3.3.

FACTORIZATION IN COMMUTATIVE RINGS

3.3

65

Factorization in Commutative Rings

Let R be a commutative ring with identity.

Def.
a R {0} divides b R (notation: a | b) if ax = b for some x R.
a, b R {0} are associates if a | b and b | a.
Def. An element c R is irreducible if
1. c is a nonzero nonunit;
2. c = ab

a or b is a unit.

An element p of R is prime if
1. p is a nonzero nonunit;
2. p | ab

p | a or p | b.

Ex.
1. In Z, every prime number p is both irreducible and prime.
2. In Z6 , 2 is prime but not irreducible since 2 4 = 2 and neither 2 nor 4 are units.

3. In Z[ 10] = {a + b 10 | a, b Z}, 2 is irreducible but not prime (HW 3.3.3).

........................................................................................
Now we assume that R is an integral domain.
The divisibility in R can be interpreted in terms of principal ideals.
Thm 3.22. Let a, b, u R.
1. a | b iff (b) (a).
2. a and b are associates iff (a) = (b), iff a = br for a unit r R.
3. u is a unit iff (u) = R, iff u | r for all r R.
(proof)
Thm 3.23. Let p, c R\{0}.
1. p is prime iff (p) is a nonzero prime ideal;

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2. c is irreducible iff (c) is maximal in the set of all proper principal ideals of R;
3. every prime element is irreducible;
4. if R is a PID, then an element is irreducible iff it is prime;
5. every associate of an irreducible [resp. prime] element of R is irreducible [resp. prime].
(proof)

Def. An integral domain R is a unique factorization domain (UFD) if

1. every nonzero nonunit element a of R can be written as a = c1 cn , where c1 , , cn
are irreducible;
2. if a = d1 dm where d1 , , dm are irreducible, then m = n, and for some Sn , ai
and b(i) are associates.
Thm 3.24. In a UFD, an element is irreducible iff it is prime.
(proof)
We will introduce Euclidean domain. A Euclidean domain is a principal ideal domain; a
principal ideal domain is a UFD. A ring R is a UFD implies that the polynomial ring R[x] is
a UFD.
The following lemma says that a PID is a Noether ring.
Lem 3.25. Let (a1 ) (a2 ) be a chain of ideals in a principal ideal domain R. Then
(an ) = (an+1 ) = for certain n N .
[
Proof. The ideal
(ai ) = (b), where b (an ) for certain n N . Then (b) (an )
iN

(an+1 ) (b). Hence (an ) = (an+1 ) = .

Thm 3.26. Every principal ideal domain R is a UFD.
Proof. Let S be the set of all elements of R which cannot be factored as a finite product of
irreducibles. We claim that S = . Suppose on the contrary, a S. Then a 6= 0 is not
irreducible. So a = a1 b1 where a1 and b1 are nonzero nonunits, and at least one of a1 and b1
is in S, say b1 S. Then b1 = a2 b2 where a2 and b2 are nonzero nonunit, whence a = a1 a2 b2 .
Repeating the process, we get b1 | a and bi+1 | bi for i N. Then (a) ( (b1 ) ( (b2 ) ( , a
contradiction to the preceding lemma. Thus S = .
If a = c1 cn = d1 dm where ci and dj are irreducible (and thus prime), then c1 divides
certain dj so that c1 and dj are associates. By induction, we can show that n = m, and there
is Sn such that ai and b(i) are associates.

3.3. FACTORIZATION IN COMMUTATIVE RINGS

67

Def. An integral domain R is a Euclidean domain if there is a function

: R {0} N
such that:
1. (a) (ab) for a, b R {0};
2. For a R and b R {0}, there exist q, r R such that a = qb + r, where either r = 0
or (r) < (b).
Ex. The following rings are Euclidean domains:
1. The ring Z with (x) = |x|.
2. A field F with (x) = 1 for x F {0}.
3. The ring of polynomials F [x] over a field F with (f ) = degree of f .
Thm 3.27. Every Euclidean domain R is a principal ideal domain.
Proof. If I is a nonzero ideal of R, choose a I {0} such that (a) = min{(x) | x I {0}}.
Every b I can be written as b = aq + r with r = 0 or (r) < (a). The latter is impossible
by r = b aq I and the minimality of (a). Therefore r = 0 and b (a). Thus I = (a). So
R is a PID.
........................................................................................
From now on, let R be a commutative ring with unity.
Def. An element d R is a greatest common divisor (gcd) of a nonempty set X of R if:
1. d | a for all a X;
2. if c | a for all a X, then c | d.
Elements x1 , , xn R are relatively prime if 1R is a gcd of {x1 , , xn }.
If d is a gcd of X, then every associate of d is a gcd of X.
Thm 3.28. Let a1 , , an R.
1. If d R is a gcd of {a1 , , an } and d = r1 a1 + + rn an for some r1 , , rn R,
then (d) = (a1 ) + + (an );
2. if R is a PID, then a gcd of {a1 , , an } exists and each is of the form r1 a1 + + rn an
(ri R);

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CHAPTER 3. RINGS
3. if R is a UFD, then a gcd of {a1 , , an } exists.

Proof.
1. easy.
2. follows from 1.
i1
it
3. Factorize ai = cm
cm
for i = 1, , n with c1 , , ct not associate irreducible
t
1
elements and mij 0. Let kj = min{m1j , m2j , , mnj }. Show that d = ck11 ckt t is a
gcd of {a1 , , an }.