflict, allocation of power and how people manipulate power for individual self-interest etc.
Features of Organizational Behavior
A Field of Inquiry
Focus on Behavior within the Organization
Humanistic and Positive
Importance of Groups
Ongoing Process
IMPORTANCE OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Interpersonal Level: Human behaviour can be understood at the level of interpersonal
interaction. Organisational behaviour provides means for understanding the interpersonal
relationships in an organisation. Analysis of reciprocal relationships, role analysis and
transactional analysis are some of the common methods, which provide such understanding.
Group Level: Though people interpret anything at their individual level, they are often modified
by group pressures, which then become a force in shaping human behaviour, Thus, individuals
should be studied in groups also..
Inter-group Level: The organisation is made up of many groups that develop complex
relationships to build their process and substance. Understanding the effect of group relationships
is important for managers in today's organisation. Inter-group relationship may be in the form of
co-operation or competition. The co-operative relationships help the organisation in achieving its
objectives. Organisational behaviour provides means to understand and achieve co-operative
group relationships through interaction, rotation of members among groups, avoidance of winlose situation and focusing on total group objectives.
Controlling and Directing Behaviour: After understanding the mechanism of human
behaviour, managers are required to control and direct the behaviour so that it conforms to the
standards required for achieving the organisational objectives
Use of Power and Sanction: The behaviors can be controlled and directed by the use of power
and sanction, which are formally defined by the organisation. Power is referred to as the capacity
of an individual to take certain action and may be utilized in many ways.
Leadership: Organisational behaviour brings new insights and understanding to the practice and
theory of leadership. It identifies various leadership styles available to a manager and analyses
which style is more appropriate in a given situation.
Communication: Communication helps people to come in contact with each other. To achieve
organisational objectives, the communication must be effective. The communication process and
its work in inter-personal dynamics have been evaluated by organisational behaviour.
Organisational Climate: Organisational climate refers to the total organisational situations
affecting human behaviour. Organisational climate takes a system perspective that affect human
behaviour.
Organisational Adaptation: Organisations, as dynamic entities are characterised by pervasive
changes. Organisations have to adapt themselves to the environmental changes by making
suitable, internal arrangements such as convincing employees who normally have the tendency
of resisting any changes
Conceptual Foundation Of OB
MODELS OF OB:
There are five models of OB
1. Autocratic model
2. Custodial model
3. Supportive model
4. Collegial model
5. System model
AUTOCRATIC MODEL:
In this model we can find that this model relies on power. For example, managers have the
ability, authority to control their employees and the employees performance in this stage will be
much lower than expected.
Short notes of this model:
1. Depends on power
2. Managerial orientation is authority

3. Employee orientation is obedience
4. Employee psychological result depends on boss
5. Employee needs met is subsistence
6. Performance result is minimum
Example: Defense team, because here officer hold power and authority to obey them and thus
soldiers are obedient to execute officers order.
CUSTODIAL MODEL:
This model usually depends on economic resources (money). For instance, managers can
simulate their employees by offering them facilities, and benefits, but in this model the
employees wont work as a team (Less sharing with others) because everyone will depend on
hisself to get more benefits than the others.
1. Depends on economical resource
2. Managerial orientation is money
3. Employee orientation is security and benefit
4. Employee psychological result depends on organization
5. Employee needs met is security
6. Performance result is passive cooperation
Example: Garments factory, because here it is based on economical resource. Here labors
execute their job for security and benefit, again here if an organization do well then employee get
better benefit.
SUPPORTIVE MODEL:
This model relies on leadership. For example, managers support their employees by encouraging,
and supporting them to perform a better job, get along with each other and as well as developing
their skills. The Performance results will be awakened drives.
1. Depends on leadership
2. Managerial orientation is support

3. Employee orientation is job and performance
4. Employee psychological result is participation
5. Employee needs met is status and recognition
6. Performance result is awakened drives
Example: Software firm, because here leaders support there employee to perform their tasks or
their project.
COLLEGIAL MODEL:
This model means that employees depend on each other cooperatively and work as a team to do
the task. Everyone will be having a normal enthusiasm self-discipline, and responsible behavior
towards their tasks.
1. Depends on partnership
2. Managerial orientation is teamwork
3. Employee orientation is responsible behavior
4. Employee psychological result is self discipline
5. Employee needs met is self actualization
6. Performance result is moderate enthusiasm
Example: Social organization such as willingly blood donation organization BADHON, because
here every one work as teamwork and each member takes responsibilities for organizational
goal. Each member works here only for self actualization.
SYSTEM MODEL:
This model is based on trust, self-motivation, and the performance results will be more than
expected, because employees will be committed to do their tasks as expected, and as well as
organizational goals. After we explained the models in brief we would like to inform you that the
world nowadays requires from us necessary steps before we decide the best model to have for an
each organization. One of the most important things to consider is that managers and leaders
should clearly understand the nature of their organizations before making any decision. Also,
they have to consider and look at the changing in the environment and of course the employees
needs so that they can have the best model to use to get a better result.
1. Depends on trust, community, understanding
2. Managerial orientation is caring, compassion
3. Employee orientation is psychological ownership
4. Employee psychological result is self motivation
5. Employee needs met is wide range
6. Performance result is passion, commitment, organization goal
Example: Some corporate firm which are based on trust or community Where employees are self
motivated and committed for organizational goals.
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CASE STUDY Difficult Transitions

Shankar had just finished his first week at ABC Enterprises and decided to drive upstate to a
small lakefront lodge for some fishing and relaxation. Shankar had worked for the previous ten
years for the XYZ Company, but XYZ had been through some hard times of late and had
recently shut down several of its operating groups, including Shankars, to cut costs. Fortunately,
Shankars experience and recommendations had made finding another position fairly easy. As he
drove the interstate, he reflected on the past ten years and the apparent situation at ABC.
At XYZ, things had been great. Shankar had been part of the team from day one. The job had
met his personal goals and expectations perfectly, and Shankar believed he had grown greatly as
a person. His work was appreciated and recognized; he had received three promotions and many
more pay increases.
Shankar had also liked the company itself. The firm was decentralized, allowing its managers
considerable autonomy and freedom. The corporate Culture was easygoing. Communication was
open. It seemed that everyone knew what was going on at all times, and if you didnt know about
something, it was easy to find out.
The people had been another plus. Shankar and three other managers went to lunch often and
played golf every Saturday. They got along well both personally and professionally and truly
worked together as a team. Their boss had been very supportive, giving them the help they
needed but also staying out of the way and letting them work.
When word about the shutdown came down, Shankar was devastated. He was sure that nothing
could replace XYZ. After the final closing was announced, he spent only a few weeks looking
around before he found a comparable position at ABC Enterprises.
As Shankar drove, he reflected that "comparable" probably was the wrong word. Indeed, Reece
and XYZ were about as different as you could get. Top managers at ABC apparently didnt
worry too much about who did a good job and who didnt. They seemed to promote and reward
people based on how long they had been there and how well they played the never-ending
political games. Maybe this stemmed from the organization itself, Shankar pondered. ABC was a
bigger organization than XYZ and was structured much more bureaucratically. It seemed that no
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one was allowed to make any sort of decision without getting three signatures from higher up.
Those signatures, though, were hard to get. All the top managers usually were too busy to see
anyone, and interoffice memos apparently had very low priority.
Shankar also had had some problems fitting in. His peers treated him with polite indifference. He
sensed that a couple of them resented that he, an outsider, had been brought right in at their level
after they had had to work themselves up the ladder. On Tuesday he had asked two colleagues
about playing golf. They had politely declined, saying that they did not play often. But later in
the week, he had overheard them making arrangements to play that very Saturday. It was at that
point that Shankar had decided to go fishing. As he steered his car off the interstate to get gas, he
wondered if perhaps he had made a mistake in accepting the ABC offer without finding out more
about what he was getting into.
Case Questions
Identify several concepts and characteristics from the field of organizational behavior that
this case illustrates.

What advice can you give Shankar ? How would this advice be supported or tempered by
behavioral concepts and processes?

Is it possible to find an "ideal" place to work? Explain.
CASE STUDY
Sameer Mehta works for Alpha Pharma Ltd. Alpha Pharma is a 40 year old traditional company
which manufactures pharmaceutical products ranging from antibiotics to cough syrups. Sameer
is a Medical representative and has to make on an average 10 calls per day to promote the
companys products to doctors. He has been working with the company for past 4 years. He is
smart employee who has marketed the companys products well. However Sameer hates if
someone were to point his flaws. He has often argued out his performance appraisal with his boss
Sudhakar Raut, if it has been critical. Sudhakar finds Sameer to be a difficult person who always
expects praise and avoids criticism. Whereas Sameer believes that he has been loyal to the
company in the face of offers from the competitors, as well as, he has really worked hard for the
company. He strongly believes that Sudhakar should be more encouraging in his approach by
praising good work done rather than criticizing him. Sudhakar on the other hand believes in
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honestly telling the subordinate where he has gone wrong to help him correct himself in the
future. He also believes that too much of praise may make an employee self-complacent.
Recently Sudhakar was taking stock of Sameers work for the month and he realized that on an
average Sameer has been making approximately 8-9 calls per day instead of making the standard
10 calls per day. From the records, he found that only on 6 occasions Sameer had met the
standard of 10 calls per day. So he decided to talk it out to Sameer.
When Sameer met Sudhakar, he was full of apprehension. He expected criticism and hence had
prepared his response well in advance. When Sudhakar asked him about the number of calls
made during the month, Sameer immediately said that the new product that he was promoting
was a product which faced stiff competition in the market. Obviously because of this he had to
spend more time in convincing the medical practitioners. Sudhakar seemed to be in doubt about
this. Sameer further added that he had tried to cover doctors spread over a reasonably large
geographical area, which made commuting cumbersome. Sudhakar was convinced that Sameer
was not prepared to accept any suggestion for improvement and was instead very defensive.
Sudhakar closed the meeting by clearly sounding Sameer on the lapse that had been committed
during the month and also advised him to be careful in the future. Sameer however thought that
Sudhakar was as usual being critical about him and was simply indulging in nit picking.
CASE QUESTIONS
1.
Define the problem posed in this case.
2.
If you were in place of Sameer and if you were asked to explain your position what
would you do?

3.
What advise will you give to Sudhakar to help him change Sameers perception?
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Unit- 2
PERCEPTION
Introduction
The perceptual process allows us to experience the world around us. Take a moment to think of
all the things you perceive on a daily basis. At any given moment, you might see familiar objects
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in your environment, feel the touch of objects and people against your skin, smell the aroma of a
home-cooked meal and hear the sound of music playing in your next door neighbor's apartment.
What Is Perception?
Perception is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves both the recognition of
environmental stimuli and actions in response to these stimuli. Through the perceptual process,
we gain information about properties and elements of the environment that are critical to our
survival. Perception (from the Latin perceptio, percipio) is the organization, identification, and
interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the environment. All
perception involves signals in the nervous system, which in turn result from physical or chemical
stimulation of the sense organs. For example, vision involves light striking the retina of the eye,
smell is mediated by odor molecules, and hearing involves pressure waves. Perception is not the
passive receipt of these signals, but is shaped by learning, memory, expectation, and attention.
Perception involves these "top-down" effects as well as the "bottom-up" process of processing
sensory input. The "bottom-up" processing transforms low-level information to higher-level
information (e.g., extracts shapes for object recognition). The "top-down" processing refers to a
person's concept and expectations (knowledge), and selective mechanisms (attention) that
influence perception. Perception depends on complex functions of the nervous system, but
subjectively seems mostly effortless because this processing happens outside conscious
awareness.
The Perceptual Process
The perceptual process is a sequence of steps that begins with the environment and leads to our
perception of a stimulus and an action in response to the stimulus. This process is continual, but
you do not spend a great deal of time thinking about the actual process that occurs when you
perceive the many stimuli that surround you at any given moment. The process of transforming
the light that falls on your retinas into an actual visual image happens unconsciously and
automatically. The subtle changes in pressure against your skin that allow you to feel object
occur without a single thought. In order to fully understand how the perception process works,
we'll start by breaking down each step.
The Steps in the Perceptual Process
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The Environmental Stimulus

