Digestion, Nutrition, Calories and

Diets
I. Introduction
II. Food and Nutrition
III. Feeding Mechanisms
IV. Food breakdown
V. Intra and Extra cellular digestion
VI. Systemic Digestion
VII. Problems/Diseases
VIII. Calories
IX. Diets
FOOD IS ESSENTIAL
Every mealtime is a reminder
heterotrophs.
Need regular supplies of food
Metabolism anabolic and catabolic
NUTRITION
not just the need for sustenance but
also for SPECIFIC dietary components
FOOD TYPES and FEEDING
-Most animals are opportunistic
feeders
Meaning: Eating outside of their
category.
-Animals fit into one of the three
dietary categories:
1. Herbivores: eat mainly
autotrophs
2. Carnivores: eat other animals
3. Omnivores: consume animal
and plant or algal matter.
NUTRITIONAL NEEDS
Regardless of feeding type, animals must
find a diet that adequately satisfies 3
nutritional needs:
1. Fuel for cellular work
2. Raw Materials for biosynthesis
3. Essential Nutrients that the animal
cant make themselves.
FEEDING MECHANISMS *2kinds of
whales
1.) Suspension feeders filter
feeders
-Sift small food partcicles from substrate
-Sponges, clams, oysters, baleen whales.
2.) Substrate Feeders (deposit
feeders also)
-Live on their food source
-Maggots, caterpillars, earthworms.

3.) FLUID FEEDERS

parasitic sometimes
-suck nutrient rich fluid from a living
source
-mosquitoes, leeches, hummingbirds,
bees
4.) BULK FEEDERS
-eat relatively large pieces of food
-most animals considered this type
FOOD PROCESSING
1. Ingestion
-Act of eating
2. Digestion
-Process of breaking food down
into molecules small enough for
the body to absorb
-Intracellular and Extracellular
3. Absorption
-Take up small molecules from the
digestive compartment.
4. Elimination
-Undigested material passes out of
the digestive compartment
DIGESTION
-Virtually all food, whether of plant or
animal origin, consists of highly complex
compounds that cannot be used without
first being broken down into simpler
compounds (Proteins, Carbs, Fats)
-Digestion = ATP GENERATION!
Organic molecules in food:
1. Digestion and Absorption (energy
loss: Heat and Lost in Feces)
2. Nutrient molecules in body cells
(energy loss: urine)
3. Cellular respiration (energy loss:
heat) or Carbon skeletonsBiosynthesis:
storage, growth and reproduction
(energy loss: heat)Nutrient molecules
in body cells. (A)
4. AFTER cellular respiration
GENERATE ATP! Used for CELLULAR
WORK (energy loss: HEAT)
OR ATP for Biosynthesis; storage,
growth and reproduction. Then back to
nutrient molecules in cells A CYCLE..
NUTRITION AND HOMOEOSTASIS
-Nearly all of animals energy generation
(ATP) is based on the oxidation of
energy rich molecules

-These molecules are: Protein, Carbs, Fat.

-Excess stored as Glycogen and FAT in
liver of muscles.
GLUCOSE IS HIGHLY CONTROLLED.
Energy balance of Food Intake and
Energy expenditure.
Glucose production in liver.
GLUCOSE = MAIN ENERGY SOURCE.
CALORIC BALANCE
Caloric Deficiency vs Caloric Excess
Whenever you need energy, the body
uses up: (hierarchical)
1. Sugar
2. Fat
3. Protein
Excess: OBESITY.
-WHO now recognizes obesity as a major
global health problem.
BODY WEIGHT CONTROL
4 important substances: Leptin, Ghrelin,
Insulin, PYY.
LEPTIN (SUPPRESS)
Produced by adipose (fat) tissue.
Suppresses appetite as it increases.
Body fat decrease, leptin level falls,
appetite increase.
high level leptin, decrease appetite.
FAT UP, LEPTIN UP, APPETITE DOWN.
FAT DOWN, LEPTIN DOWN, APPTITE UP
PYY (SUPPRESS after meals by SI)
Hormone secreted by small intestine
after meals.
Appetite suppressant that counters the
appetite stimulant ghrelin.
GHRELIN
Secreted by stomach wall
One of the signals that triggers feeling
of hunger
Dieters, lose weight: ghrelin increases.
One of the reason why its hard to stay
on diet.
INSULIN
right in blood sugar lvl after a meal
stimulates PANCREAS to secrete this.
insulin suppresses appetite by acting
on brain.
INTERESTING: BODY WEIGHT
CONTROL: LEPTIN

