' PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER BY DONALD Q. KERN D. Q. Kern Asvocials, and Lecturer in Chemical Engineering (Case Institute of Teebnology McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, ‘Auckland Bogoté Guatemala Hamburg Lisbon London Madrid Mexico New Delhi Panama Paris San Juan Sao Paulo Singapore Sydney TokyoPROCESS HEAT TRANSFER INTERNATIONAL EDITION 1965 Exclusive rights by McGraw-Hill Book Co-Singapore for manaficure and expor. This book cannot be re-exported from the country to which it is consigned by McGraw-Hill, 12345678920 S1P98765 Copyigh, 1950, by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc, All sight exeed Nope “sh publentn may be repalacel aed fh a seer, in iy form or by any meine, eeonis mechani, photocopying, Scoring, or others, whut the por wien permission of the poster, When ordering this title use ISBN 0-07-085353-3 ‘To my wife NATALIE W. KERN for her real helpPREFACE It is the object of this text to provide fundamental instruction in hesit ‘transfer while employing the methods and language of industry. ‘This treatment of the subject has evolved from course given at the Poly- ‘technie Institute of Brooklyn over « period of years. ‘The possibilities ‘of collegiate inetruction patterned after the requirements of the practicing process engineer were suggested and encouraged by Dr. Donald F. ‘Othmer, Head of the Department of Chemical Engineering. The inclu- sion of ‘he practical aspects of the subject as an integral part of the pedagogy was intended to serve as a supplement rather than a eubstitute for @ strong foundation in engineering fundamentals. These points of ‘view have been retained throughout the writing of the book. ‘To provide the rounded group of heat-transfer tools required in process: engineering it has been necessary to present a number of emapirical ealculs- tion methods which have not previously appeared in the engineering literature. Considerable thoughit has been given to these methods, and the author bas discussed them with numerous engineers before accepting and including them in the text. It has been a further desire that all the calculations appesring in the text shall have been performed by an ‘expetienced engineer in a conventional manner. On several occasions the author has enlisted the aid of experienced colleagues, and their assistance is acknowledged in the text. Tn presenting several of the methods some degree of securacy has been sacrificed to permit the broader application of Tt became apparent. in the early stages of writing this book that it could readily become too large for convenient use, and this has affected the plan of the book in several important respects. A portion of the material ‘hich is included in eonventional texts is rarely if ever applied in tho solu- ‘ion of run-of-the-mill engineering problems. Such material, as familiar and accepted as it may be, has been omitted ynless it qualified as impor- tant fundamental information. Socondly, it was not possible to allocate ‘space for making bibliographic comparisons and evaluations and a; the sqine time present industrial practice. Where no mention has been made of a recent contribution to the literature no slight was intended. Most of the literature references cited cover methods on which the author hhas obtained additional information from industriel application.vit PREFACE ‘The author has been inffuenced in his own professional development. by ‘the excellent books of Prof. W. H. McAdams, Dr. Alfred:Schsck, and others, and it is felt that their infuenco should be acknowledged separately in addition to their incidence in the text as bibliography. For aseistance with the manuscript indebtedness is expressed to Thomas. Hi. Miley, Jobn Blissrd, and John A. Jost, former associates at the Foster ‘Wheeler Corporation. For checking the numerical caleulations credit is due to Krishnabhai Desai and Narendra R. Bhow, graduate students at the Polytechnic Institute. For suggestions which led to the inclusion or exctusion of certain material thanks are due Norman E. Anderson, Charles Bliss, Dr. John F, Middleton, Edward L. Pfeiffer, Oliver N. Prescott, Everett N. Sieder, Dr. George E. Tat, and to Joseph Meisler for assistance with the proof. ‘The Tubular Exobanger Manufscturens Association has been most generous in granting permission for the repro- Guction of a nuraber of the graphs contained inits Standard. Thanks sre also extended to Richard L. Cawood, President, and Arthur E. Kepler, ‘Vivo-President, for their personal asnistance and for the cooperation of ‘The Patterson Foundry & Machine Company. Donarp Q. Knan New Your, N.Y. ‘Apri, 1980 CONTENTS, & ceee 6 a) oe : ces 85 © Counterfow: Doube-pie Rxchangors ee M2 7. 