The Attended Stimulus
The Image on the Retina
Transduction
Neural Processing
Perception
Recognition
Action
The Environmental Stimulus

The world is full of stimuli that can attract our attention through various senses. The
environmental stimulus is everything in our environment that has the potential to be perceived.
This might include anything that can be seen, touched, tasted, smelled or heard. It might also
involve the sense of proprioception, such as the movements of the arms and legs or the change in
position of the body in relation to objects in the environment.
EXAMPLE-imagine that you are out on a morning jog at your local park. As you perform your
workout, there are a wide variety of environmental stimuli that might capture your attention. The
tree branches are swaying in the slight breeze; a man is out on the grass playing fetch with his
Golden Retriever; a car drives past with the windows rolled down and the music blaring; a duck
splashes in a nearby pond. All of these things represent the environmental stimuli, serving as a
starting point for the perceptual process.
The Attended Stimulus is the specific object in the environment on which our attention is
focused. In many cases, we might focus on stimuli that are familiar to us, such as the face of a
friend in a crowd of strangers at the local coffee shop. In other instances, we are likely to attend
to stimuli that have some degree of novelty. FROM OUR EARLIER EXAMPLE, let's imagine
that during your morning job you focus your attention on the duck floating in the nearby pond.
The duck represents the attended stimulus. During the next step of the perceptual process, the
visual process will progress.
The Image on the Retina
Next, the attended stimulus is formed as an image on the retina. The first part of this process
involves the light actually passing through the cornea and pupil and onto the lens of the eye. The
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cornea helps focus the light as it enters the eye, and the iris of the eye controls the size of the
pupils in order to determine how much light to let in. The cornea and lens act together to project
an inverted image on the retina As you might already be aware, the image on the retina is
actually upside down from the actual image in the environment. At this stage of the perceptual
process, this is not terribly important. The image has still not been perceived, and this visual
information will be changed even more dramatically in the next step of the process.
Transduction
The image on the retina is then transformed into electrical signals in a process known as
transduction. This allows the visual messages to be transmitted to the brain to be interpreted. The
retina contains many photoreceptor cells. These cells contain proteins known as rods and cones.
Rods are primarily for seeing things in low light, while cones are associated with detecting color
and shapes at normal light levels. The rods and cones contain a molecule called retinal, which is
responsible for transducing the light into visual signals that are then transmitted via nerve
impulses.
Neural Processing
The electrical signals then undergo neural processing. The path followed by a particular signal
depends on what type of signal it is (i.e. an auditory signal or a visual signal).Through the series
of interconnect neurons located throughout the body, electrical signals are propagated from the
receptors cells to the brain. In our previous example, the image of duck floating in the pond is
received as light on the retina, which is then transduced into an electrical signal and then
processed through the neurons in the visual network. In the next step of the perceptual process,
you will actually perceive the stimuli and become aware of its presence in the environment.
Perception
In the next step of the perception process, we actually perceive the stimulus object in the
environment. It is at this point that we become consciously aware of the stimulus. Lets consider
our previous example, in which we imagined that you were out for a morning jog in the park. At
the perception stage, you have become aware of that there is something out on the pond to
perceive. Now, it is one thing to be aware of stimuli in the environment, and quite another to
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actually become fully consciously aware of what we have perceived. In the next stage of the
perceptual process, we will sort the perceived information into meaningful categories.
Recognition
Perception doesn't just involve becoming consciously aware of the stimuli. It is also necessary
for our brain to categorize and interpret what it is we are sensing. Our ability to interpret and
give meaning to the object is the next step, known as recognition. Continuing our example, it is
at the recognition stage of the perceptual process that you realize that there is a duck floating on
the water. The recognition stage is an essential part of perception since it allows us to make sense
of the world around us. By placing objects in meaningful categories, we are able to understand
and react to the world around us.
Action
The final step of the perceptual process involves some sort of action in response to the
environmental stimulus. This could involve a variety of actions, such as turning your head for a
closer look or turning away to look at something else.The action phase of perceptual
development involves some type of motor action that occurs in response to the perceived and
recognized stimulus. This might involve a major action, like running toward a person in distress,
or something as subtle as blinking your eyes in response to a puff of dust blowing through the
air.
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Figure - Process Of Perception

PERCEPTION AND ITS APPLICATION IN ORGANISATIONS
Employment Interview
Performance Appraisals:
Assessing Level of Effort
Assessing Loyalty
Implications of Perception on Performance and Satisfaction
Productivity
Absenteeism and Turnover:
Job Satisfaction:
ATTITUDE
The attitude is the evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events.
More precisely attitudes can be defined as a persistent tendency to feel and behave in a particular
way toward some object which may include events or individuals as well.
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Attitude can be characterized in three ways:
First, they tend to persist unless something is done to change them.
Second, attitudes can fall anywhere along a continuum from very favorable to very
unfavorable.
Third, attitudes are directed toward some object about which a person has
feelings( sometimes called affect) and beliefs.

An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of like or dislike
for an item. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person, place, thing, or
event-- this is often referred to as the attitude object. People can also be conflicted or ambivalent
toward an object, meaning that they simultaneously possess both positive and negative attitudes
toward the item in question.
Attitudes are judgments. They develop on the ABC model (affect, behavior, and cognition). The
affective response is an emotional response that expresses an individual's degree of preference
for an entity. The behavioral intention is a verbal indication or typical behavioral tendency of an
individual. The cognitive response is a cognitive evaluation of the entity that constitutes an
individual's beliefs about the object. Most attitudes are the result of either direct experience or
observational learning from the environment.
It can also be defined as, A complex mental state involving beliefs and feelings and
values and dispositions to act in certain ways.
For example, if someone says that I like my Job. This statement expresses his attitude
towards his Job.
Components of Attitudes
The three basic components of attitude are cognitive, Affective and Behavioral part.
Cognitive Component of Attitude refers to opinion or belief part of attitude. When you
form your opinion or judgment on the basis of available information and decide whether you
have a favorable or unfavorable opinion on that, it the cognitive part of attitude we are
talking about.
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Affective Component of Attitude refers to the emotional aspect of attitude. This is

perhaps the most often referred part of attitude and decides mostly the desirable or
undesirable aspect attitude.
Behavioral Component of Attitude refers to the behavioral part of attitude. If we have a

positive attitude for a particular object, it is likely to be translated into a particular type of
behavior, such as buying or procuring that object.
FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDE
According to Katz, attitudes serve four important functions from the viewpoint of organizational
behaviour. These are as follows.
The Adjustment Function.
Ego-Defensive Function
The Value-Expressive Function
The Knowledge Function
ATTITUDES AND WORKFORCE DIVERSITY