-Secreted by fat cells.

-KEY PLAYER in regulation of fat storage
and use.
-High Leptin, High Fat, Depress appetite.
Increase energy consuming muscular
activity and body heat production.
-Low leptin, Low Body Fat, Increase
appetite, weight gain.
UNDERNOURISHMENT
-When an animal is UNDERNOURISHED
it lacks essential nutrients.
-Ions, metals, etc.
-OSTEOPHAGY eating of bones due to
malnutrition.
THE PROBLEM OF CONTROL
-Why is weight so hard to control??
-Evolutionary past
-Fat hoarding as a means of survival
-Still seen in some birds
-Consume more calories than can be
burned.
PHASES OF DIGESTION
Food Mechanical Digestion(pieces of
food)Chemical Digestion(Enzymatic
Hydrolysis) Small Molecules (Nutrient
molecules enter body cells)eliminate
undigested material
TYPES OF DIGESTION
-Most organisms: digestion in specialized
compartments.
INTRACELLULAR DIGESTION
EXTRACELLULAR DIGESTION
-gastrovascular cavities
-Complete systems.
PHASES OF DIGESTION
1. Food Intake
2. Formation of vacuole
3. Transport
4. Digestion
5. Elimination
EXTRACELLULAR GASTRODERMIS
EXTRACELLULAR SYSTERMIC
MOUTH
PHARYNX
ESOPHAGUS (no digestion)
STOMACH (actual digestion)
SMALL INTESTINE (absorption of
nutrients)
LARGE INTESTINE (water.. nutrients??)
RECTUM

**Pancreatitis- Rico Yan. Blood focused sa

GI. Dont eat a heavy dinner.

-Parietal Cells: HCl (secreted into

stomach to aid digestion of protein)

EVOLUTION OF SYSTEMIC
1. Length of digestive system
2. Accessory structures
a. Crop
b. Gizzard
c. Liver
d. Caeca

-Mucus secreted by epithelial cells.

-Whole epithelium replaced by mitosis
every 3 days.
-Peptic ulcers and lesions caused by
HELICOBACTER PYLORI.
-acts like an acid.
-removes mucus/wax lining
-results to a perforation in the stomach
-hole: juices seep out and get organs
infected.
-results to SEPSIS (contaminated blood)
-WHERE? Usually in raw contaminated
food.

Difference of herbivore and carnivore

length/structure.
HUMAN DIGESTION
1. Esophageal Sphincter contracted
not swallowing: its contracted. Allows air
to flow through trachea to lungs.
Epiglottis up and glottis is open.
2. Swallowing Reflex triggered when
bolus of food reaches pharynx
3. Larynx upper part of respiratory
tract. Tips epiglottis over glottis.
Preventing food to enter trachea.
4. Esophageal sphincter relaxes
allows esophagus to open and the bolus
to enter the esophagus.
5. After food has entered- larynx
moves downward, opens breathing
passage.
6. Waves of muscular contraction
PERISTALSIS move the bolus down
the esophagus to the stomach.
-continues all the way until we poop.
-pooping is not peristalsis.
We CHEW food to make it smaller and to
increase surface area for faster
digestion. Its dangerous if food
ferments in the stomach.
STOMACH
-one of the most acidic places in the
body.
-Muscular organ with 5L capacity.
-Churns and is responsible for the
mixing every 20 secs Chyme
(pulpy acidic fluid which passes from the
stomach to the small intestine,
consisting of gastric juices and partly
digested food.)
-Secretes gastric juice: HCl, PEPSIN.
-Rugae increase surface area
-Chief cells: Pepsinogen (substance
secreted by stomach wall and will be
converted into enzyme pepsin by gastric
acid.)

