THE EFFECT OF MEDIATED MUSIC LESSONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF

AT-RISK ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN

Adena Portowitz and Eva Brand
Bar-Ilan University
become integrated within the pupils cognitive constitution,
accessible for learning in all areas.

ABSTRACT
Recent meta-analysis studies offer growing evidence of positive
relationships between music and learning in other subject areas.
Calls for further research seek to understand how and why such
transfer occurs (Winner and Hetland, 2000; Scripp, 2002).
This study hypothesizes that targeting specific learning skills,
active in music and in other areas, will tighten the linkage between
music education and scholastic achievement. It reports on the
initial findings of a pilot study conducted in an afternoon childcare center in Jaffa, Israel involving forty children, aged 6-11.
Activities include music appreciation, individual and group
performance and interactive computer sessions. The learning
skills targeted are: 1) self-regulation; 2) sequential and global
perception; 3) the construction of multiple representations; 4)
relating simultaneously to multiple sources of information; and 5)
the conservation of constancies amid processes of variation. All of
the teachers attend introductory workshops, where they study highquality teaching strategies. Children, thereafter, are encouraged to
focus, attend, and compare; to expand their inquiries beyond the
immediate; to discover meaning and excitement in what they are
learning; restrain impulsive behavior; and understand the
prerequisites of success. Such Mediated Learning has been
shown empirically to advance intellectual growth within a wide
variety of age groups and cultural settings. This project will be
among the first to apply principles of mediated learning to music
education. Connecting between theory and practice, it provides an
educational framework that may serve as a model for future
cognitive development, while further justifying a core status for
music within public education.

1. INTRODUCTION
Human beings, wherever they are, have always been attracted to
the sounds of music. Involvement in this rich art, a principal
source of human enjoyment and emotional release, engages the
minds and feelings of people of all ages. In addition, recent
research offers a theoretical basis for, and growing evidence of, the
significant effects on general academic achievement that result
from learning music, especially among underprivileged,
elementary school children. (Wolf, 1978; Winner and Hetland,
2000; Bamberger, 2000b; Scripp, 2002). These positive reports
have led to calls for more research that explains why and how such
transfer occurs. Our program aims to address this central question.
It proposes that while most music programs offer a variety of
multifaceted activities, including listening, singing, and
performing, without knowing for sure whether or not the children
will acquire additional learning skills, The Jaffa Music Program
selects and implements a curriculum that fosters the development
of specific learning skills. Our hypothesis suggests that by
sensitizing teachers to the importance of these skills, and by
involving the children in interactive music studies, these skills will

ISBN 1-876346-50-7 2004 ICMPC

336

This paper opens with a review of recent research findings

pertaining to music and cognition, and an outline of the interactive
and dynamic theories of cognitive modification and mediated
learning that serve as the foundation for this project. It continues
with a description of the Jaffa Music Project, in which at-risk
youngsters from culturally deprived backgrounds, grades 1-6,
study music within mediated learning environments. The paper
concludes with a video presentation, demonstrating mediated
student-teacher interactions that constitute the unique educational
experience of this music project.