12 Pacallel-counterfiow: Shell-nd-Tube Exchangers, 12 Flow Arrangements for Increased Heat Recovery 15: 9, Games a 190 _ 20: Slreamline low and Free Convection eee 2M Calenlations for Process Conditions... | sees m Condensation of Single Vapors. 252 Condensation of Mixed Vapore eae as 14. Evaporation . Serene 35 453 W8. Vaporisers, Braporatory, and Rebolles. sss 16. Extended Surfaces... . ee 1, Direotoontact Transfer: Coding Towers tee 3B, Batch and Unsteady State Process 18, Furnace Caleutstions see ‘20. Additional Applications . .: 21. The Control of Tempersture and Related Process Variables... . | | Avemom or Caucuamon Dara... ce OL ‘Avrnon Tipex. foes eer ‘Sunsnor Iypex. . be cee seeeae - 88INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL APPARATUS CALCULATIONS ‘Tubular 24 cooler (3.5° API oll-water) ‘Tubular exchangers in series (noetone-aootio ‘Tubular gas afteroooler (amumonia gas-wetet) . ‘Tubular gat intercooler (COr-water vapor-wator) ‘Tubular streamline fow heater (erade oil-steam) ‘Tabula fre convection beater (onene-rean) Core tube heater (gas oll-stonin) . . . - ‘Tank bester (aniine-steam) . . . ‘Tubular exchanger (straw ofl-naphtha) | ‘Tubular 48 exchanger (ean oil-rich oil). ‘Tubular cooler (NaOH solution-water) - ‘Tabular heater (alcohol-ateats). ‘Tubular spit-fow cooler (Bue gas-water) . . Jaskated vessel (aqueous solution-stexr) ‘Tbe coil (equeous solution-steam). ‘Pipe eoil cooler (aurry-water) .. 5» ‘Trombone coaler (60x gar-water) ‘AMesoaphri cooler acket waterrater. HeURTSESRBEE SEER ERAS EESE ‘Sarfaco condenser (turbine exhaust stesm-wate:). . ‘Condenser, horizontal (hydrocarbon mixture-water). ‘Condenser, horizontal (steam, CO, micture-water) . ‘Condenser, horisontal (hydrocarbon mixture, ga, sain-water) - ‘Braronsvons (Tumut) geeggeuesysii INDEX 70 THE PRINCIPAL APPARATUS CALCULATIONS Process mtiple eflest evaporator. 389 ‘Beat tranaformer evaporator. 300 Salt water distiller . 303 Cane sugar multiple oft evaporator 48 Paper pulp waste liquor mulipl effect evaporator . Lae CCauotie soda multiple ect forced circulation evsparator 437 CHAPTER 1 ‘Thermooomprossion cane Muga evaporator laa Varonmona Exctanomna (Tessa) PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘Vaporizer, forced circulation (butane-stenm) Ao4 ‘Heat Transfer. The science of thermodynamics deals with the quanti- ‘bolls thyrocarbons-atean SL as Fe ee cntal oophtia-ge ot big tative transitions and rearrangements of energy asheat in bodiesof matter, ‘Thermoryphon reboiler, vertical (butane-stenin} 485 Heat transfer is the science which deale with the rates of exchange of heat on tbetween hot and cold bodies called the source and receiver, When a Exrewpw Sonracts . pound of water is vaporized or condensed, the energy change in cither “ied rune). ws process is identical, “The rates at which either process oan be made to “Tranevervo fin crosflow cooler (air-water). 356 progress with an independent source or receiver, however, are inherently ‘ery difernt, | Vaporzaton is generally a much more rap phenom=- Duusor Cowsace Teaxteen woe yon than ‘Cooling tower requirement. of 05 ‘Heat Theories. The study of heat transfer would be greatly enhanced Oe ee we S008 by asound understanding of the nature of hest. Yet this is an advantage ‘Gae cooler (oltrogen-wster) ous which is not readily available to students of heat transfer or thermo- ‘Gas cooler, approsimate solution (aitrogen-watet) a0 dynamics because so many manifestations of hest have been discovered Rantans Hesrens ‘that no simple theory covers them all. Laws which may apply to mass Tube stil ee es 5 TO ‘transitions may be inapplicable to molecular or atomic transitions, and Direct fed vente ! : 708 those which are applicable at low temperatures may not apply at high temperatures. For the purpotes of enginooring it is necessary to under- take the study with basic.information on but a few of the many phe- nomena, ‘The phases of a single substance, solid, liquid, and gasoous, are associated with its energy content. In the solid phase the molecules or atoms are close together, giving it rigidity. In the liquid phase eufficient ‘thermal energy is presont to extend the distance of adjacent molecules such that rigidity is lost. Tn the gas phase the presence of additionsl thermal energy has resulted in a relatively complete separation of the atoms or moleoules so that they may wander anywhere in a confined space. It is also recognized that, whenever a change of phase occurs outside the eritieal region, a large amount of energy is involved in the ‘transition. For the same substance in its different phases the various thermal properties have different orders of magnitude. As an example, the