Managers are increasingly concerned with changing employee attitudes to reflect shifting
perspectives on racial, gender, and other diversity issues. For example a comment to a coworker
of the opposite sex 20 years ago might have been taken as a compliment. For instance, a male
telling a female colleague that he thinks her shoes are sexy may become a career limiting episode
today. Therefore organizations are investing in training to help reshape the attitudes of
employees.
The majority of the US employers and a substantial proportion of medium-sized and smaller one
sponsor some sort of diversity training. Some examples: Police officers in an advanced country
receive 36 hours of diversity training each year. The Administration sponsors a mandatory eighthour diversity seminar for employees of its Western region. A progressive and reputed restaurant
puts all its managers through two days of intensive diversity training, with each day lasting seven
to nine hours.
What do these diversity programs look like and how do they address attitude changes? They
almost all include a self-evaluation phase. People are pressed to examine themselves and to
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confront ethnic and cultural stereotypes they might hold. Then participants typically take part in
group discussions or panels with representatives from diverse groups. For instance, a Hmong
man might describe his family life in Southeast Asia, and explain why they resettled in another
country.
Additional activities designed to change attitudes include arranging for people to do volunteer
work in community or social service centers in order to meet face to face with individuals and
groups from diverse backgrounds and using exercise that let participants feel what its like to
be different.
LEARNING
Learning is one of the processes of acquiring knowledge about the world. It is a process of
cognition. Any response that the organism has not inherited Is said to be learned. Human beings
have lesser-inborn instincts compared to their learned responses. Animals lower in the
developmental continuum deal with environmental challenges by relying on an innate set of
responses, called fixed-action patterns. The behaviors of human beings are controlled more by a
set of learned responses. The things that we were not able to do before, but are capable of doing
now are the results of learning. Knowing to ride a bicycle, to swim, to solve arithmetic problems,
to use language, and to operate on a computer are some of the common examples of learning.
Without learning, the world would have been still a booming, buzzing confusion.
Learning is a very fundamental topic for psychologists. It plays a central role in every branch of
psychology. A psychologist studying perception might ask, "How do we learn that people who
look small from a distance are far away, not simply tiny?" A developmental psychologist might
inquire, "How do babies learn to distinguish their mothers form other women?" A clinical
psychologist might wonder, "Why are some people afraid of frogs?" A social psychologist might
ask, "How does a human child learn the etiquettes of his culture?" A psychologist studying
animal behaviors might wonder, "How does a dog learn to obey its master, and not strangers?"
These questions drawn from different fields of psychology can be answered only with reference
to learning process.
THEORIES OF LEARNING
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Several learning theories have been propounded by the psychologists who explain the process of
learning. Let us learn some important theories of learning.
.1 Classical conditioning
You must be aware about the stimulus and response. In classical conditioning, learning takes
place through the connection between unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus. These
two stimuli are paired to elicit the desire response. Let us take an example of food which elicits
the response of salvation. The food is termed as unconditioned stimulus and the salvation is
known as unconditioned response. A conditioned stimulus is a mental stimulus that does not
elicit the response. A response which is elicited by the conditioned stimulus is termed as
conditioned response. When conditioned stimulus is paled with unconditioned stimulus, the
conditioned stimulus also starts eliciting the response. In this process a stimulus- response bond
is developed between a conditioned stimulus and a conditioned response through the repeated
linking of a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.
Pavlov conducted this experiment on the dog. He presented the food to the dog and the dog
salivated. Here the food is the conditioned stimulus and the salvation of the dog is the
unconditioned response. Pavlov used a bell as conditioned stimulus. When he rang the bell, the
dog did not do anything. Pavlov started paring of the conditioned stimulus (bell) with the
unconditioned stimulus (food). He presented the food to the dog and rung the bell. This was
repeated several times. After some time, he found that the bell also elicited the response of
salvation even when the unconditioned stimulus (food) was not present. He rings the bell and the
dog salivates without the presentation of as well. Thus the dog learnt the ringing of the bell with
the salvation. The focus of this theory is building up an association between an unconditioned
stimulus and a conditioned stimulus.
The training of airplane pilot regarding the use of newly installed warning system is a good
example of classical conditioning. In this training, whenever the plane drops below critical
altitude, the warning light is shown and pilot increases the planes altitude. Over the period, the
pilot learns to adjust the planes altitude in response to the warning light without the presence of
the trainer.
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This theory has been criticized on the ground that it considers the learner as a passive element.
The learner notices the connection between the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned
stimulus and forms an association. Another noticeable point is that it explains the simple
reflexive behavior. In most of the organization, people are not passive; they are actively involved
in executing their behaviour. Moreover behaviors are also not elicited, they are emitted. These
behaviors are under workers control. Despite these limitation, the principles of association, as an
important phenomenon of learning can not be undermined.
https://draliob.wordpress.com/2009/01/17/classical-conditioning-pavlovs-theory/
.2 Operant conditioning
Skinner gave the theory of operant condition This theory advocates thats Learners response is
instrument in a producing a reinforcing stimulus. This means that the response which produces
the reinforcement becomes stronger and the response which produce the reinforcement become
stronger and the respond which does not produce reinforcement become weaker. Skinner box
was used for demonstrating the operant learning. It is a simple box having a liver fitted at the end
of the box. The liver is a switch which operates as a food delivery mechanism. A hungry rat is
placed inside the box .Initially the rat sit idle in the box ,gradually it starts exploring inside the
box all on a sudden it presses the liver. As the liver is pressed it releases a piece of food .After
pressing the liver a number of times. The rat realizes that it releases the piece of food and the rat
start eating them. Now the rat presses the liver and eat the food constitutes the reinforcement and
reinforcement is contingent upon the operation of the lever
The box can be arranged I such a way that every response i.e. pressing of liver may not release
the food. Some response may release the food and some may not release. This is termed as
partial reinforcement. it may also be arranged in such away that pressing of lever may result in a
shock to the rat. This is termed as negative reinforcement. Thus the response which fulfils the
desired needs of the rat is known as positive reinforcement. At the same time, the response may
also lead to escape from the painful situation which is known as negative reinforcement. The
focus of this theory is the reinforcement follows a response. So the response becomes
instrumental in achieving the appropriate goal. The manipulation of response and reinforcement
may increase; reduce all lead to the extinction of the behaviour.
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You must be aware of Thorndikes law of effect which states that the responses which are
accompanied or closely followed by reinforcement will be more likely to occur. at the same time,
the responses which are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort will be less likely to
occur. This means that the behaviour which leads to positive outcome will be likely to be
repeated whereas behaviour which leads to negative outcome will be avoided. Hull proposed
three component of learning theory i.e. drive, habit and reinforcement. A drive refers to the
internal state of disequilibrium which becomes a motive for learning. a drive stimulates the
person to perform the desired act. Habit refers to the association between stimulus and the
response. The appropriate link is formed between environmental stimulus and behaviour of a
person. The formation of this connection play very important role in learning. Reinforcement
refers to the feedback received by the person as a result of his behaviour.
Thus appropriate understanding of connection between behaviour and consequences by the
person makes him to learn about the situation. The focus of the operant theory is to make the
learner to operate in the environment to acquire reinforcement. This means that the behaviour
may be directed by appropriate reinforcement. For example whenever you perform well in the
office, your boss appreciate you. This appreciation helps you in strengthening the behaviour of
performing well in the office.
.3 COGNITIVE LEARNING
The cognitive theory was given by Tolman. It focuses on the fact that learning takes place by
thinking about the problem, from insight of the individual and from integrating different cues or
piece of information. Acquisition of information plays important role in the learning process. The
cognitive theory advocates that the association between cognitive environmental cues and
expectation lead to learning. According to cognitive theory, learning takes place as a result of
stimulus-stimulus association. Here, two stimuli are repeatedly paired. The presentation of one
stimulus arouses an image, idea or some process representing the second stimulus, even when it
is not presented. When more than two stimuli are presented, whole stimuli may become
associated. The process of association leads to formation of cognitive map. This cognitive map is
especially applicable to the learning of spatial relationship of objects in environment. Tolman
tested the cognitive learning phenomenon on rats through a complicated maze structure in the
laboratory. He found the rats ran through the maze structure towards the food. Rats developed
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expectations at every point of the maze and reached to the goal. Thus the relation ship between
cues and expectancy got strengthened and cognitive map was formed. the formation of cognitive
map was the result of learning. in day to day life also you form a cognitive map of the way you
go to the college, market and other places or about the persons, things etc.
4 Social learning
This theory advocates that the people learn through observation and direct experience. it
emphasizes an interaction among cognitive, behavioral and environmental determinants of
behaviour. People learn by observing others behaviour. They model those behaviors that lead to
favorable outcomes. at the same time, they try to appoint those behaviors that leads to
unfavorable outcomes if you analyze your behaviour, you will find that your behaviors are
influenced by your parents, friends, teachers, movies, television, achievers, successful persons,
etc you try to imbibe their behaviour because their behaviour lead to positive consequences. This
theory focus on learning the consequences of behaviour and self reinforcement
CASE STUDY- Employee Attitudes
Scenario: Shiv has noticed that Pinnacle Custom Homes Case isn't the cheerful, pleasant Al
place it used to be. Back when he was building six homes a year, everyone appeared to be
dedicated to meeting deadlines, controlling costs, and keeping customers highly satisfied. But
over the past two years the company has grown to 15 houses and added two new employees.
Now it seems like everything is falling through the cracks: Deadlines are missed, mistakes are
made on the houses, and work has to be redone. In addition, no one wants to accept
responsibility for mistakes, and everyone blames someone else. Shiv has also noticed that
tempers are shorter, and he even has found himself arbitrating territorial disputes between
departmental functions.
Yes, people may have become burned out from the increased work, but Shiv had hired additional
help in both the office and the field, and had increased salaries to keep pace with the market. But
a lot of the fun and spark has gone out of the work, and Shiv feels a distinct lack of enthusiasm
or camaraderie in the ranks. What is going wrong?
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Unit -3
MOTIVATION
Introduction
MOTIVE
An incentive to act or a reason for doing something or anything that prompted a choice of
action.Anything that arouses the individual and directs his or her behavior towards some goal is
called a Motive .
or Motive is a factor which influences to do anything because anything we do has amotive
behind.
Types of Motive
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Primary Motive -Primary motives also known as biological motives, have a definite
physiological basis and are biologically necessary for survival of the individual or species. These
arouse the behavior of the organism in directions that lead to the required change in internal
environment. The sources of biological motivational needs include:
increase/decrease stimulation (arousal)
Activate senses (taste, touch, smell, etc.
Decrease hunger, thirst, discomfort, etc.
maintain homeostasis, balance
Biological Motive Consist of
Hunger
Thirst
Fatigue
Air for respiration
Sleep
Pain etc
Secondary Motive
Secondary motives are learned motives and are sometimes known as psychobiological motives.
They are not physiologically based. These are the causes of the development of a personality.
Secondary motives originate during our life time. They are acquired and learned through our
interaction with people.
They are classified in two types which are:
Social motives
Psychological motives
Social motive are those which motivates us to go out, interact with people and do the things that
gives a feeling of pleasure and satisfaction.
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Psychological motives are individualistic in nature as they are related to self esteem, self
security, self exhibition, self freedom and self assertion.
Motivation is the psychological feature that arouses an organism to action toward a desired goal
and elicits, controls, and sustains certain goal directed behaviors
Motivation, as defined by Pritchard and Ashwood, is the process used to allocate energy to
maximize the satisfaction of needs
Internal and external factors that stimulate desire and energy in people to be continually
interested in and committed to a job, role, or subject, and to exert persistent effort in attaining a
goal.
Motivation is defined as the process that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented
behaviors.
Intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task
itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on any external pressure. Intrinsic
motivation is based on taking pleasure in an activity rather than working towards an external
reward. Intrinsic motivation has been studied since the early 1970s.
Extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain an outcome, which
then contradicts intrinsic motivation. It is widely believed that motivation performs two
functions. The first is often referred as to the energetic activation component of the motivation
construct. The second is directed at a specific behaviour and makes reference to the orientation
directional component. Importance of Motivation
1. Puts human resources into action
2. Improves level of efficiency of employees
3. Leads to achievement of organizational goals
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4. Builds friendly relationship

5.Leads to stability of work force
We can summarize by saying that motivation is important both to an individual and a business.
Motivation is important to an individual as:
1.
Motivation will help him achieve his personal goals.
2.
If an individual is motivated, he will have job satisfaction.
3.
Motivation will help in self-development of individual.
4.
An individual would always gain by working with a dynamic team.
Similarly, motivation is important to a business as:

1.
The more motivated the employees are, the more empowered the team is.
2.
The more is the team work and individual employee contribution, more profitable and
successful is the business.

3.
During period of amendments, there will be more adaptability and creativity.
4.
Motivation will lead to an optimistic and challenging attitude at work place.
THEORY X AND THEORY Y MANAGERS

Douglas McGregor proposed a Theory X and Theory Y model to explain basic human traits.
Theory X assumptions are:
The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he can.
Most people must be coerced, controlled, directed or threatened with punishment to get them to
expend adequate effort towards the achievement of organisational objectives. The average human
being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition, and
wants security above all.
On the other hand, Theory Y makes different assumptions about the nature of people:
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Expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest.

The average human being does not inherently dislike work, which can be a source of
satisfaction.
External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means of bringing about
effort. People can exercise self-direction to achieve objectives to which they are
committed.
Commitment to objectives is a result of the rewards associated with their achievement.
The most significant of those rewards is satisfaction of the self-actualization needs.

The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept, but to seek,
responsibility. Avoidance of responsibility, emphasis on security and low ambition are the
result of experience and are not inherent in mans nature.

Capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in
the solution of organisational problems is widely, not narrowly,distributed in the
population.
Under conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potential of the average human
being is only partially utilised.
MASLOW THEORY
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow in his
1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation". Maslow subsequently extended the idea to include
his observations of humans' innate curiosity. His theories parallel many other theories of human
developmental psychology, all of which focus on describing the stages of growth in humans.
Maslow use the terms Physiological, Safety, Belongingness and Love, Esteem, and SelfActualization needs to describe the pattern that human motivations generally move through.
Maslow studied what he called exemplary people such as Albert Einstein, Jane Addams, Eleanor
Roosevelt, and Frederick Douglass rather than mentally ill or neurotic people, writing that "the
study of crippled, stunted, immature, and unhealthy specimens can yield only a cripple
psychology and a cripple philosophy."] Maslow studied the healthiest 1% of the college student
population. Maslow's theory was fully expressed in his 1954 book Motivation and Personality
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1.
Physiological needs- These are the basic needs of air, water, food, clothing and shelter. In
other words, physiological needs are the needs for basic amenities of life.
2.
Safety needs- Safety needs include physical, environmental and emotional safety and
protection. For instance- Job security, financial security, protection from animals, family security,
health security, etc.
3.
Social needs- Social needs include the need for love, affection, care, belongingness, and
friendship.
4.
Esteem needs- Esteem needs are of two types: internal esteem needs (self- respect,
confidence, competence, achievement and freedom) and external esteem needs (recognition,
power, status, attention and admiration).
5.
Self-actualization need- This include the urge to become what you are capable of
becoming / what you have the potential to become. It includes the need for growth and selfcontentment. It also includes desire for gaining more knowledge, social- service, creativity and
being aesthetic. The self- actualization needs are never fully satiable. As an individual grows
psychologically, opportunities keep cropping up to continue growing.
HERZBERGS TWO-FACTOR THEORY OF MOTIVATION
In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioral scientist proposed a two-factor theory or the
motivator-hygiene theory. According to Herzberg, there are some job factors that result in
satisfaction while there are other job factors that prevent dissatisfaction. According to Herzberg,
the opposite of Satisfaction is No satisfaction and the opposite of Dissatisfaction is No
Dissatisfaction.
Herzberg classified these job factors into two categoriesHygiene factors- Hygiene factors are those job factors which are essential for existence of
motivation at workplace. These do not lead to positive satisfaction for long-term. But if these
factors are absent / if these factors are non-existent at workplace, then they lead to
dissatisfaction. In other words, hygiene factors are those factors which when adequate /
reasonable in a job, pacify the employees and do not make them dissatisfied. These factors are
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extrinsic to work. Hygiene factors are also called asdissatisfiers or maintenance factors as they
are required to avoid dissatisfaction. These factors describe the job environment / scenario. The
hygiene factors symbolized the physiological needs which the individuals wanted and expected
to be fulfilled. Hygiene factors include:
Pay- The pay or salary structure should be appropriate and reasonable. It must be equal
and competitive to those in the same industry in the same domain.
Company Policies and administrative policies- The company policies should not be too
rigid. They should be fair and clear. It should include flexible working hours, dress code, breaks,
vacation, etc.
Fringe benefits- The employees should be offered health care plans (mediclaim), benefits
for the family members, employee help programmes, etc.
Physical Working conditions- The working conditions should be safe, clean and hygienic.
The work equipments should be updated and well-maintained.
Status- The employees status within the organization should be familiar and retained.
Interpersonal relations-The relationship of the employees with his peers, superiors and
subordinates should be appropriate and acceptable. There should be no conflict or humiliation

element present.
Job Security- The organization must provide job security to the employees.
Motivational factors- According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors cannot be regarded as