2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
A. Music and Cognition
A number of empirical studies that identify cognitive skills
enhanced during the study of music include:
Spatial-temporal reasoning: Positive significant associations
have been found between music and spatial temporal reasoning
(Hetland, 2000; Rauscher, 1999; Bilhartz , Bruhm and Olson,
2000; Costa-Giormi, 1999), and spatial aspects of mathematics
(Graziano, Peterson, and Shaw, 1999). Specifically, it was found
that following a wide range of music programs in preschools and
elementary schools, as well as keyboard lessons, 70% of the
children showed improvement in spatial-temporal reasoning.
Reading and gross and fine motor skills: A significant
correlation has also been found between the study of music and
performance on standardized reading and verbal tests (Butzlaff,
2000). Further, musical performance creates opportunities for
developing gross and fine motor skills, and also for improving
writing and drawing abilities (Boxhill, 1985; Lathom, 1980;
Moore and Mathenius 1987; Levitin and Bellugi, 1998).
Social activities: Music performance initiates positive social
activity (Kirk, Kallagher, and Anastasiow, 1986). During group
performances, each child must adopt appropriate social codes,
including cooperative action, sharing of feelings, and tolerance.
Such activities contribute to the restraint of impulsive behavior.
Touching on emotional development, research shows that musical
performance coupled with cognitive strategies also improves selfefficacy in at-risk youth (Kennedy, 1998). Improvement in selfefficacy relies on critical thinking. This finding supports claims
that self-esteem rises when a child understands the processes that
lead to success (Feuerstein, 1988; Klein, 1996).
Active processing - Creating musical coherence: Music does not
exist as a tangible entity; rather, listeners construct and organize
the auditory stimuli in their minds.

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August 3-7, 2004

Numerous components of such musical organization are intuitive,

as children automatically attribute functional significance, e.g. "a
beginning," "a continuation," or "an ending" to various sections of
the music (Bamberger, 1996, 2000a). In so doing, children activate
basic cognitive functions such as attending, defining, comparing,
and relating simultaneously to and integrating multiple sources of
information (Bamberger, 1996; Brand, 1997; Cohen, 1986;
Serafine, 1988).

simultaneously to and integrate multiple sources of

information, for example attending to pitch, rhythm, dynamics
and expression when listening to music and conservation of
constancies in some attributes and dimensions, while change is
taking place in others. This enhances perceptual stability and
accuracy. The recognition of a musical theme, despite melodic,
harmonic, or rhythmic variations and transformations, is frequently
found in music listening.

Active perception - Music perception: During the elaboration

stage, researchers have noted the relationship between global and
local perception with regard to how children understand music
(Globerson, 1989; Davidson, 1985; Davidson, McKernon, and
Gardner, 1981). Thus, some children follow sequential, detailed
specific components of the music, such as melodic or rhythmic
motifs, melodic line, etc., while others reflect on complete musical
pieces, noting patterns of repetition, contrast, and variation.
Bambergers in-depth case study surveys a developmental
progression, in which the child moved from following detailed
specific components to more reflective, global perception
(Bamberger, 1991). Brand (1997) found successful learners
generally moved from one strategy to another, as they found
necessary, whereas unsuccessful learners tended to repeat
strategies, or cognitive functions, even after they had been proven
inadequate.

In the elaboration stage, relations between global and local

perception are basic to understanding musical structures
(Bamberger, 1991, 2000a, 2002; Brand, 1997; Cohen, 1986;
Serafine, 1988). Integrating multiple representations in music,
including visual, aural and kinesthetic images, reflects different
ways of understanding, and enriches the musical experience
(Cohen, 1997; Gruhn and Rauscher, 2002).

Multiple modes of expression - Expression of musical thought:

Research has shown that young children convey their musical
thoughts in many ways, including improvisation, notation, and
moving to music. Cohen studied the spontaneous improvisations of
kindergarten children and suggested that their musical expressions
create kinesthetic analogues of music analysis (Cohen, 1980,
1997). Similarly, it has been found that children used the same
principles of musical organization in learning a song (Brand, 2000)
as in spontaneous dance movements (Mualem- Paliov, 2001).
Such alternative modes of representation enrich the childs venues
for self-expression, and offer the teacher a wider range of options
by which to assess the childs thought processes.
In line with these findings, recent research has called for studies
that explain how and why this transfer occurs (Winner and
Hetland, 2000; Colwell, 2002).

During the output stage, self-restraint is basic to solo and group

performance (Kirk, Kallagher, and Anastasiow, 1993)
Cognitive modification occurs when children become aware of the
skills and strategies they require to learn. This awareness is
fostered through a type of responsive interaction, known as
Mediated Learning Experiences.