spe- ‘if heat, per unit mass is very low for solids, high for liguids, and usually intermediate for gases. Similarly in any body absorbing or losing heat, special consideration must be given whether the change is one of sensible or latent heat or both. Still furthor, itis also known that a hot source is 12 PROCESS HRAT TRANSFER ‘eapeble of such great subatomic excitement that it emita energy without sreet contact withthe receiver, and this the underlying principle Gf rodiation. Each type of chango exhibits ite own peculiarities. ‘Mechanisms of Float Transfer. ‘There are threo distinct ways in which heat may paes from a source to a receiver, although most engincering applications are combinations of two or three. ‘These are conduction, ration rearduction i the tranafer of haut through fied mati ej ax pees in temmparature through the wall aud Fas. 11, Heat flow through » wall, of ‘and z is the thickness of the wall in the direotion of heat Bow, the quantity of heat flow d@ is given by ag= va(= 2) Btufhr ay ‘The torm —di/de ia called the temperature gradient and bas a sign if the temperature has been assumed higher at the face of the wall where 2 = 0 and lower at the faco where x = X. In othor words, the instantaneous quantity of heat transfer is proportional to the area and temperature difference dt, which drives the heat through the wall of thickness de. ‘The proportionality constant & is peculiar to conductive ‘ea euler anit knowns the tharmal condi, is erated experimentally and is basically defined by Eq. (1-1). thermal eon- cae ot wide range of numerical values depending Convection. Convection is the transfer of heat between relatively hot ‘and cold portions of « fluid by mixing. Suppote a can of liquid were PROCESS HEAT TRANSPER 3 placed over # hot flame, ‘The Liquid at the bottom of the can becomes heated and lese dense than before owing to its thermal expansion. ‘The liquid adjacent to the bottom is alto less dense than the ecld upper portion and rises through it, transferring its heat by mixing as it rises, The ‘transfer of heot from the hot liquid st the bottom af the can to the remainder is natural or free convection. Hf any other agitation occurs, such as thst produced by a stirrer, it is forced convection. This type of hheat transfer may be described in an equation which imitates tho form of the conduction equation and is given by dQ = ha dt 2) ‘The proportionality constant his term which is influenced by the nature of the fluid and the nature of the agitation and must be evaluated oxpari- mentally. It is called the heatranafer coeflcient. When Eq. (1.2) ‘written in integrated form, Q == AA A, itis called Newton’slaw of cooling, Radiation. Redistion involves the transfer of radiant energy from a souree to @ receiver. When radiation iames from a source to a receiver, part of tho energy is absorbed by the receiver and part reflected by it. Based on the second law of thermodynamics Boltsmann established that ‘the rate at which » source gives off heat is Aandi tt a3) ‘This is known as the fourth-power Isw in which 7’is the absolute tempera~ ture. ¢ is a dimensional constant, but «is a factor peculiar to radiation and is called the emienivity. ‘The emissivity, like the thermal conduo- tivity & or the heat-transfer coefficient #, must also be determined experimentally. Process Heat Transfer. Heat tranafer has beon described as the study of the rates at which heat in exchanged between heat sources and receivers ‘usually treated indopendestly. Process hea! transfer deals with the rales of heat exchange as they oocur in the hest-transfer equipment of the engineering and chemical processes. This spproach brings to betler focus the importance of the temperature difference between the source and receiver, which is, after all, the driving force whereby the trandfer of heat is accomplished. A typical problem of process heat transfer is concerned with the quantities of heats to be transferred, the rates st ‘which they may be transferred because of the natures of the bodies, the driving potential, the extent and arrangement of the surface separating ‘he source and receiver, and the amount of mechanical energy which may ‘be expended to facilitate the transfer. Since heat transfer involves an exchange in a aystem, tho loss of heat by the one body will equal the heat absorbed by another within the confines of the same system.4 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Jn the chapters which follow ‘studies will iret be made ofithe three individual heat-transfer phenomena anil Inter of the way in which their combination with simultaneous source and receiver influences,an appa ratus a8 8 whole. A large number of the examples which follow have