1. How do you define alchemy and its general goals?

How do you relate the

doctrine of signature to alchemy?
All materials made of similar atoms with specific geometrical arranges made
different materials. Alchemy aimed to break down geometrical arrangement
for transmutation.
16th century- relationship between terrestrial elements and celestial elements
(doctrine of signatures)
Need to know the nature of material. Only way is to do experiments.
Increases knowledge about the universe as a whole

2. What was phlogiston? Based on what theoretical and experimental bases did
Lavoisier reject it?
Material that caused some materials to be flammable. Phlogiston theory
results in burning of phlogiston and other material. Lavoisier noticed that you
gained mass when burning combustion gains oxygen
Lavoisier uses quantitative chemistry and discovers oxygen
Used burning to reject phlogiston theory
3. What is the corpuscularism and how did Daltons atomic theory differ from
corpuscularism?
Corpuscularism is particle. All elements are made of the same particles.
Building blocks are the same
John Dalton studied Lavoisiers quantitative chemistry to come to the
conclusion that each element has its own different building blocks
4. How do you define the revolution in chemistry and how do you relate
Lavoisier to the emergence of the new chemistry?
There was a delay in chemistry. Revolution happened later. Chemistry was
not a part of university studies.
Lavoisier changed alchemy from qualitative findings to quantitative findings
He discovered oxygen and for the first time explained burning as well as
eating as well as circulation of air in the human body. He introduced new
notations, new terminology.
5. What was the main contribution of Sadi Carnot to the science of
thermodynamics?
Innovations in machinery. (Steam engine)
First time started to quantitively study how much energy was required by
steam engine and how much energy was output.
Caloric transferred to mechanic energy and in the process some energy is lost
Sadi Carnot explained what happened inside the steam engine. Relationship
between volume, pressure, temperature, and workemergence of
thermodynamics
All innovations the outcome of the Scientific revolution
6. Explain Maxwells contribution to physics and discuss its importance in
understanding energy and the ether.

Discovery of the relationship between light, electricity, and magnetism.

Electric waves and magnetic waves travel perpendicular to each other.
Travels at speed of light and creates electromagnetic spectrum. They
assumed ether was responsible was the medium that electromagnetic waves
passed through
7. Based on what evidence the two geological schools of catastrophism, and
uniformitarianism took shape in late 18th century? Which school was
plausible for pro-evolutionists? Why?
Start with fossils and geology. Some animals became extinct and tried to
explain history of the earth. In catastrophism all changes happened in a short
time. Uniformitarianism favored pro evolutionists because uniformitarianism
took a lot of time to happen
8. How did physics and thermodynamics (especially the work of Kelvin) become
crucial in geological studies related to the age of the earth? Why were
evolutionists not happy with those findings? Why was Kelvins estimation
erroneous?
At that time they thought that Earth was made of a hot gas and started to
cool down and gradually became solid. Buffon predicted 70,000 years. New
calculations predicted 1-2.5million years. Kelvin was an anti evolutionist and
said in 2.5million years evolution cannot happen. Kelvin forgot to include
radio activeness and other calculations. Accretion. Radioactive material
contributed a lot of heat and therefore was necessary to be included in the
calculation
9. Explain the chain of discoveries that finally led to the invention of the
electromagnetic engine. What was its impact on thermodynamics?
Oersted discovered electricity can create magnetism. Faraday discovered
moving coil closer to a magnetic can create electricity. Ampere developed
these ideas and created electro motors. Linked electricity, magnetism, and
work. Change of work was connected to thermodynamics
10.Why was the physics of ether so important in the second half of the 19th
century?
Many ethereal theories. Maxwells ether was a combined ether(electricity and
light)
11.How do you evaluate Robert Chambers role in the development of the idea of
the biological evolution?
Promoted his idea that changes happens in fossils. He presented a lot of
geological evidence and introduced a ladder scheme of development of
species. The amount of information he popularized and the manner in his
presentation paved the way for evolution
12.Compare and contrast the linear (ladder) model and the branching model of
evolution
Darwins theory has no ladder. It is based on natural selection and each
species has a variety of traits. Chambers model is a pre-planned scheme that
may be attributed to God. Where as Darwins model is unpredictive that is
governed by nature

13.Discuss the causes and consequences of the shift from field to lab in biology.
Discuss the new fields of study in biology which were developed from the
17th century to the 19th century.
The field lab of biology was intended to study flowers, plants etc. Lab biology
shifted to the microscopic elements thanks to microscope. Paved way for the
creation of physiology, morphology, embryology, and understanding of cell
biology
14.What are the two key constructional elements of Darwins theory? Discuss the
importance of each element.
Struggle for existence (Adam Smiths writing on population and wealth) and
natural selection
15.How did Mendels work relate to Darwins theory? Why was Mendel forgotten
for decades?
Mendel described genetics behind transfer of traits. Traits can appear or not
appear in future generations. Mendel was not a famous biologist. He was a
priest and mainly wrote in his native language and no one transcribed it.
16.Explain the chain of researches and discoveries from which the science of
biology emerged in the mid 18th century.
Invention of microscope. People started to study microcosm. Importance of
cells. Cells as the building blocks of living organisms. Nucleus of cell
responsible for cell division. Chromosomes contain hereditary information.-->
genetics
17.What developments in molecular biology, biochemistry and technology in the
first decades of the 20th century facilitated the discovery of the double helix
structure of the DNA?
Chromosomes discovered. Responsible for transfer of genetic traits.
Technology was able to take a 3-d picture of this molecule through x-ray
diffraction. Interepeted picture of Double Helix
18.From 1895 to the 1940s, revolutionary discoveries and theories changed our
knowledge of atomic structure drastically. Explain the sequence of main
discoveries and theories in this period and compare our atomic knowledge in
the mid 20th century with what we knew in the mid 19th century.
Electron discovered in 1898. Atoms are breakable and not the smallest
building block. Electrons should be accompanied by positive particle.
Rutherford discovers Proton. Then they started to create atomic structure.
radioactivity in late 19th century. Alpha betta and gama particles. Atoms are
decaying and changing in nature and producing energy. Manipulate atoms
and create nitrogen and oxygen. Discovery of neutron. Release atomic
enegery
19.Explain the sequence of discoveries and developments which led to the
emergence of modern cosmology.
1920s modern cosmology. Size of universe unknown, galaxy existence
unknown. Einstein and de Sitter predicted that the Universe is static. Edwin
hubble measure the distance from nearby galaxies. Measured
redshift/Doppler effect and realized that galaxies are traveling away from
each other.