DUODENUM (entry to SI after

stomach)
Connects Stomach(acid chime) and SI.
If this gets cut, YOU DIE.
-Bile from liver enters here.
-Small intestine is major site of digestion
and absorption start at first segment
-Many enzymes present here coming
from the intestine itself, the liver, and
the pancreas
ACCESORY ORGANS
LIVER AND PANCREAS
LIVER:
-4 lobes, many functions.
-detoxification: alcohol, NH3
- Store Vitamin A&D, Glucose.
-BILE: emulsify lipids helps with
digestion.
PANCREAS: Exocrine, Acini.
-Trypsin, chymotrypsin: proteases.
-Pancreatic lipase: fats.
-Pancreatic amylase: Starch
-Hormones: Gastrin, CCK, Secretin.
SMALL INTESTINE
THREE FEATURES THAT INCREASE
SURFACE AREA:
-The lining is folded.
-VILLI: Multicelled, fingerlike absorptive
structures with lymph and blood vessel
extend from folds.
-Brush border cells on the villus surfaces
have membrane extensions (microvilli)
that project into the lumen.
KEY: nutrient absorption

**tap water vs distilled water=

resistance training, immune system
stronger
COLON
-Connected to the small intestine
-For water and ion resorption
-Waste processing become more solid:
starch receptors
-Bacterial flora: VIT K, B12
-Terminates at rectum Feces.
-Processes waste: retrieves all water and
all extra nutrients.
DURING LBM, water goes to feces.
Gatorade will not help because it has lots
of sugar and this draws water out. What
will help? Oral Dehydration solution
oresol.

CECUM -> ferment food in cecum

Carnivore longer small intestine
COW: (wew parang uulit??)
1. Rumen
2 Reticulum
3. Esophagus
4. Omasum
5. Abomasum
DISEASES!
1. COLON DISEASES
CANCER
to the abnormal growth of cells that have
the ability to invade or spread to other
parts of the body
APPENDICITIS
-Inflammation of appendix
Surgery: vestigial, laparoscopy.
DIVERTICULITIS
inflammation of a diverticulum,
especially in the colon, causing pain and
disturbance of bowel function

EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATION
1.) DENTITION
Upper and lower teeth both have:
Incisors - cutting plant food.
Canines slicing and tearing meat.
Molars - grinding grass ang other
plants.
Elephant tusk
Vampire Bat secretes analgesis
(mosquitoes)
Hippo to scare
Animal world monogamy is rare because
goal is to have more children = biological
fitness.
2.) SYMBIOSIS
Termites protists eat what is
readily there.
interaction between two different
organisms living in close physical
association, typically to the advantage of
both
3.) SEGMENTATION
I. Forgut Fermenters
a. Cows, sheep, goats.
II. Hindgut fermenters
a. Horses, rodents, rabbits
b. Cophrophagy
-Using feces as a nutritional source
-Food passes through entire
digestive tract a second time.
**Mas mahaba ang Cecum ng carnivore
vs Herbivore.

CIRRHOSIS
a chronic disease of the liver marked by
degeneration of cells, inflammation, and
fibrous thickening of tissue. It is typically
a result of alcoholism or hepatitis.
-Result damage healing cycle fibrosis,
scar tissue: loss of function
-Causes: Alcoholism, hepatitis B or C,
Fatty Liver
-Jaundice: condition of yellowing skin
excess of pigment BILIRUBIN
(not being degraded anymore
because its in excess)
ASCITES -> the accumulation of fluid in
the peritoneal cavity, (LIVER) causing
abdominal swelling
where they got insulin??