C. Mediated Learning
The objective of mediated learning is to create a synchronized
interaction between a mediator and a child based on the needs of
the child. This interaction strives to enhance the cognitive, and
socio-emotional development of the child and enable him/her to
benefit from cultural transmission and new experiences.
Interposing him/ herself between the learner and a stimulus, the
mediator selects, accentuates, focuses, provides meaning and
locates the stimulus in time and space. In response, the child learns
to seek more information, beyond what is directly perceived by his
senses.
While it would seem that mediation is a natural function of all
teaching, in practice it is very difficult to achieve. Specific criteria
that define a dynamic, mediated learning experience include:
Focusing: Intentionality and reciprocity: Promoting enhanced
teacher-student communication, the mediator conveys clearly his
intention to help a specific individual learn while encouraging the
child to actively respond, verbally or nonverbally. Most important,
the child learns that the adult relates to his feelings and reactions.

B. Dynamic Theories of Structural

Cognitive
Modifiability
and
Mediated Learning
Early intervention programs aim to assist at-risk children in coping
with the demands of modern life. Our project draws on dynamic
theories of cognitive modifiability, pioneered in the 1940s by
Reuven Feuerstein, and further developed by researchers and
practitioners in the fields of cognitive education, cognitive
psychology, and child development. Based on the optimistic belief
that human beings are open systems, accessible to change
throughout their life spans, this approach promotes aspirations for
excellence among at-risk children who often remain in the
periphery of educational settings.
Probing into the process of thinking, these theories identify
universal cognitive functions that affect the three stages of mental
thought: i.e. input, elaboration, and output and ways to develop
them. The research presented here addresses five of these
functions that show particular potential for development through
musical activities. The input stage includes: the ability to relate

337

Expanding: Going beyond the immediate (Transcendence):

Stimulating mental flexibility, the mediator broadens the
educational situation by extending it to include new situations.
Mediation of meaning and excitement results from the
mediators verbal or non-verbal expressions of excitement, and
appreciation with regard to what is being studied. Such mediation
arouses curiosity and motivation.
Rewarding: Mediating feelings of competence expresses
satisfaction with a childs accomplishments, while identifying the
specific components that contribute to the success. This process
promotes feelings of control and boosts self-esteem.
Regulation of behavior teaches the child to relate actions to the
requirements of a specific task and to assess the effort that will be
required to successfully complete the task (Klein, 1996).

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Numerous empirical studies testify to the contribution of mediated

learning to cognitive and social development (Feuerstein, 1988;
Klein, Weider, and Greenspan, 1987; Klein, 1988, 1991; Klein and
Alony, 1993; Tzuriel and Ernst, 1990; Zambrana-Ortiz and Lidz,
1995; Klein, 1996; Tzuriel,1999, 2000; Young-Sim Kang and
Oon-Seng Tan, 2003). Moreover, follow-up studies, conducted
three and six years after intervention, indicate that at-risk children
consistently outscore children not exposed to mediation in both
language performance and verbal reasoning (Klein, 1996).
Deficient cognitive processes may be related to poor mediation
experiences, as children deprived of mediation often lack
flexibility of thought and have difficulties in benefiting from new
experiences. By contrast, children who have benefited from
mediation seem more secure and interested both in people and in
the world around them (Feuerstein, 1979; 1980, Klein, 2000).

3. THE JAFFA MUSIC PROJECT

The Jaffa Music project is dedicated to helping young people,
irrespective of their diverse backgrounds, develop learning skills
while engaging in cultural enrichment.

Particular effort is made to discuss abstract events and to introduce

basic music concepts. Within individual, interactive computer
lesssons, the children are made aware of processes that cultivate
global perception, consideration of multiple sources of
information, integrated representational thinking, and conservation
of constancies (Portowitz, 2001, 2002a,b).