bbeon selected from closely related processes to permit gradual oom- patisons. ‘This should not be construed as limiting the broadness of the underlying principles. “Many ofthe Mlustrations and problems in the euetodiog chapters refer to iquida derived from petrolcum. This is quite reasonable, since petroleum refining ig « major jndustry, petroleum producta are an important fuel fr the power industry, and petto- eum derivatives are the stasting poi for many ayatheses inthe chemical industry. ‘Petroleum inn mixture of» groxt many chemical compounds. Some ean be nolated rather readily, and the names of common hydrvenrbons present in petroleum may be ented on fig 7in Use Appondis. But more Irequoatly hare ino eed to obtain pure crmpounda, since the ultimkts use of a mixture of rolted compounds wil secve as well, Thus iubricating oil is & mixturo of several compounds of high molecular weight, all of which are suitable lubricants. Similarly, gasoline which will ultimately bo burned willbe compased of a number of volatile eembusible compounds, Both of ‘these common petroloum products were present in the crude oil when it came from ‘the ground or were formed by subsequent reaction and separated iby distiation. ‘When dealt with in = proonmtor marketed ae mixture, thete product ae called fac- tions or ets. ‘They are given common maacs or denote the refinery operation by which they were produced, and their specific gravitiea mre defined by a scale established by the American Petrolecim Institute and termed eter degrees APTor *API. The API is related to the epee gravity by eapre MIS API penorOr 1315 aay Being snixiazes of compound the petroleum frestiens do not boil isothermally like pureliquide but have being ranges. Atatmoephers pressure tholowest temperature Ht which a liquid stata to boli HleatiGod na the iil boiling point, TBP, *F. list of the coraon petroleum fractions derived from crude oil is given below: PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER 5 A mothod of defining the chemical character of petroleum and correlating the properties of mixtures waa introduced by Wateaa, Nelson, and Murphy. ‘They observed that, when a crude oil of uniform ditilting behavior is distilled into mazrow tai the cab rote the abst avtoge btn pal he spout gravities of tho cuita is @ constanh or points 0 the 1 K os shore Ki ~ characterization factor Pa = average boiling point, *R > epecie gravity ab 6700" NOMENCLATURE FOR CHAPTER 1 Hag rants rac vidual hoa-tranforcoeficent, Btu (hr Gharacterisntion factor soar) ‘Thermal conductivity, Bu (ay) (1/0 Hest fow, Bia/or nee Specie gravity, dimensontom 2 Abin aeags bag yenperatar, perature in general, Distance, ft A constant, Bta/tis) 0B) Brninivity, dimensionless Wateon, K.M., R, F, Neloon, and G. B. Ta. ee ‘Murphy, Ind. Sng, Chem., 26, 880 (1938 Tee Bat OmmeeCHAPTER 2 CONDUCTION ‘The Thermal Conductivity. The fundamentals of heat conduction were established over a century ago and are generally attributed to Fourier. In numerous systems involving flow auch as heat flow, fluid flow, or electricity flow, it haa been observed that the flow quantity is directly proportional to a driving potential nd inversely proportional to the resistances applying to the system, or * “q Potential Flow « ay flow are neceesarily present. resistance to heat flow and Eq, (2.1) may be exprested by Flow = conductance X potential 2.2) ‘Tomske Haq, (2.2) an equality the conductance mnst be evalusted in such a way that both sideo will bo dimensionally and numerically coerect. ‘Suppose a measured quantity of hekt Q’ Btu baa been trammitted by a al lanka se» eamered Sta ater hr tha meso temperature difference At °F. Rewriting E. (2.2) @ =F = conductance * Bt Biufhr + as) and the conductance has the dimensions of Btn/(hr)(°F). ‘The eanduct- ance is 2 measured property of the entire wall, although it has also bean found experimentally that the flow of heat is influenced independently by the thickness and the srea of the wall. If itis desired to design a wall Yo ave certain hest-flow characteristics, the conductance obtained above 6 conpucrion 7 is not useful, being applicable only to the expetimental wall. To enable a broader use of experimental information, it has become conventional to report the conductance only when all the dimensions are referred to unit values, When the conductance is reported for a quantity of material 1 ft thick with heat-flow area 1 ft, time unit 1 hr, and temperature difer- ence Y'P, it is called the thermal conductivity 2. ‘The relationship betmeen the thermal conductivity and the conduetsnce of an entire wall of thickness and ares A is then ven by Conductance = kf and N N \ anrtan * aay where k has the dimensions QLIA