motivators. The motivational factors yield positive satisfaction. These factors are inherent to
work. These factors motivate the employees for a superior performance. These factors are called
satisfiers. These are factors involved in performing the job. Employees find these factors
intrinsically rewarding. The motivators symbolized the psychological needs that were perceived
as an additional benefit. Motivational factors include:
Recognition- The employees should be praised and recognized for their accomplishments by the
managers.
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Sense of achievement- The employees must have a sense of achievement. This depends on the
job. There must be a fruit of some sort in the job.
Growth and promotional opportunities- There must be growth and advancement opportunities in
an organization to motivate the employees to perform well.
Responsibility- The employees must hold themselves responsible for the work. The managers
should give them ownership of the work. They should minimize control but retain accountability.
Meaningfulness of the work- The work itself should be meaningful, interesting and challenging
for the employee to perform and to get motivated.
DAVID MCCLELLAND
David McClelland (Studies in Motivation, 1955) identified three basic types of motivating needs
present in people. He shows that all three needs can be present in a person but the weight
attached to each can vary. The three needs are:
(a) Need for achievement - where this is high then people have an intense desire to succeed and
an equally intense fear of failure.
(b) Need for affiliation - where this is high people tend to seek acceptance by others, need to feel
loved and are concerned with maintaining pleasant social relationships.
(c) Need for power - people with a high need for power seek opportunities to influence and
control others, seek leadership positions and are often articulate,outspoken and stubborn.
ARGYRIS
Even though management based on the assumptions of Theory X is perhaps no longer
appropriate in the opinion of McGregor and others, it is still widely practiced. Consequently a
large majority of the people in organisations today are treated as immature human beings in their
working
environment.
In
attempting
to
analyse
the
situation,
Argyris
compared
bureaucratic/pyramidal values (the organizations counterpart to Theory X assumptions) that still

dominate most organisations with a more humanistic/democratic value system (Theory Y
assumptions about people).
34
EXPECTANCY THEORY
The common themes in expectancy theories are:
conscious decisions by individuals to behave in certain ways

individual values with regard to choosing desired outcomes
individual expectations concerning the amount of effort required to achieve a specific
outcome
individual expectations concerning the probability of being rewarded for achieving a
desired outcome.
Motivation is a function of the relationship between: effort expended and perceived level of
performance the expectation that rewards (desired outcomes) will be related to performance.
There must also be the expectation that rewards are available. These relationships determine
the strength of the motivational link. The strength of the individuals preference for an
outcome the belief in the likelihood that particular actions will achieve the required goal
This process may be illustrated in the following way:
Force = Valence Expectancy
Force is strength of motivation.

Valence is strength of preference for an outcome.
Expectancy is the level of belief that changes in behaviour will achieve therequired
outcome.
The recommendations to management that go with this model are outlined as follows:
Discover what outcome each employee values most.

Define for employees the kinds of performance that are desired or required, ie explain
what constitutes a goal and adequate performance.

Ensure that the desired levels of performance are achievable.
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Link the outcomes desired by employees to the specific performance desired by
management.
Ensure that the overall motivation strategy avoids conflict between the positive
expectations it seeks to create and other factors in the work situation.

Make sure that outcome or rewards are sufficiently attractive to motivate the
desired level of performance.
PORTER AND LAWLERS MODEL- Vrooms theory has been extended by the findings
Porter and Lawler (Managerial Attitudes and Performance, 1968) in devising a more complete
model of motivation for management. Basically, Porter and Lawlers model (shown below)
shows that the amount of effort generated depends upon
The value of the reward

the amount of effort seen to be necessary
the probability of receiving the reward
The amount of effort deemed necessary and the probability of receiving thereward are in turn
influenced by the individuals record of performance to date, and range of skills, personality,
perception of his role, and any number of otherenvironment factors.
Remember that rewards may be:
36
(a) external rewards that are given by others and form part of the job situation (egwages, status,
security)
(b) intrinsic rewards which the individual manager awards himself. These arise from the
performance of the tasks (eg feelings of self-esteem, accomplishment)
ADAMS EQUITY THEORY
When people sense inequities in their work they will be aroused to remove the discomfort and
restore a state of felt equity to the situation by:
changing work inputs

changing rewards received
leaving the situation
changing the comparison points
psychologically distorting the comparisons
People who feel overpaid (feel positive inequity) have been found to increase the quantity or
quality of their work, whilst those who are underpaid (feel negative inequity) do the opposite.
Feelings of inequity are determined solely by the individuals interpretation of the situation - the
fact that a manager feels that the annual pay review is fair is immaterial.
LEADERSHIP
What is Leadership
Leadership is a process by which an executive can direct, guide and influence the behavior and
work of others towards accomplishment of specific goals in a given situation. Leadership is the
ability of a manager to induce the subordinates to work with confidence and zeal.
Leadership is the potential to influence behaviour of others. It is also defined as the capacity to
influence a group towards the realization of a goal. Leaders are required to develop future
visions, and to motivate the organizational members to want to achieve the visions.
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According to Keith Davis,Leadership is the ability to persuade others to seek defined

objectives enthusiastically. It is the human factor which binds a group together and motivates it
towards goals.
Characteristics of Leadership
1.It is a inter-personal process in which a manager is into influencing and guiding workers
towards attainment of goals.
2.It denotes a few qualities to be present in a person which includes intelligence, maturity and
personality.
3.It is a group process. It involves two or more people interacting with each other.
4.A leader is involved in shaping and moulding the behaviour of the group towards
accomplishment of organizational goals.
5.Leadership is situation bound. There is no best style of leadership. It all depends upon tackling
with the situations.
Importance of Leadership
Leadership is an important function of management which helps to maximize efficiency and to
achieve organizational goals. The following points justify the importance of leadership in a
concern.
1.Initiates action- Leader is a person who starts the work by communicating the policies and
plans to the subordinates from where the work actually starts.
2.Motivation- A leader proves to be playing an incentive role in the concerns working. He
motivates the employees with economic and non-economic rewards and thereby gets the work
from the subordinates.
3.Providing guidance- A leader has to not only supervise but also play a guiding role for the
subordinates. Guidance here means instructing the subordinates the way they have to perform
their work effectively and efficiently.
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4.Creating confidence- Confidence is an important factor which can be achieved through

expressing the work efforts to the subordinates, explaining them clearly their role and giving
them guidelines to achieve the goals effectively. It is also important to hear the employees with
regards to their complaints and problems.
5.Building morale- Morale denotes willing co-operation of the employees towards their work
and getting them into confidence and winning their trust. A leader can be a morale booster by
achieving full co-operation so that they perform with best of their abilities as they work to
achieve goals.
6.Builds work environment- Management is getting things done from people. An efficient work
environment helps in sound and stable growth. Therefore, human relations should be kept into
mind by a leader. He should have personal contacts with employees and should listen to their
problems and solve them. He should treat employees on humanitarian terms.
7.Co-ordination- Co-ordination can be achieved through reconciling personal interests with
organizational goals. This synchronization can be achieved through proper and effective coordination which should be .
LEADERSHIP STYLE
A leader is a person who influences a group of people towards the achievement of a goal while
leadership is the art of motivating a group of people to act towards achieving a common goal.
Different leadership style will result in different impact to organization. The leader has to choose
the most effective approach of leadership style depending on situation because leadership style is
crucial for a team success. By understanding these leadership styles and their impact, everyone
can become a more flexible and better leader.
1. Transactional Leadership
Transactional leadership is a term used to classify a group of leadership theories that inquire the
interactions between leaders and followers. This style of leadership starts with the premise that
team members agree to obey their leader totally when they take a job on. The transaction is
usually that the organization pays the team members, in return for their effort and compliance. As
such, the leader has the right to punish team members if their work doesnt meet the preUGC NET BY ANUBHAV SINGH
39
determined standard. Team members can do little to improve their job satisfaction under
transactional leadership. The leader could give team members some control of their
income/reward by using incentives that encourage even higher standards or greater productivity.
Alternatively a transactional leader could practice management by exception, whereby, rather
than rewarding better work, he or she would take corrective action if the required standards were
not met.
Transactional leadership is really just a way of managing rather a true leadership style, as the
focus is on short-term tasks. It has serious limitations for knowledge-based or creative work, but
remains a common style in many organizations.
2. Autocratic Leadership
Under the autocratic leadership styles, all decision-making powers are centralized in the leader as
shown such leaders are dictators. Autocratic leadership is an extreme form of transactional
leadership, where a leader exerts high levels of power over his or her employees or team
members. People within the team are given few opportunities for making suggestions, even if
these would be in the teams or organizations interest.
Many people resent being treated like this. Because of this, autocratic leadership often leads to
high levels of absenteeism and staff turnover. Also, the teams output does not benefit from the
creativity and experience of all team members, so many of the benefits of teamwork are lost.
For some routine and unskilled jobs, however, this style can remain effective, where the
advantages of control outweigh the disadvantages.
3. Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership is a leadership style that is defined as leadership that creates
valuable and positive change in the followers. A transformational leader focuses on
transforming others to help each other, to look out for each other, to be encouraging and
harmonious, and to look out for the organization as a whole. In this leadership, the leader
enhances the motivation, morale and performance of his follower group. A person with this
leadership style is a true leader who inspires his or her team with a shared vision of the future.
Transformational leaders are highly visible, and spend a lot of time communicating. They dont
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necessarily lead from the front, as they tend to delegate responsibility amongst their teams.
While their enthusiasm is often infectious, they can need to be supported by detail people.
In many organizations, both transactional and transformational leadership are needed. The
transactional leaders (or managers) ensure that routine work is done reliably, while the
transformational leaders look after initiatives that add new value.
4. Servant Leadership
This term, coined by Robert Greenleaf in the 1970s, describes a leader who is often not formally
recognized as such. When someone, at any level within an organization, leads simply by virtue
of meeting the needs of his or her team, he or she is described as a servant leader. Servant
Leaderships focus was on the leader as a servant, with his or her key role being in developing,
enabling and supporting team members, helping them fully develop their potential and deliver
their best. In many ways, servant leadership is a form of democratic leadership, as the whole
team tends to be involved in decision-making.
Supporters of the servant leadership model suggest it is an important way ahead in a world where
values are increasingly important, and in which servant leaders achieve power on the basis of
their values and ideals. Others believe that in competitive leadership situations, people practicing
servant leadership can find themselves left behind by leaders using other leadership styles.
Followers may like the idea of servant leadership so theres something immediately attractive
about the idea of having a boss whos a servant leader. People without responsibility for results
may like it for its obviously democratic and consensual approach.
5. Charismatic Leadership
The Charismatic Leader and the Transformational Leader can have many similarities, in that the
Transformational Leader may well be charismatic. Their main difference is in their basic focus.
Whereas the Transformational Leader has a basic focus of transforming the organization and,
quite possibly, their followers, the Charismatic Leader may not want to change anything. A
charismatic leadership style can appear similar to a transformational leadership style, in that the
leader injects huge doses of enthusiasm into his or her team, and is very energetic in driving
others forward.
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However, charismatic leaders can tend to believe more in themselves than in their teams. This
can create a risk that a project, or even an entire organization, might collapse if the leader were to
leave because in the eyes of their followers, success is tied up with the presence of the
charismatic leader. As such, charismatic leadership carries great responsibility, and needs longterm commitment from the leader.
6. Democratic Leadership or Participative Leadership
Although a democratic leader will make the final decision, he or she invites other members of
the team to contribute to the decision-making process. This not only increases job satisfaction by
involving employees or team members in whats going on, but it also helps to develop peoples
skills. Employees and team members feel in control of their own destiny, and so are motivated to
work hard by more than just a financial reward. Democratic leadership can produce high quantity
work for long periods of time. Many employees like the trust they receive and respond with
cooperation, team spirit, and high morale.
As participation takes time, this style can lead to things happening more slowly than an
autocratic approach, but often the end result is better. It can be most suitable where team working
is essential, and where quality is more important than speed to market or productivity.
7. Laissez-Faire Leadership
The laissez-faire leadership style is also known as the hands-off style. It is one in which the
manager provides little or no direction and gives employees as much freedom as possible. All
authority or power is given to the employees and they must determine goals, make decisions, and
resolve problems on their own.
This French phrase means leave it be and is used to describe a leader who leaves his or her
colleagues to get on with their work. It can be effective if the leader monitors what is being
achieved and communicates this back to his or her team regularly. Most often, laissez-faire
leadership works for teams in which the individuals are very experienced and skilled selfstarters. Unfortunately, it can also refer to situations where managers are not exerting sufficient
control. The advantage of this kind of style is positive only in the case when the employees are
very responsible and in case of creative jobs where a person is guided by his own aspirations. In
42
these cases, less direction is required so this style can be good. This style has more disadvantages
because usually it is the result of the lack of interest of the leader that leads to his adopting this
style. It proves poor management and makes the employees lose their sense of direction and
focus. The disinterest of the management and leadership causes the employees to become less
interested in their job and their dissatisfaction increases.
9. Bureaucratic Leadership
This is style of leadership that emphasizes procedures and historical methods regardless of their
usefulness in changing environments. Bureaucratic leaders attempt to solve problems by adding
layers of control, and their power comes from controlling the flow of information. Bureaucratic
leaders work by the book, ensuring that their staff follow procedures exactly. This is a very
appropriate style for work involving serious safety risks such as working with machinery, with
toxic substances, at heights or where large sums of money are involved such as cash-handling.
In other situations, the inflexibility and high levels of control exerted can demoralize staff, and
can diminish the organizations ability to react to changing external circumstances.
In leadership theory, three studies are considered as seminal and important. In Iowa leadership
studies, authoritarian, democratic and laissez-faire leadership concepts were proposed and
investigated for their effect on aggressive and apathetic behavior on the part of followers.
Laissez-faire approach resulted in more aggressive behavior, authoritarian style resulted in more
apathetic behavior and democratic style was in between the two.
LEADERSHIP THEORIES
In Ohio leadership studies, a questionnaire was used on air force commanders and members of
bomber crews as well as other leaders and the responses were subjected to factor analysis. Two
factors emerged out of the analysis and were given the names of consideration and initiating
structure. They became more popular as task orientation and people orientation.
In Michigan studies, 12 pairs of high-producing and low-producing sections of an insurance
company were studied. The conclusion was that high-producing sections were supervised in a
general rather than close supervisory style and supervisors were people centered. In the case of
low-producing section, the supervision was more close and task oriented.
43
The presently identified theories of leadership have their genesis in these studies in identifying
the determinants of leadership and effective leadership.
Theories of leadership are provided in two categories: Traditional and modern.
Traditional theories are:
1. Trail theory
2. Exchange theory
3. Contingency theory
4. Path goal theory.
TRAIT THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP:
Trait theories identify traits or characteristics that help in leadership. Leaders were more
intelligent than the average of the group being led, but, interestingly, the leader is not the most
intelligent of the group.Emotion quotient (EQ) characteristics such as empathy, graciousness,
optimism, and being able to read the nonverbal cues in social situation are associated with
effective leaders. The leader should be able to assess himself as an able person (Self efficacy).
From trait theory, this approach moved towards skills theory.
From the trait theories, a list of skills categorized as technical, conceptual and human skills
needed for effective management or leadership are specified. Yukl further identified that skills
such as creativity, organizing ability, persuasiveness, diplomacy and tactfulness, knowledge of
the task, and the ability to speak well contribute to leader success.
Competencies are another version of trait theory.
In the language of competencies, the following competencies were identified as having a relation
to leadership effectiveness.
1. Drive, or the inner motivation to pursue goals (achievement motivation).
44
2. Leadership motivation - the use of socialized power to influence others to succeed.