CALORIES
CALORIE Amount of energy needed to
raise the temperature of one kilogram of
water by one degree Celsius.
Dont be mislead: cal vs Cal
Cal energy: RDA
Kcal=Cal=1000 cals.
Food Pyramid
Bottom to Top:

Bread, Pasta, Cereal, Rice (Carby shit)

Fruit | Veggies
Milk , Yogurt, Cheese | Meat Poultry, Fish,
beans, Eggs, Nuts.
LAST: Fats, Oils, Sweets.
HOW TO READ LABELS.
1. Start with Serving Size and # of
Servings
2. Check Calories.
3. Limit: Fat, Cholesterol, Sodium.
4. Get enough: Vit A, C, Ca, Fe
5. Footnotes.
6. Quick %DV = Daily Value.
5% Low
20% High
SERVING SIZE
BEWARE!
GENERAL GUIDE TO CALS
40 IS LOW
100 MODERATE
400 HIGH
GOAL: STAY 100% BELOW OF DV FOR
FAT(SAT, TRANS), CHOLESTEROL,
SODIUM.
TRY TO GET 100% DV OF Ca, Fe, Vit A
and C.
%DV = based on 100% of Daily Value
for each
nutrient
DANGEROUS DIETS!!
1. HCG DIET
-Taking hormones women produce
during pregnancy while severely
restricting calorie intake.
-BAD: More gallstones, heart
problems.
2. HOODIA DIET
-African Bushmen historically
relied on hoodia.
-cactus like plant, to curb thirst
and hunger during lengthy hunting
trips.
BAD: toxins and impurities.
3. BLOODTYPE DIET
-Eating based on your bloodtype:
beneficial, neutrals, avoids.
BAD: No actual study to evaluate
benefits
-cholesterol lowering benefit works
because of calorie restriction
4. PALEO DIET
-Eating based on Paleolithic food
BAD: not much bad since you
really reduce artificial additives
BUT, be wary of eating raw food.

5. SOUTHBEACH DIET
-Designed to prevent heart
disease.
BAD: 33% of the claims made in
the book could be confirmed by
findings in the scientific literature,
while 17% were not supported.
6. MASTERCLEANSE DIET
-Lemonade Diet: Juice Fast
BAD: lack of essential nutrients in
this program, citing a deficiency of
protein, vitamins and minerals.
7. MACHINIST DIET
-1 apple + 1 can Tuna per day.
-Bad: MALNUTRITION
TEH ANO TO? ANOREXIA?NOT FUN
8. VEGAN DIET
-Vegetables all day
BAD: healthy, but may lack protein
and essential nutrients.
9. LACTO-OVO DIET
-Vegetables all day
-BAD: not really much except the
need to control dairy and starch!

SMOKING AND DRINKING

Introduction
Tobacco and Smoking
Hazards
Alcohol
Hazards
Demographics
Hazards
Intro: SMOKING and DRINKING:
Preventable Death
More than AIDS, murder, alcohol, suicide,
drugs and vehicular accidents
COMBINED.
the more you smoke, the earlier youll
die.
TOBACCO AND SMOKING
-Processed from Nicotina plant genus.
-Can be processed in several ways ->
Drying
-Contains nicotine and other chemicals.
-Cigarettes, cigars, Chewing tobacco,
snuffs, hooka/shisha.
A HISTORY OF SMOKING
-Can be defined as the act of using
tobacco in any form.
-Long been popular in North and South
America long before Europe.
-Not used recreationally by the natives.
-Trading
-Pipe Ceremonies
-Treaties
-Agreements
-Disputes
-Considered a gift from the creator
smoke carries thoughts and prayers to
the spirits.
Smoking was spiritual. It was a way of
communicating with God.
It was culturally important to them.
So it shall be for all time. If discord has
broken out between two beings, let them
smoke together. United by this bond they
will live in peace and friendship
thereafter. Attributed to the Great
Manitu, The great spirit.
High Value of Tobacco = gold
-Spanish Tobacco to EU in 1528