20.Explain the main issue in Shapley-Curtis debate. Why was the result of this
debate so important in the establishment of modern cosmology?
Happened before Edwin hubble discovery. Shapley argued that Milky way is
entire universe. Curtis argue that outside galaxies. Hubble used Cepheid
variables to calculate the distance and discovered that universe is expanding.
Shapley lost, Curtis won
21.How did the study of radioactivity lead to the discovery of the structure of the
atom?
Henri Beqeriel found some materials produced radiation. Alpha, Betta,
Gamma. Elements decay and become different elements.
22.According to Einstein God doesnt play dice. What developments and
theories in atomic physics caused Einstein to state this famous sentence?
Cannot calculate electrons momentum, speed, and location. This is known as
Uncertainty Principle. Shift from deterministic physics to probabilistic physics.
Quantum mechanics won and Einstein lost.
23.For what technical, scientific and political reasons did Einstein and Szilard
write a letter to the President of the United States in 1939?
Discovery of Uranium 235 and chain reaction. Ability to create atomic bomb.
Scientists had to inform administration of the importance. In the letter they
discovered chain reaction, german investment in uranium, and utilization of
huge amount of energy.
24.Why did scientists like Bohr and Szilard want to internationalize atomic knowhow? What were their scientific and political reasons?
Talk about chain reaction, publications about chain reactions, and everyone
can make atomic bomb if they have enough money and man power
25.What was the main contribution of J. J. Thomson to physics and how did his
discovery affect atomic physics?
Discovered the electron. Showed that atoms were breakable. Atoms come
with different components. And proposed an atomic model plum pudding
26.What is the Uncertainty Principle? Why did Schrodinger and Einstein object to
the Copenhagen interpretation?
Cannot pinpoint or 100% determine momentum, speed, and location of
subatomic particles. Only express in probilistic terms. Copenhagen
interpretation emphasized Uncertainty principle
27.What was the main contribution of Edwin Hubble to cosmology? How do you
relate his discovery to the big bang theory?
People came to the conclusion that once they were very close to each other.
Under their own gravitiy, they were in a very small space
28.Explain the sequence of events which led to the emergence of a period called
the Cold War. How do you specify this period?
WW II had 2 winners. Soviet union and US. Ideologically enemies. US
detonate atomic bomb and showed competitors that US was superior power
in the world. Soviet Union made atomic bombs and Hydrogen bombs. Ballistic
missiles. Cold war entered Space age and utilization of space to threaten
each other. A period that the world was divided into 2 sections. Superiority
contest between US and Soviet Union.

29.What is the Big Science? Explain the specifications of this category (political
and administrative factors, type and magnitude of projects, goals, etc) which
makes it different from the traditional scientific activities.
Big science is characteristic of using governmental budget using huge
facilities hiring huge number of scientists. Bringing Engineers, industry,
military under 1 umbrella. Outcome directly affects national interests
30.Compare and contrast the two main approaches in the study of the
environment, namely in the holistic and mechanistic schools.
Holistic view = environment as a whole, interconnected like a human body.
See the presence of modern nature and harming one part can hurt the entire
system.
Mechanistic view = darwins idea of struggle of existence and natural
selection
31.Based on what evidence and employing which disciplines did Wegener
theorize about the continental drift?
He visually realized that continents borders fit like a puzzle. Using geology,
paleontology, geophysics
32.How did the Manhattan Project initiate? How did the government and army
involve in this project? What were the main components and facilities of the
project?
Answer received in course materials.
33.While the scientific advisors were trying to find a harmless way to
demonstrate the power of the Atomic bomb, military and political authorities
aimed to explode the bomb over strategic targets in Japan. What were the
main goals of the Target Committee in terms of international politics, and
post war policies?
US wanted to show who was most superior in the world.
34.What were the main international and domestic reasons for the Arms Control
proposals? What were the chief treaties between the US and Soviets (and
later with) Russians to limit the arms race?
Control atomic weapons and minimum goals. SALT 1 and SALT 2 and START 1
and START 2
35.Describe the scientific societies established in the England and on the
Continent in the 17th century and explain their role in the advancement of
science.
1550-1650s discoveries and theories and philosophies mainly outside the
universities. People gathered and made their own societies. Royal Society of
London, Royal Academy of Sciences. They promoted modern science as well
as experimental philosophy and encouraged lab use. Spread scientific
discoveries in scientific journals. 1st one was philosophical findings