3. Integrity, the idea includes truthfulness and the will to translate words into deeds.
4. Self-confidence exhibited through impression management
5. Leading others to feel confident.
6. Intelligence ability to process information, analyzes alternatives, and discover opportunities.
7. Knowledge of the business ideas relevant to the business is initiated.
8.Emotional Intelligence: self-monitoring personality, ability to adapt to circumstances as
needed.
CONTINGENCY THEORY OF LEADERSHIP
Fred Fiedler, presented a rigorous version of contingency theory wherein situation plays a part in
leadership process. Fiedler described the favorableness of a situation using three dimensions.
1. The leader-member relationship cordial or opposing
2. The degree of task structure at hand structured or unstructured
3. Leaders position power Formal authority of the leader
Fiedler found that when situation is very favorable or unfavorable, authoritarian leadership style
delivered better results. When the situation is moderately favorable or unfavorable, human
oriented or democratic leadership delivered better results. As in majority of the case, the situation
will be in the middle ground, democratic leadership style is the more popular and appropriate
style. Fiedler also came out with cognitive resource theory (CRT) of leadership. According to
CRT
1. More intelligent leaders develop better plans, decisions, and action strategies than less
intelligent leaders.
45
2. Intelligence contributes more strongly to group performance if the leader is directive and the
group members are motivated and supportive of the leader.
3. Interpersonal stress distracts the leader from the task and the leaders intelligence will
contribute more highly if the leader has relatively stress-free relationship with superiors and
subordinates.
PATH-GOAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
According to this theory leaders have to understand the goals of the followers and prescribe a
path that promises the fulfillment of goals to the followers. The theory asserts that leader
behavior will be acceptable to followers to the extent that the followers see such behavior as
either an immediate source of satisfaction or as instrumental to future satisfaction.
Leadership behavior will be motivational and increase the effort of the followers to the extent
that (1) it makes satisfaction of follower needs contingent on effective performance of the tasks
planned by the leader and (2) it complements the environment of subordinates by providing the
coaching, guidance, support, and rewards which are necessary for effective performance and
which may otherwise be lacking in subordinates or in their environment. Leaders can exhibit the
following types of behavior as they feel appropriate to a situation. Same person can exhibit all
the behaviors as appropriate.
1. Directive leadership: Leader decides the path and directs the followers.
2. Supportive leadership: Leaders friendly.
3. Participative leadership: Leader asks for and uses suggestions of followers.
4. Achievement oriented leadership: Leader sets challenging goals and shows confidence that
followers will attain those challenging goals.
The activities of leader can be explained in the following steps.
1. Recognizing and arousing followers needs for outcomes over which the leader has some
control.
46
2. Increasing the personal payoffs to followers for task accomplishment. This could mean
providing payoffs which the follower desires.
3. Making the path to those payoffs (goals - *path-goal theory) easier to travel by coaching and
direction.
4. Helping followers clarify their expectations.
5. Reducing frustrating barriers.
6. Increasing opportunities for personal satisfaction contingent on effective performance.
Path goal theory focuses on two aspects, goals of the subordinates and the path that is to be
traveled for achieving those goals. Leader has to contribute to both of them or either of them at
any point in time to be the leader.
MODERN THEORIES
CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP THEORIES
Robert House suggested that charismatic leaders are characterized by self confidence and
confidence in subordinates, high expectations for subordinates, ideological vision, and the use of
personal examples. Followers identify with leader and his mission, exhibit extreme loyalty to and
confidence in the leader, emulate leaders values and behavior, and derive self esteem from their
relationship with the leader. The leaders foster attitudinal, behavioral and emotional changes in
their followers. Charismatic leaders produce performance in followers beyond expectations.
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
Transactional leadership involves an exchange relationship and can be interpreted as guiding
followers to produce according to their values, beliefs. Transformational leaders shift the values,
beliefs and even needs of their followers. Transformation leaders help their organization and
followers deliver an output that is far better or higher than the historical trend based estimated
output
Transformational leaders have the following characteristics
47
1. They identify themselves as change agents.

2. They are courageous.
3. They believe in people.
4. They are value driven
5. They are life long learners.
6. They have the ability to deal with complexity, ambiguity and uncertainty.
7. They are visionaries (have grand plans).
IMPORTANT LINKS
http://www.academia.edu/4910456/MOTIVATION_AND_ORGANIZATIONAL_BEHAVIOU
R
http://managementstudyguide.com/what_is_motivation.html
http://www.slideshare.net/jonrwallace/ob-leadership-12328891
http://smallbusiness.chron.com/organizational-leadership-theories-284.html
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/leadership/leadership-styles-for-indianorganisations/25800/
http://www.strategy-business.com/article/00178?pg=all
48
Unit -4
49
INTERPERSONAL BEHAVIOUR
A variety of behaviors involving the ways in which people work with and against one another.
Interpersonal behaviour is how people interact with one another. Specifically itis studied as the
way people behave when this behaviour would affect a relationship.
Interpersonal behaviour is the bond or behaviour between two people depending on the context
of their relationship. This could be workmates, couples in a relationship or even business
partners. People appreciate each other's skill when they work together.
Psychological Contracts
50
Peoples beliefs about what is expected of another in a relationship

Transactional Contract:
A type of psychological contract that is characterized by an
exclusively economic focus, a brief time span, an unchanging nature, and is narrow and well
defined in scope
Relational Contract: A type of psychological contract in which the parties have a long-term
and widely defined relationship with a vast focus.
CONFLICT
Psychologists define conflict as; a situation in which a person is motivated to engage in two or
more mutually exclusive activities.
According to communication scholars when there is incompatibility or inconsistency among
an individuals cognitive elements [which] implies that a new cognitive element is at variance
with a prior explanation or expectation.
Conflict is a clash of interests, values, actions, views or directions (De Bono, 1985). Conflict
refers to the existence of that clash. Conflict is initiated the instant clash occurs. Generally, there
are diverse interests and contrary views behind a conflict, which are revealed when people look
at a problem from their viewpoint alone. Conflict is an outcome of organizational intricacies,
interactions and disagreements. It can be settled by identifying and neutralizing the etiological
factors. Once conflict is concluded it can provoke a positive change in the organization.
Meaning of Conflict
Working together is not always easy, it is because of conflict. Conflict is a part of everyday life
of an individual and of an organization. According to J.W.Thomas, Conflict is a process that
begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or about to
negatively affect, something that the first party cares about.
This definition describes that point in an ongoing activity when an interaction crosses over to
become an inter party conflict.
51
Conflict is a process in which an effort is purposefully made by one-person or unit to block

another that results in frustrating the attainment of the others goals or the furthering of his or
her interest.
For example, if A deliberately tries to offset the efforts of B by some form of blocking that will
result in frustrating B in attaining his goal, it is conflict.
NATURE OF CONFLICT-In a discussion on the nature of conflict, it is necessary to discuss
the following points:
Conflict is different from competition

Conflict occurs when two or more parties pursue two or more mutually exclusive
goals
Conflict arises out of two perceptions
Conflict refers to deliberate behavior
SOURCES OF CONFLICT
There are three levels of conflict in the life of an organization, and for every level there are
different sources:
1. Intra Personal Conflict: Intra personal conflict refers to the conflict within an individual. It
arises from frustration, numerous goal which requires equal attention but is not possible to
devote and goals having both positive and negative aspects.
2. Inter- personal Conflict: Inter personal conflict refers to the conflict between two or more
individuals with a group. It arises due ti differences in personalities, perceptions, temperaments,
values, socio- cultural factors and role ambiguities.
3. Inter- Group Conflict: It is also called organizational conflict. It refers to the conflict
between two or more sections, groups or departments in an organization. Conflict between
groups is frequent and highly visible.
The reasons for inter group conflict are many, such as:
52
a. Task Interdependence: It refers to the extent to which two departments depend on each other
for information, compliance and assistance.
b. Task Ambiguity: Another important source or inter group conflict arises when it is not clear,
which group is responsible for performing which task.
c. Goal incompatibility: if goals of two departments of an organization clash with each other,
conflict arises.
d. Competition for limited resources: Resources of an organization are limited, and every
department tries to secure maximum share in that. It results in conflict.
e. Competitive reward system: if there is a system in the organization that reward will be given
on the basis of competitive performance, it will result in conflict.
CHANGING VIEWS OF CONFLICT

Conflict exists in the organization from the very beginning, but attitude toward conflict has been
changed. This change can be explained as:
S.No.
TRADITIONAL VIEW
MODERN VIEW
1
Conflict is avoidable
Conflict is inevitable
2
Caused by management error in designing Caused by either organizational structure
situations
,unavoidable
difference
in
goals,
difference in values , goals etc.