-Fuelled colonization (area where Tobacco

grows well)
-1571: Spanish doctor book: Cure for 36
diseases
(no actually cured diseases)
-Tobacco only makes you happy/
alleviates stress
-Same as orgasm, cutting,chocolate
pain brings happy chemicals.
-Entered Asia through the
Portuguese trading with Japan
-Punishable by death in the Ottoman
empire (Turkish) in 1633
Emperor made Tobacco punishable by
death because if they were to happy, it
decreases productivity.
Sir Walter Raleigh introduced
tobacco into England. Raleighs First
Pipe in England, included in Frederick
William Fairholts Tobacco, its history and
associations.
-Australia from Indonesia
-Virginia Plantations: 1609 Slavery
-John (Pocahontas)
-Until 1883, tobacco excise tax
accounted for 33% of internal revenue
collected by the US.
Tobacco in the Philippines: Cagayan
Valley
HAZARDS OF SMOKING
TOBACCO SMOKE
-Contains nicotine, which is a chemical
that mimics acetylcholine.
-Strengthens connections in the pleasure
center of the brain dopamine.
-High dopamine happy addiction
Smoke: goes to lungs + nicotine in lungs
goes to nicotine in bloodstream until it
reaches the brain.
-This imitates acetylcholine in pleasure
center that creates dopamine (to be
happy)
Once it depletes, you want more of it.
SMOKING IS ADDICTIVE
-Nicotine is quickly absorbed into the
lungs.
-Lungs Blood vessels Brain
-One of the most addictive common
drugs

-Same path of addiction as cocaine and

heroin

COMPONENTS OF SMOKE
-7357 Approx components
-70 are known carcinogenic
(urethane,pyrene, Cadmium in
batteries)
Nicotine
Acetone
Toluene industrial solvent
*Arsenic lethal poison
*Polonium 210 radioactive
DDT- insecticide
MEASURING PACK YEARS
-Used as a measure of the patients
smoking history.
-# of years smoking x packs per day
= PACK-YEARS
CARDIORESPIRATORY EFFECTS
LUNG DAMAGE AND CANCER
Lung Cancer kills more than any
cancer.
HEALTHY LUNG elastic, firm
UNHEALTHY LUNG airy, spongy.
1. EMPHYSEMA
-destruction of the alveoli results in
air trapping. Succeeding exhalations
cannot expel as much air, leading to the
feeling of drowning.
2. ATHEROSCLEROSIS
a disease of the arteries characterized by
the deposition of fatty material on their
inner walls.
-blockage of artery
-smoking constricts blood vessels WHERE
fat is there already!!
3. HEART ATTACK
-Acute Myocardial Infarct (AMI)
-Interruption of blood supply to heart
-Angina (chest pain) extreme
ASVD(heart attack)
-Normally coronary artery blockage
NEEDS Bypass operations. (Coronary

artery supplies blood and oxygen to

heart muscles)
PROCEDURE of BYPASS:
get artery from leg -> attach it to not
blocked
-Madami ang na block
-1.2 M magpabypass!!!
4. STROKE
-Known as cerebrovascular accident
(CVA)
-Rapid loss of brain function loss of
oxygen in the brain.
CVA -> hemorrhagic vs non
hemorrhagic.
HEMORRHAGIC:
Blood vessel explodes
Survival: 0-10%
9% - a human vegetable
Aneurism something thats genetic. A
surprise attack.
PERIPHERAL VASCULAR EFFECTS
1. PERIPHERAL VASCULAR DISEASE
Gradual narrowing of blood vessels
numbness, weakness
Can be grounds for amputation if tissue
dies.
2. LARYNGEAL/ THROAT CANCER