At or Btu/(he)(t? of Bow srea)((¥ of differ- ence)/ (ft of wall thickneas),) of the thermal conductivity of nonmetal solids is shown in Fig. 2.1. Tt consists of an electtical ing plate, two ideatiod eat S specimens through which heat 7i@- 21. Guarded condustivty apparntos passes, and two water jackets which remove 2 In the motrie eystem it is ual to report the thermal sondustivity a8 (omncC/em, te calle) *. rof experimental methods will be found rh concen! ght trey OK, fod Foe. Chew 25, 482 (1623); 98, Od (1036); $8, 976 (1941); 87, 196 (1545). Bolland, 3. . Melita, Trane. Faraday Soe, 38 1816 (1997), Feed pean Met rn Boe, 8, 1916 (1887). Hutchimon,8 PROCESS HEAT TRANSPER ‘suziliary heater is:adjusted until no temperature differences exist between, the specimens and adjecont pointe in‘the guard ring. Observations are made when éhe heat input and ghe temperatures om both faces of each speoimon remain steady, Sincothalf of the measured electrical heat input to-the plate flows ‘through: each specimen and the temperature difference and dimensions of the specimen areknown, & can be computed direetly from Eq. (2.4). Liquids and Gases. ‘There is greater difficulty in determining the conductivities of liquids and gases. If the heat flows through a thick layer of liquid or gas, it causes free can- ection snd the conductivity is decep- tively high. To reduce convection it is necessary to us very thin films and small temperature differences with attendant, errors of measurement. A method appli- cable to viscous fluids consists of a bare electric wire pessing through a horizontal ‘tube filled with test liquid. ‘The tube is Hiyindee immersed in a constent-temperature bath. Tho resistance of the wire is calibrated against its temperature. Fora given rate of heat input and for the temperature of ‘Fro, 2.2, sonductivity 0- the wire obtained from resistance messure- ments the conductivity can be calculated by suitable equations, A more exastsmethod, however, is that of Bridg- man and Smith,* consisting of a very thin fuid annulus between two copper cylinders immersed in 2 constent-temperature bath as shown in Fig. 2.2. Heat supplied to the inner oylinder by a resistance wire fows through the film to the outer cylinder, where it is removed by the bath, ‘This apparatus, through the use of a reservoir, assures that the annulus is full of liquid and is adaptable-to gases, ‘The film is 344 in. thick, and the temperature diflerence is kept very small. Influence of Temperature and Pressure on. ‘The thermal conduotivi- ties of solids aro greater than those of liquids, which in turn are greater than thooe of gases. It is easier to tranamit heat through a solid than liquid and through a iquid thane gas. Somosolids, such aa motals, have high thermal conductivities and sre called conductors. Others have low conductivities and aro poor conductorsof heat. ‘These are netidators. In experimental determinations of the typo described above the thermal conductivity as been. assumed independent of the temperature at any point in the test material. ‘The reported values of i aro consequently 1 Smith, J. ¥, D, Ind. Bag. Chen., 28, 1246 (1080), Trans, ASME, 68, 719 (1836). conDUcTION 9 ‘the averages for the entire specimen, snd the error introduced by this aiscumption can be estimated by an examination of Tables 2 to § in the Appendix. ‘The conductivities of solids may either increase or decrease ‘with temperature and in some instances may even reverse their rate of change from s docroase to an increase. For the most practical prob- Jems there is no need to introducs a correction for the variation of the thermal conductivity with temperature. However, the vatiation can usually be expressed by the simple linear equation E=kotat where ko is the conductivity at OF and 7 is a constant denoting the change in the conductivity per degree change in temperature. ‘The con- duotivities of most liquids decrease with increasing temperature, although water is « notable exception. For all the common gases and vapors ‘thore is an increase with increasing temperature, Sutherland" deduoed ‘sn equation from the kinetie theory which is applicable to the variation of the conduetivity of gases with temperature be kg REO Te where Ct = Sutherland constant 1 = absolute temperature of the gas, °R ker = conductivity of the gas at 32°F The influence of pressure on the conductivities of solide and liquids appears to be negtigible, and the reported data on gases are too inexact owing to the effects of free convection and radiation to permit generaliza- tion. From the kinetio theory of gases it can be concluded that the influence of pressure should be small except where a very low vacuum is encountered, Contact