Disrupts the organization & prevents optimal It contributes and detract
performance
organizational performance
Task of management is to manage the Task of management is to manage the
conflict
level of conflict
Optimal organizational performance requires Optimal organizational
the removal of conflict
from
performance
requires a moderate level of conflict
LEVEL OF CONFLICT
53
Reward systems of most organizations encourage employees to compete with each other.
Competition may be either open or closed. Unfortunately improper reward systems or
reorganization systems for employees create some conflict. Organization conflict is a situation of
closed or win-lose competition, in which parties try to keep each other from attaining their goals.
There are mainly three levels of organizational conflict. It may exist between individuals, or
between individuals and groups, or groups in same organization.
Every inter-group conflict passes through five stages. They are (1) Latent conflict, (2) perceived
conflict, (3) felt conflict, (4) manifest conflict (5) conflict aftermath.
Latent conflict: - This is the first stage in which only potential opposition exists between parties.
This means all causes of conflict lying hidden.
Perceived conflict: - In this stage, parties become aware of this conflict, and they begin
perceiving the conflict.
Felt conflict: - In this stage, parties becomes emotionally involved in the conflict, and feeling
the conflict.
Manifest conflict: - In this stage, parties begin to give expression in their hostile behavior. Some
expressions of hostile behaviors are lack of coordination, decreased interaction, and break down
in work flow etc.
Conflict aftermath: - Conflict is not discrete situations, with a clear beginning and end.
FUNCTIONAL ASPECTS OF CONFLICT
Functional Conflict refers to confrontation between two ideas, goals and parties that improve
employees and organization performance. Benefit of conflict is following:
1. Conflict increases awareness of: - What Who how
2. Conflict motivates organizational members to consider problems.
3. Conflict promotes changes.
4. Conflict enhances moral and cohesion.
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5. High quality decision result when persons express their opposing views and perspectives.
6. Conflict stimulates interest and creativity.
7. Conflict adds to the fun of working with others when not taken seriously.
Dysfunctional Conflict: Conflict is inevitable in organizations and also desirable. But without
an effective means for handling it, conflict can tear relationships apart and interfere with the
exchange of ideas, information and resources in groups and between department. Dysfunctional
conflict hinders and prevents organizational goals from being achieved.
REASONS OF CONFLICT
In most organizations, conflicts increase as employees assert their demands for an increased
share in organizational rewards, such as position, acknowledgment, appreciation, monetary
benefits and independence. Even management faces conflicts with many forces from outside the
organization, such as government, unions and other coercive groups which may impose
restrictions on managerial activities.
Conflicts emanate from more than one source, and so their true origin may be hard to identify.
Important initiators of conflict situations include:
(i) People disagree. People disagree for a number of reasons (De Bono, 1985).
(a) They see things differently because of differences in understanding and viewpoint. Most of
these differences are usually not important. Personality differences or clashes in emotional needs
may cause conflicts. Conflicts arise when two groups or individuals interacting in the same
situation see the situation differently because of different sets of settings, information pertaining
to the universe, awareness, background, disposition, reason or outlook. In a particular mood,
individuals think and perceive in a certain manner. For example, the half-full glass of one
individual can be half-empty to another. Obviously both individuals convey the same thing, but
they do so differently owing to contrasting perceptions and dispositions.
(b) People have different styles, principles, values, beliefs and slogans which determine their
choices and objectives. When choices contradict, people want different things and that can create
55
conflict situations. For example, a risk-taking manager would be in conflict with a riskminimizing supervisor who believes in firm control and a well-kept routine.
(c) People have different ideological and philosophical outlooks, as in the case of different
political parties. Their concepts, objectives and ways of reacting to various situations are
different. This often creates conflicts among them.
(d) Conflict situations can arise because people have different status. When people at higher
levels in the organization feel indignant about suggestions for change put forward from their
subordinates or associates, it provokes conflict. By tolerating and allowing such suggestions,
potential conflict can be prevented.
(e) People have different thinking styles, which encourage them to disagree, leading to conflict
situations. Certain thinking styles may be useful for certain purposes, but ineffectual or even
perilous in other situations (De Bono, 1985).
(f) People are supposed to disagree under particular circumstances, such as in sports. Here
conflict is necessary, and even pleasurable.
(ii) People are concerned with fear, force, fairness or funds (De Bono, 1985).
(a) Fear relates to imaginary concern about something which might happen in the future. One
may fear setbacks, disgrace, reprisal or hindrances, which can lead to conflict situations.
(b) Force is a necessary ingredient of any conflict situation. Force may be ethical or emotional. It
could be withdrawal of cooperation or approval. These forces are instrumental in generating,
strengthening and terminating conflicts.
(c) Fairness refers to an individual's sense of what is right and what is not right, a fundamental
factor learnt in early childhood. This sense of fairness determines the moral values of an
individual. People have different moral values and accordingly appreciate a situation in different
ways, creating conflict situations.
(d) Funds or costs can cause conflict, but can also force a conclusion through acceptable to the
conflicting parties. The cost of being in conflict may be measurable (in money terms) or
56
immeasurable, being expressed in terms of human lives, suffering, diversion of skilled labour,
neglect or loss of morale and self esteem. (De Bono, 1985).
TYPES OF CONFLICT
Intraorganization conflict
Conflict that occurs within an organization

At interfaces of organization functions
Can occur along the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the organization
Vertical conflict: between managers and subordinates

Horizontal conflict: between departments and work groups
Intragroup conflict
Conflict among members of a group

Early stages of group development
Ways of doing tasks or reaching group's goals
Intergroup conflict: between two or more groups

Interpersonal conflict
Between two or more people

Differences in views about what should be done
Efforts to get more resources
Differences in orientation to work and time in different parts of an organization
CONFLICT RESOLUTION
Conflict resolution is conceptualized as the methods and processes involved in facilitating the
peaceful ending of conflict. Often, committed group members attempt to resolve group conflicts
by actively communicating information about their conflicting motives or ideologies to the rest
of the group (e.g., intentions; reasons for holding certain beliefs), and by engaging in collective
57
negotiation. Ultimately, a wide range of methods and procedures for addressing conflict exist,
including but not limited to, negotiation, mediation, diplomacy, and creative peacebuilding.
It may be important to note that the term conflict resolution may also be used interchangeably
with dispute resolution, where arbitration and litigation processes are critically involved.
Furthermore, the concept of conflict resolution can be thought to encompass the use of
nonviolent resistance measures by conflicted parties in an attempt to promote effective
resolution.
Dual Concern Model Of Conflict Resolution
The dual concern model of conflict resolution is a conceptual perspective that assumes
individuals preferred method of dealing with conflict is based on two underlying themes or
dimensions:
A concern for self (i.e. assertiveness), and

A concern for others (i.e. empathy).
According to the model, group members balance their concern for satisfying personal needs and
interests with their concern for satisfying the needs and interests of others in different ways. The
intersection point between these two dimensions ultimately lead individuals towards exhibiting
different styles of conflict resolution (Goldfien & Robbennolt, 2007).[3] The dual model
identifies five conflict resolution styles/strategies that individuals may use depending on their
dispositions toward pro-self or pro-social goals.
1. Avoidance conflict style
Characterized by inaction and passivity, avoidance conflict style is typically used when an
individual has reduced concern for their own outcomes as well as the outcomes of others. During
conflict, these avoiders adopt a wait and see attitude, often allowing conflict to phase out on its
own without any personal involvement (Bayazit & Mannix, 2003). Unfortunately, by neglecting
to address high-conflict situations, avoiders risk allowing problems to fester out of control.
2. Yielding conflict style
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In contrast, yielding or accommodating conflict styles are characterized by a high concern for
others while having a low concern for ones own self. This passive pro-social approach emerges
when individuals derive personal satisfaction from meeting the needs of others and have a
general concern for maintaining stable, positive social relationships. When faced with conflict,
individuals with a yielding conflict style tend to give into others demands out of respect for the
social relationship (e.g., to maintain group unity) because they believe being agreeable may be
more important than winning (Goldfien & Robbennolt, 2007).
3. Competitive conflict style
Competitive or fighting conflict style maximizes individual assertiveness (i.e., concern for
self) and minimizes empathy (i.e., concern for others). Groups consisting of competitive
members generally enjoy seeking domination over others, and typically see conflict as a win or
lose predicament. Fighters tend to force others to accept their personal views by employing
competitive, power tactics (e.g., argue; insult; accuse; violence) that foster feelings of
intimidation (Morrill, 1995).
4.Cooperation conflict style
Characterized by an active concern for both pro-social and pro-self behavior, cooperation
conflict style is typically used when an individual has elevated interests in their own outcomes as
well as in the outcomes of others. During conflict, cooperators collaborate with others in an
effort to find an amicable solution that satisfies all parties involved in the conflict. Individuals
with this type of conflict style tend to be highly assertive and highly empathetic at the same time.
By seeing conflict as a creative opportunity, collaborators willingly invest time and resources
into finding a win-win solution. According to the literature on conflict resolution, a
cooperative conflict resolution style is recommended above all others (Sternberg & Dobson,
1987; Jarboe & Witteman, 1996)
5. Conciliation conflict style
Conciliation or compromising conflict style is typical of individuals who possess an
intermediate-level of concern for both personal and others outcomes. Compromisers value
fairness and, in doing so, anticipate mutual give-and-take interactions. By accepting some
59
demands put forth by others, compromisers believe this agreeableness will encourage others to
meet half-way, thus promoting conflict resolution (van de Vliert & Euwema, 1994). This conflict
style can be considered an extension of both yielding and cooperative strategies.
GROUP
Meaning of a Group
Group a collection of two or more people who work with one another regularly to achieve
common goals
Characteristics of Group :Interaction
Activities
Norms
Informal leadership
Cohesion
Conformity
Awareness
Group perception
Common objective of goals
In a true group 1.Members are mutually dependent on one another to achieve common goals
2.Members interact with one another to pursue those goals over a sustained period of time
Conceiving of a group as a dynamic whole should include a definition of group that is based on
interdependence of the members (or better, the subparts of the group). Kurt Lewin (1951: 146)
60
We mean by a group a number of persons who communicate with one another often over a span
of time, and who are few enough so that each person is able to communicate with all the others,
not at second-hand, through other people, but face-to-face.George Homans (1950: 1)
To put it simply they are units composed of two or more persons who come into contact for a
purpose and who consider the contact meaningful. Theodore M. Mills(1967: 2)
A group is a collection of individuals who have relations to one another that make them
interdependent to some significant degree. As so defined, the term group refers to a class of
social entities having in common the property of interdependence among their constituent
members. Dorwin Cartwright and Alvin Zander (1968: 46).
GROUP DYNAMICS
It refers to a system of behaviors and psychological processes occurring within a social group
(intragroup dynamics), or between social groups (intergroup dynamics). The study of group
dynamics can be useful in understanding decision-making behavior, tracking the spread of
diseases in society, creating effective therapy techniques, and following the emergence and
popularity of new ideas and technologies. Group dynamics are at the core of understanding
racism, sexism, and other forms of social prejudice and discrimination. These applications of the
field are studied in psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science, epidemiology,
education, social work, business, and communication studies.
Group dynamics is the psychological and social study of the group with the various elements
Another view of group dynamics is that it consists of a set of techniques Here
Role playing
Brainstorming
Focus groups
Leaderless groups
Group therapy
Sensitivity training
Team building
Transactional analysis
Johari Window are traditionally equated with group dynamics
61
FORMATION OF GROUP
Groups change over time. There is a real sense in which they are living things. They emerge,
they exist, and they die. This phenomenon has led to the formulation of a wide range of
theoretical models concerning developmental processes. Most commentators assume that groups
go through a number of phases or stages if they exist for an extended period. It is clear, for
example, that people tend to want to know something about the other members; have to develop
a degree of interdependence in order that the group or team may achieve its tasks and be
satisfying to its members; and has to learn at some level to deal with conflict if it is to survive.
The most influential model of the developmental process - certainly in terms of its impact upon
texts aimed at practitioners - has been that of Bruce W. Tuckman (1965). While there are various
differences concerning the number of stages and their names - many have adopted a version of
Tuckman's model - forming, storming, norming and performing.
Teams initially go through a "forming" stage in which members are positive and polite. Some
members are anxious, as they haven't yet worked out exactly what work the team will involve.
62
Others are simply excited about the task ahead. As leader, you play a dominant role at this stage:
other members' roles and responsibilities are less clear.
This stage is usually fairly short, and may only last for the single meeting at which people are
introduced to one-another. At this stage there may be discussions about how the team will work,
which can be frustrating for some members who simply want to get on with the team task.
Soon, reality sets in and your team moves into a "storming" phase. Your authority may be
challenged as others jockey for position and their roles are clarified. The ways of working start to
be defined and, as leader, you must be aware that some members may feel overwhelmed by how
much there is to do, or uncomfortable with the approach being used. Some may react by
questioning how worthwhile the goal of the team is, and by resisting taking on tasks. This is the
stage when many teams fail, and even those that stick with the task may feel that they are on an
emotional roller coaster, as they try to focus on the job in hand without the support of established
processes or relationships with their colleagues.
Gradually, the team moves into a "norming" stage, as a hierarchy is established. Team members
come to respect your authority as a leader, and others show leadership in specific areas.
Now that the team members know each other better, they may be socializing together, and they
are able to ask each other for help and provide constructive criticism. The team develops a
stronger commitment to the team goal, and you start to see good progress towards it.
There is often a prolonged overlap between storming and norming behavior: As new tasks come
up, the team may lapse back into typical storming stage behavior, but this eventually dies out.
When the team reaches the "performing" stage, hard work leads directly to progress towards
the shared vision of their goal, supported by the structures and processes that have been set up.
Individual team members may join or leave the team without affecting the performing culture.
As leader, you are able to delegate much of the work and can concentrate on developing team
members. Being part of the team at this stage feels "easy" compared with earlier on.
Project teams exist only for a fixed period, and even permanent teams may be disbanded through
organizational restructuring. As team leader, your concern is both for the team's goal and the
63
team members. Breaking up a team can be stressful for all concerned and the "adjourning" or
"mourning" stage is important in reaching both team goal and personal conclusions.
TYPES OF GROUPS
There are various ways of classifying groups, for example in terms of their purpose or structure,
but two sets of categories have retained their usefulness for both practitioners and researchers.
They involve the distinctions between:
Primary and secondary groups
Charles Horton Cooley (1909) established the distinction between 'primary groups' and
'nucleated groups' (now better known as secondary groups):
Primary groups are clusters of people like families or close friendship circles where there is
close, face-to-face and intimate interaction. There is also often a high level of interdependence
between members. Primary groups are also the key means of socialization in society, the main
place where attitudes, values and orientations are developed and sustained.
Secondary groups are those in which members are rarely, if ever, all in direct contact. They are
often large and usually formally organized. Trades unions and membership organizations such as
the National Trust are examples of these. They are an important place for socialization, but
secondary to primary groups.
Command Group(permanent)A group composed of the individuals who report directly to a
given manager.
Task Group(temporary)Those working together to complete a job or task.
Formal Group: A formal group is the deliberate and systematic grouping of people in an
organization so that organizational goals are better achieved.
Formal groups can be permanent or temporary
Permanent work groups or command groups in the vertical structure often appears in the
organization chart as departments( market research dept) division (consumer product division) or
teams (product assembly teams)
64
Vary in size
They are formed to perform specific function on an ongoing basis-continue till some decision
to change or reconfigure the organization\
Informal Group: Informal groups are the natural and spontaneous grouping of people whenever
they work together over a period of time. Whenever people interact and work together over a
certain period of time, its very natural for them and it comes very spontaneously for them, that
they form informal groups.
Emerge without being officially designated by the organization
Types of informal groups
Friendship groups
Interest groups
FORMAL GROUPS
INFORMAL GROUPS
1. Deliberately created.
Formal
groups
are
Spontaneously created.
knowingly
systematically created.
1. Systematic structure.
and Informal groups are not really created, they are