-80% of deaths from laryngeal cancer

linked to smoking
3.DENTAL/MOUTH PROBLEMS
-Moutch ancer, tooth staining and
dilapidation, gum probs, tongue
problems.
4. IMPOTENCE
Fetal Smoking Syndrome causes birth
defects, still birth, Sudden Infant
Death Syndrome.
SECONDHAND SMOKE
-deadly
diseases by second-hand smoke:
Stroke, lung cancer, atherosclerosis
sure: stroke, nasal irritation, coronary
heart disease, lung cancer,
reproductive effects:low birth weight.
ALCOHOL AND DRINKING
R-O-H (109 degrees)
-General term in chemistry referring
to compounds that have an OH

group.
Most common:
Methanol
Ethanol (EtOH)
Isopropanol
Butanol
-Of these, Only Ethanol (EtOH) is
safe to consume.
ALCOHOL
-Produced through process of
fermentation where organisms
(yeast) break down sugars into
energy.
-Side effect producing alcohol and
CO2
-Not just for making alcohol: bread,
gas, yoghurt etc.
A History of Drinking
-Earliest evidence neolithic (10,200
BC-2000BC)
-Grapes in Asia
-Barley in Middle east (7000BC6650 BC)
-Popular in Egypt.
EGYPT:
Wages of workers paid in beer.
Medicine in Egypt, also Sumerian
states. (2100BC)

like GABA, works you overtime

and causes state of depression
Immediate reaction: Inhibition
of Feelings (shorther than
excitation)
ONCE this is gone increase in
chemical for excitation that last
for a long time pagwawala.
-Makes you sad
-Hangovers can create a cycle
of waking up feeling ill, anxious,
jittery and guilty. (severe
dehydration, drink water)
-Alcohol is miscible in water,
affects kidneys, dilates vessels
of kidney, LOSE water.
2. Pancreatitis (Chronic or Acute)
-pain in the pancreas
-Life-threatening
-causes: Alcoholism
3. Liver Damage
FATTY LIVER
-10% fat
-reversible
-Toxic compound must be
eliminated by liver. If too much,
it tends to convert it to usefyl
subs FAT
CIRRHOSIS
(kills. Liver hard and brittle.
Vessels inflamed and cant
filter. IRREVERSIBLE. Infects
blood)
-Alcohol passes through the

Hebrew Bible (Proverbs 31:6-7)

Greece and Rome: part of main diet
(dilutes wine)
liver.
Medieval: brew to live.
boiling not brewing killed microbes
but they didnt know.
Church monopoly
Luther and Calvin: 1800 gift of God.
-Mayflower: More beer than water.
-X.XX.XXX FtOH content
-Rum came from Caribbean
-Firewater to American Indians,
Aqua vitae to Europeans.
Hazards of Drinking
1. Ethanol (safe to consume)
-Psychoactive depressant

-Chronic alcohol abuse

overwhelms the liver so it cant
break down harmful
substances.
4. Speech Debilitation
-Slurred Speech (signs that
youve had too much)
-Dysarthria
(failed word association)
problem: Chronic Dysarthria
5. Diabetic Complications
-Diabetic danger zone
-Type 2: Organs unresponsive to
insulin; less glucose being

stored/used
THUS, increases level of glucose
in the blood.
-Diabetes mellitus: deficiency of
pancreatic hormone insulin, which
results in a failure to metabolize
sugars/glucose.
(*Insulin regulates amount of
glucose)
****gangrene, tissue disintegration.
6. Loss of Coordination
-Uncoordinated attempt at
walking a straight line = too
much to drink than your body
can process.
7. Brain Damage
HOW??
a) Alcohol affects forebrain +
assaults motor coordination
and decision making
b.) A knocks out midbrain, lose
control over emotions and

increase chances of
blackout.
c. Finally alcohol batters the
brainstem as it affects heart
rate, body temp, appetite
and consciousness, a
dangerous and potentially fatal
condition.
8. Unconsciousness
-BLACK OUTS.
9. Nerve Damage.
-Strang sensations
-Numbness and pain in the
hands and feet might be the
result of damage to your
nervous system.
How much alcohol can you drink?
-2x week mildly alcoholic
-Factor: younger age, ethnicity
3% high alcohol level in blood.
10 % DEAD KA