B. Individual instrument lessons and

performance ensembles
Learning to play a musical instrument nurtures a close one-on-one
relationship, in which the teacher designs personal programs built
around attainable goals. Such programs contribute to the childrens
self-efficacy (McPherson and Renwick, 2000). Group
improvisation and performance stimulate active, creative
partnership, and provide opportunities for public recognition. The
instruments to be taught include saxophone, clarinet, trumpet,
flute, piccolo, xylophone, organ, drums, violin, and guitar.

C. Musical Minds Listening Library

Participants
The children, boys and girls aged 6 - 11 years, from deprived
socioeconomic and culturally diverse backgrounds, were referred
to the Jaffa Child Care Center because of emotional, social, and
scholastic difficulties. The children arrive around noon from
school, and remain in the Center until 19:00 in the evening. The
Center operates twelve months a year.
The teachers in our program are highly qualified musicians, mostly
immigrants from Russia. All of them hold MA degrees in music
education, and are professional performers. Our project provides
for a Professional Development Course where the teachers study
theories of individual responsive intervention and their
applications in musical activities with children. The teachers
attend an introductory workshop, conducted prior to the
commencement of the program, and monthly meetings thereafter.
The teachers are trained to encourage rather than criticize or
evaluate, express positive emotions, and convey enthusiasm and
hope regarding the childs chances for success. In addition, they
view and analyze videos of their lessons, noting the cognitive
functions to be targeted and possible intervention techniques.

4. THE CURRICULUM
The program draws on the Musical Minds program, established
in 1989 at the Yehuda Amir Institute for the Advancement of
Social Integration in the Schools. Developed by qualified and
experienced professionals and recognized by the Israeli Ministry
of Education, the program is used today in many elementary
schools throughout Israel. The children engage in a variety of
select activities, including:

A.
Cooperative
Interaction
Heterogeneous Groups

songs. They learn to attend to short musical works, analyze their

different sections, reflect on emotional content, and create their
own improvisations and representations.

in

A framework is created within which all children, and not only the
particularly skilled, contribute to the group effort. During their
lessons, the children are exposed to a wide repertoire of styles and
heritages, including western art, ethnic, and popular music and

338

The Listening Library enables children to listen repeatedly to the

music they have studied during their music lessons. The children
may take the cassettes home and their families are encouraged to
listen to the music together with their children. These activities
promote intellectual pride and cultural awareness.

D. Concerts
The children attend concerts performed by the Israel Philharmonic
Orchestra, where they mingle with children from a variety of
social backgrounds. Together, all of the participants listen to live
performances of musical selections that they have studied during
the course of the year.
Musics rich emotional appeal and inherently abstract nature
provide many opportunities for mediation. Indeed, the modes of
behavior and methods of problem solving that we find among our
children indicate a need for mediation. Characterized by a lack of
curiosity, these children convey apathetic attitudes, little interest in
the meanings of things, and no confidence in the linkage between
personal effort and success. While many of them avoid learning
related to school subjects, they respond positively to their music
lessons, and willingly engage in activities that would otherwise
evoke resentment and negativism.

5. CONTRIBUTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The objective of the Jaffa Music Project is to design and evaluate a
model of practice that will promote cognitive modifiability
through the study of music. By tracing the development of five
cognitive functions that are central to the study of music and to
learning in other disciplines, before and after intervention, it
attempts to contribute toward our understanding of the following
questions: 1) Do students exposed to mediated music lessons
succeed more in attaining the objectives of their music studies than
students who study music without conscious mediation? 2) Do
mediated music lessons reinforce, catalyze, and deepen the
targeted learning skills, necessary for success in a variety of

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August 3-7, 2004

disciplines, in and out of school? 2) Do mediated music lessons

stimulate curiosity, motivation, and self-esteem, essential
prerequisites for cognitive modification? 3) Do mediated music
lessons contribute towards social-emotional development and
behavior modification?
Finally, by combining theory with detailed analysis of
observations and intervention strategies, this study attempts to
provide a valid assessment of suggested means by which to
enhance the potential and deepen the long-term effects of music
education.

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