naturally formed.
Loose structure
As we discussed earlier, in the computer In informal groups, there is no structure at all.

department, we have HOD, OFFICE STAFF, They just come together for some time. There is
etc. So there is a system in place.
no junior and senioreverybody is equal.
65
1. Importance to position.
Importance to the person.
In a formal group, importance is always given The beauty of being in an informal group is that
to the position. Ex: the group leader, the head the position does not exist at all because there is
of
department,
etc.
The
position
gets no structure. So importance is always given to
importance in a formal way because there is a the person.

system in place.
1. Relationship is official.
Relationship is personal.
The relationship is very formal and official in In an informal group, the interaction and the
a formal group. So the relationship and attachment becomes very personal and not
behavior is almost prescribed in a formal official.
group.
1. Communication is restricted and slow. Communication is free and fast.
By restricted we mean that the boss may Everybody wants to tell everyone all the
decide that certain information should not be information. With the gossip network in an
discussed below a certain level.
Communication is very slow because a
informal group, information is passed very

quickly.
certain procedure has to be followed if we

want to pass down the information.
THEORY OF GROUP FORMATION

Theodore Newcombs classic balance theory of group formation
Similar attitudes and common relevant objectives and Goals
66
Individual X --------------------------------------- Individual Y

( Z )
Common Attitudes and Values
Religion
Politics
Lifestyle
Marriage-Work-Authority
Homans Theory
George Casper Homans (August 11, 1910 May 29, 1989) was an American sociologist, founder
of behavioral sociology and the exchange theory According to Homans they are psychological
for two reasons: first, they are usually tested on people who call themselves psychologists and
second, they are psychological because of the level at which they deal with the individual in
society. Homans says, "They are propositions about the behavior of individual human beings,
rather than propositions about groups or societies.
Social psychological theory
Exchange theory similar to its functioning as a work motivation theory
Based on reward cost outcomes of interaction
Rewards from interactions gratify needs
Costs incur anxiety frustration-embarrassment fatigue
Propinquity Theory
Propinquity means nearness. & here nearness refers to geographical & spatial location. It
means informal group will be easily formed among those person who are geographically located
at same place.
GROUP COHESIVENESS
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A group is said to be in a state of cohesion when its members possess bonds linking them to one
another and to the group as a whole.Cohesive teams may be more successful in terms of
performance and group longevity, but there can also be some drawbacks to group cohesion.
Cohesive bonds may be cultivated through a sense of belonging, teamwork and division of labor,
and interpersonal and group-level attraction. Team cohesion and its relation to team performance
can also be boosted with incentives. Cohesive groups may be more successful in terms of
performance and group longevity. Cohesive teams may communicate more often and
successfully, report more satisfaction, and be more aligned to similar outcomes. There can also
be negative consequences to group cohesion. If the social pressures of the group intensify, it
maylead to creativity-stifling pressures to conform or resistance and inflexibility to change.
The bonds that link group members to one another and to their group as a whole are not believed
to develop spontaneously. Over the years, social scientists have explained the phenomena of
group cohesiveness in different ways. Some suggested that cohesiveness among group members
develops from a heightened sense of belonging, teamwork and interdependence through division
of labor, and interpersonal and group-level attraction, whether via the similarity of group
members or barriers to group entry or some other process.
Group cohesion has been linked to a range of positive and negative consequences. Firstly,
members of cohesive groups tend to communicate with one another in a more positive fashion
than noncohesive groups. As a result, members of cohesive groups often report higher levels of
satisfaction and lower levels of anxiety and tension than members of noncohesive groups.
Secondly, group cohesion has been linked to improved group performance, especially when the
members of a group are committed to the groups tasks.
Membership in a cohesive group can also have negative consequences. For example, the social
pressures of a cohesive group may intensify and lead to creativity-stifling pressures to conform.
Furthermore, group cohesion can trigger distress and maladaptive behavior in members
following changes to the structure of the group.
IMPORTANT LINKS
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http://www.slideshare.net/iamtulus/organizational-behaviour-conflict
http://www.indiastudychannel.com/resources/150403-Concept-conflictorganisational-behaviour.aspx
http://www.slideshare.net/bhaskardiwakar/conflict-management-11475906
http://college.cengage.com/business/moorhead/organizational/6e/students/cases/ch
11.html
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Unit -5
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STRESS
Stress may be defined as "a state of psychological and / or physiological imbalance resulting
from the disparity between situational demand and the individual's ability and / or motivation to
meet those demands.
Dr. Hans Selye, one of the leading authorities on the concept of stress, described stress as "the
rate of all wear and tear caused by life."
What is Employee Stress?
Employees stress is a growing concern for organizations today. Stress can be defined as a lively
circumstance in which people face constraints, opportunities, or loss of something they desire
and for which the consequence is both unpredictable as well as crucial. Stress is the response of
people to the unreasonable/excessive pressure or demands placed on them.
Symptoms of Stress
Some of the symptoms of stress at workplace are as followsAbsenteeism, escaping from work responsibilities, arriving late, leaving early, etc.
Deterioration in work performance, more of error prone work, memory loss, etc.
Cribbing, over-reacting, arguing, getting irritated, anxiety, etc.
Deteriorating health, more of accidents, etc.
Improper eating habits (over-eating or under-eating), excessive smoking and drinking,
sleeplessness, etc.
It is thus very essential to have effective stress management strategies in an organization so that
the detrimental repercussions of stress on the employees as well as their performance can be
reduced and controlled.
SOURCES/CAUSES OF STRESS
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The factors leading to stress among individual are called as stressors. Some of the
factors/stressors acting on employees are1. Organizational factors- With the growth in organizational stress and complexity, there is
increase in organizational factors also which cause stress among employees. Some of such
factors area. Discrimination in pay/salary structure
b. Strict rules and regulations
c.Ineffective communication
d. Peer pressure
e. Goals conflicts/goals ambiguity
f .More of centralized and formal organization structure
g .Less promotional opportunities
h. Lack of employees participation in decision-making
i. Excessive control over the employees by the managers
2.Individual factors- There are various expectations which the family members, peer, superior
and subordinates have from the employee. Failure to understand such expectations or to convey
such expectations lead to role ambiguity/role conflict which in turn causes employee stress.
Other individual factors causing stress among employees are inherent personality traits such as
being impatient, aggressive, rigid, feeling time pressure always, etc. Similarly, the family issues,
personal financial problems, sudden career changes all lead to stress.
3. Job concerning factors- Certain factors related to job which cause stress among employees
are as followsa. Monotonous nature of job
b. Unsafe and unhealthy working conditions
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c. Lack of confidentiality
d. Crowding
4. Extra-organizational factors- There are certain issues outside the organization which lead to
stress among employees. In todays modern and technology savvy world, stress has increased.
Inflation, technological change, social responsibilities and rapid social changes are other extraorganizational factors causing stress.
STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING STRESS
Stress experienced by the employees in their job has negative impact on their health,
performance and their behaviour in the organization. Thus, stress needs to be managed
effectively so as to set off these harmful consequences. Strategies for managing stress are as
followsOrganizational strategies for managing stress
1. Encouraging more of organizational communication with the employees so that there is no
role ambiguity/conflict. Effective communication can also change employee views. Managers
can use better signs and symbols which are not misinterpreted by the employees.
2. Encourage employees participation in decision-making. This will reduce role stress.
3. Grant the employees greater independence, meaningful and timely feedback, and greater
responsibility.
4. The organizational goals should be realistic, stimulating and particular. The employees must
be given feedback on how well they are heading towards these goals.
5. Encourage decentralization.
6. Have a fair and just distribution of incentives and salary structure.
7.Promote job rotation and job enrichment.
8.Create a just and safe working environment.
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9.Have effective hiring and orientation procedure.

10.Appreciate the employees on accomplishing and over-exceeding their targets.
Individual strategies for managing stress
1.The employees should make a to-do list daily, prioritize the acts in the list and plan the acts
accordingly. Take regular breaks during work to relax you. By effective time management, the
employees can achieve their targets timely and can meet work pressures and, thus, avoid stress.
2.Do hard work. Strive to achieve your goals but do not do it to the harm of family, health, or
peer.
3.Indulge in physical exercises. It helps in effective blood circulation, keeps you fit, diverts mind
from work pressures.
4.Encourage a healthy lifestyle. Take a regular sleep, have plenty of water, have healthy eating
habits. Promote relaxation techniques such as yoga, listening music and meditation.
5.The employees should have optimistic approach about their work. They should avoid
connections with negative approach employees.
6.The employees should have emotional intelligence at workplace. They should have selfawareness, self-confidence and self-control at workplace.
7.The employees should build social support. They should have close connections with
trustworthy peer who can listen to their problems and boost their confidence level. This social
network will help the employees to overcome stress.
8.Employee counselling is a very good strategy to overcome employee stress. Through
counselling, employees can become aware of their strengths and how to develop those strengths;
their weaknesses and how to eliminate them; and they can develop strategies for changing their
behaviour. Employees are also given career counselling which helps in reducing their
ambiguities with regard to career.
9. Find a fun way to release stress, such as, cracking jokes, playing tennis, golf, etc.
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10. Do not remain pre-occupied with yourself. Turn your focus outwards. Help others. This will
release some stress.
GRIEVANCE
Introduction
Grievance by an employee taking recourse to the formal procedure may not in all cases solve the
real problem. It is true that in many cases the grievance could be taken care of through the
grievance process, but there are instances and occasions when a much deeper analysis of the
systems, procedures, practices and personalities in the organization need to be examined for the
possible casual relationship between them and the grievance, it is well known that the formally
stated grievance is not always the real grievance. There may be hidden reason, such as a problem
supervisor for instance, of an individual may have difficulty in relating to a work group with a
totally different value system. The factors contributing to the grievance should be properly
studied and analyzed to ensure that in fact the expressed grievance represents the problem stated
and not any other problem.
Definition
A "Grievance" is usually interpreted to mean a disagreement or dissatisfaction of a minor
form connected with the day to day work or conditions of work or prevailing rules and
which has still not become a matter of concern to the employees collectively or which is a
violation of the terms of employment. The definition is broad and perhaps too simplistic
since the word 'grievance' and 'dispute' may be appropriate interchangeably in particular
situations.
According to Jucius, a grievance is any discontent or dissatisfaction, whether expressed or
not, whether valid or not, arising out of anything connected with the company which an
employee thinks, believes or even feels to be unfair, unjust or inequitable.
1. Grievances or conflicting thoughts are part of industrial / corporate life.
2. It is essential to bring this conflict to the surface.
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3. All conflicts cannot be eliminated but their exposure will contribute towards their reduction.
4. Such exposures lead to adjustments and further improved organizational effectiveness.
According to Fillipo, The term would include any discontent and dissatisfaction that affects
organizational performance. It can either stated or unvoiced, written or oral, legitimate or
ridiculous.
(a) A complaint is a discontent that has not assumed importance.
(b) A complaint becomes grievance when the employee feels that injustice has been committed.
Causes of Grievance
Grievances generally arise from the day-do-day working relations in the undertaking, usually a
employee or trade union protest against an act or omission or management that is considered to
violate workers rights. There are certainly some of the causes that can lead to grievance. Some
of them are listed below:
Morality: there are some rights which must be provided by the company. Which shows morality
for the company:
It gives an opportunity to the workers to express their feelings.

The management comes to know that what the workers think.
It highlights the morale of the people.
There may be some complaints, which cannot be solved at supervisory level.
They must have been resolved by a systematic grievance handling procedure.
It improves the policies and practices of the company.
Working environment: an fulfill environment means so many thing for
each staff, they
always wants a perfect and wonderful work place for them and to create a manageable work
place, company has to be persuade, and some effective steps are:
Poor working conditions

Faulty machines and equipments
Attitude of supervisor
Behavior of top management
Favoritism and nepotism
Strained relations
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Excessive discipline
Defective promotion
Lay off and retrenchment
Inadequate health and safety devices
Economic manners: its an effective motivator for the staffs almost all staffs get motivated for
good amount of wages and other relative facilities and some factors are given below:
Wage fixation and revision

Payment of overtime
Inadequate bonus
Demand for welfare and equipment
Incentive
Allowances
Increments
Supervision: some staffs likes to take responsibilities in different situation, specially, project
management, promotion, and other exiting activities, its attributed by the interest of the
individual staffs, and supervisory is also can be a motivator.
Work group:
many employees are unable to adjust with colleagues

Suffer from feeling of neglect
Victimization an object of ridicule and humiliation.
Maladjustment of the Employee:
Improper attitudes towards work

Lack of interest
Classification of Grievances:
(1) Grievances resulting from working conditions ,Improper matching of the
job, Changes in schedules or procedures, Non-availability of
equipment for doing the job, Unreasonably high
conditions, Bad employer employee
worker with the
proper tools, machines and
production standards, Poo Poor working
relationship, etc.
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(2) Grievances resulting from management policy Wage payment and job rates. Leave.
Overtime. Seniority and Promotional. Transfer. Disciplinary action. Lack of employee
development plan. Lack of role clarity.
(3) Grievances resulting from personal maladjustment
(i) Over ambition.
(ii) Excessive self-esteem or what we better know as ego.
(iii) Impractical attitude to life etc.
Types of Grievance
Individual Grievances
An individual grievance is a complaint that an action by management has violated the rights of
an individual as set out in the collective agreement or law, or by some unfair practice. Examples
of this type of grievance include: discipline, demotion, classification disputes, denial of benefits,
etc. The steward should file the grievance, not the employee on his/her own, as it is in the
interest of everyone in the union that the grievance be handled properly. When an individuals
rights have been violated and that person refuses to file a grievance, the steward should file the
grievance on behalf of the union especially if the contract specifically permits. In this way, the
steward will defend the collective agreement and protect the rights of all employees covered by
it. The managements argument that the steward cannot file an individual grievance on behalf of
the union is false.
Group Grievances
A group grievance is a complaint by a group of individuals, for example, a department or a shift
that has been affected the same way and at the same time by an action taken by management.
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An example of a group grievance would be where the employer refuses to pay a shift premium
to the employees who work on afternoon shift when the contract entitles them to it. Clearly, they
should grieve the matter as a group rather than proceeding by way of individual grievances.
Policy Grievance
A policy grievance is a complaint by the union that an action of management (or its failure or
refusal to act) is a violation of the agreement that could affect all who are covered by the
agreement. Group grievances are often treated as policy grievances, but strictly speaking, they
should be considered separately. A policy grievance normally relates to the interpretation of the
contract rather than the complaint of an individual.
However, a policy grievance may arise out of circumstances that could also prompt an individual
grievance, insofar as the union claims the action taken by management implies an interpretation
of the collective agreement that will work to the detriment of all employees. For example,
management assigns a steady day-shift employee to work on an off shift without regard to
seniority. The union might grieve in an effort to establish that seniority must be considered in
such an assignment, even though the individual involved might have no complaints against the
shift change. The point is that the outcome or the precedence of the grievance may have a
detrimental effect on the local union at some point in the future and the union must
challenge it.
Union Grievance
A union grievance may involve a dispute arising directly between the parties to the collective
agreement. For example, the union would grieve on its own behalf if management failed to
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deduct union dues as specified by the collective agreement. In these cases, the union grievance
is one in which the union considered its rights to have been violated, and not just the rights of
individuals in the local union.
Forms of Grievances:
A grievance may take any of the following forms:
1Factual: When an employee is dissatisfied with his job, for genuine or factual reasons like a
breach of terms of employment or any other reasons that are clearly attributed to the
management, he is said to have a factual grievance. Thus, factual grievances arise when the
legitimate needs are unfulfilled. The problem that he has is real and not virtual
2Imaginary: When an employees grievance or dissatisfaction is not because of any factual or
valid reason but because of wrong perception, wrong attitude or wrong information he has. Such
a grievance is called an imaginary grievance. Though it is not the fault of management, the
responsibility of dealing with it still rests with the management. So the problem is not real. It is
in the mind or just a feeling towards someone or something. So be careful your grievances could
be very much imaginary!
3 Disguised: An employee may have dissatisfaction for reasons that are unknown to himself.
This may be because of pressures and frustrations that an employee is feeling from other sources
like his personal life. I am sure you will agree that if you have fought at home and come to the
institute, you cannot concentrate in the class. Similarly if you have had a bad day in the institute,
that will reflect in the mood at home. We are all humans and are sensitive to the environment that
we operate in!
GRIEVANCE PROCEDURE IN INDIAN INDUSTRY .
The 15th session of Indian Labor Conference held in 1957 emphasized the need of an established
grievance procedure for the country which would be acceptable to unions as well as to
management. In the 16th session of Indian Labor Conference, a model for grievance procedure
was drawn up. This model helps in creation of grievance machinery. According to it, workers
representatives are to be elected for a department or their union is to nominate them.
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Management has to specify the persons in each department who are to be approached first and
the departmental heads who are supposed to be approached in the second step. The Model
Grievance Procedure specifies the details of all the steps that are to be followed while redressing
grievances. These steps are:
STEP 1: In the first step the grievance is to be submitted to departmental representative, who is a
representative of management. He has to give his answer within 48 hours.
STEP 2: If the departmental representative fails to provide a solution, the aggrieved employee
can take his grievance to head of the department, who has to give his decision within 3 days.
STEP 3: If the aggrieved employee is not satisfied with the decision of departmental head, he can
take the grievance to Grievance Committee. The Grievance Committee makes its
recommendations to the manager within 7 days in the form of a report. The final decision of the
management on the report of Grievance Committee must be communicated to the aggrieved
employee within three days of the receipt of report. An appeal for revision of final decision can
be made by the worker if he is not satisfied with it. The management must communicate its
decision to the worker within 7 days.
STEP 4: If the grievance still remains unsettled, the case may be referred to voluntary arbitration.
IMPORTANT LINKS
http://www.slideshare.net/rehan012/stress-stress-management
www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/EJBM/article/download/3221/3271
http://www.slideshare.net/hemanthcrpatna/a-study-on-grievance-management-system-conductedat-abc-pvt-ltd
http://www.managementstudyguide.com/employee-grievance.htm
81
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Organization

Organizational behavior- it is made out of two words organization and behavior.

Structure: Structure defines the formal relationships of the people in organisations.

Environment: All organisations operate within an external environment. It is the part of

Nature of Organizational Behavior (OB)- Organizational behavior is an applied behavioral

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IMPORTANCE OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

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2. Managerial orientation is authority

2. Managerial orientation is support

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CASE STUDY Difficult Transitions

this case illustrates.

behavioral concepts and processes?

Define the problem posed in this case.

would you do?

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The Environmental Stimulus

The Environmental Stimulus

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Figure - Process Of Perception

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Attitude can be characterized in three ways:

First, they tend to persist unless something is done to change them.

feelings( sometimes called affect) and beliefs.

Affective Component of Attitude refers to the emotional aspect of attitude. This is

Behavioral Component of Attitude refers to the behavioral part of attitude. If we have a

The Adjustment Function.

The Value-Expressive Function

The Knowledge Function

ATTITUDES AND WORKFORCE DIVERSITY

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4. Builds friendly relationship

Motivation will help him achieve his personal goals.

If an individual is motivated, he will have job satisfaction.

Motivation will help in self-development of individual.

An individual would always gain by working with a dynamic team.

Similarly, motivation is important to a business as:

successful is the business.

During period of amendments, there will be more adaptability and creativity.

Motivation will lead to an optimistic and challenging attitude at work place.

THEORY X AND THEORY Y MANAGERS

Expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest.

The most significant of those rewards is satisfaction of the self-actualization needs.

result of experience and are not inherent in mans nature.

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and competitive to those in the same industry in the same domain.

for the family members, employee help programmes, etc.

The work equipments should be updated and well-maintained.

subordinates should be appropriate and acceptable. There should be no conflict or humiliation

Motivational factors- According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors cannot be regarded as

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bureaucratic/pyramidal values (the organizations counterpart to Theory X assumptions) that still

conscious decisions by individuals to behave in certain ways

Force = Valence Expectancy

Force is strength of motivation.

Discover what outcome each employee values most.

what constitutes a goal and adequate performance.

Link the outcomes desired by employees to the specific performance desired by