Resistance. One of the factors which causes error in the deter mination of the thermal conductivity is the nature of the bond formed between the heat source and the fuid or solid specimen which contacts it and transmits heat. If a solid receivos heat by contacting a roli, it is almost impossible to exclude the presence of air or other fluid from the contact, Even when a liquid contacts a metal, the presence of minute pits or surface roughness may permanently trap infinitesimal bubbles of air, and it will be seen presently that these may eause considerable error. Derivation of a General Conduction Equation. In Tie. (2.1) to (2.4) ‘picture of heat conduction was obtained from an unqualified observation of the relation between heat flow, potential, and resistence. Tt is now feasible to develop an equation which will have the broadest applicability 1 Butherland, W., Phil. Mop., 86, 807 (1808), CF10 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER and from which other equations may be deduced for special applications, ‘Equation (2.4) may be written in differential form @oraaZ (2.5) In this statemont & is the only property of the matter and it is assumed ‘40 be independent of the other variables. Referring to Fig. 2.8, an ele- ‘either of the first two oases as being more general, a storage or depletion term dQ can be defined as the difference between the heat entering and ‘the heat leaving or ae’ = at - 404 26 ‘According to Eq. (2.5) the heat entering on the left ince may be given by 98, = a ay ae(- 2 @ may vary with both time and position in : ae) fhe cube. ‘The variation of — 2 a5 J) only is ~ 22Y22). over the lista de from x to = + de id > Qs the tata change inthe tom perature gradient will be — 20120) ae or —- Fide, Then at = the gradient is = %, and at « + ds the temperature gradient is eA y ae CONDUCTION Mu 1900 = 00,200 Bia ae Flow of Heat through a Composite Wall: Resistances in Series. ‘Equation (2.24) is of interest when a wall consists of several materials laced together in series such as in the construction of = furnace or boiler firebox. Several types of refractory brick are ususlly employed, ince those capable of withstanding the higher ingide temperatures ase more fragile and expensive than those required near the outer surface, where the temperatures are consider- ably lower. Referring to Fig, 2.5, three different refractory materials ate placed together inidieated by the subscripts a, b, and & Por the entire wall ane (2.25) ‘The heat flow in Btu per hour through material a must overeome the resistance R,, But in passing through material o the heat must slso ‘pass through materials b and c in series, ‘The best flow entering at the eft foce must be equal to the heat flow leaving the right face, since the steady state precludes beat storage. If Ra, Hs, and Re re unequal, 25 the remult of differing conductivities and thicknesses, the ratio of the temperature difference across each layer to its resistance must be the same oa the ratio of the total temperature difference is to the total ‘resistance or At en) at OnE ER ‘For any composite system using actual temperatures M_b-h h-hh bok Ong ge (a7) conpueri0n 15 Bolution: Bor the frebriok, Re = La/kad = 8/13 X 0.69 X1 = Tamulting trek, Ri = Lafcd = 4/19 x 0.18 1 = 299 Bling Bick," Ry = Lyfhed = 6/12 X 0.40 x Rms ‘Heat los /f* of = a/R = (1600 — - Foran wall @ — A8/R = (1000 — 125)/445 = 220 Bea/he B= QR and ae = OR, tte, a es a siaakan ier line ies aoe Bottion, | From Table & in the Appendix at §72°F air baa a conductivity of 0.0005 Rais 0.25/12 X 0.0965 — 0.79 Hite toma an Cm Te ia ven that in 0 wal 18 in, Hat oa tes Wa 18. ick stagnant air exp only 1, fn thick reduces the ‘Heat Flow through a Pipe Wall. In the passage of heat through wall the area through which the hest flows fat ‘is constant throughout the entire distance of the heat fow path. Referring to Fig. 2.6 showing # unit Jength of pipe, the ares of the flow path through the pipe wall ineresses beat ith the distance of the path from ri tor, Fi 26. Hout few throogh ‘The area at say radivt r is given by Darl "27M ‘and if the heat flows out of the cylinder the temperature gradient for the16 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER incremental length dr is dt/dr. Fquation (2.14) becomes a= 2nk(-2) niw/tnoin t 2) Integrating, tea gbinr te 230) When r= 7y = tj and when r =r, = tj where ¢ and o refer to the — inside and outside surfaces, respectively. ‘Then = BHA es) log Felts € and if D is the diameter, ‘Referring to Fig. 2.7 where there is a composite ie, 2%, Ope % Gindeeal senstnce, t= + Eb tog BY (232) toa tet 2M og Bt 233) Adding, none tet Ete an “Heat Flow asooghs Pipe Wall, gla pipe haan outside dame- Teen aoe dy dnmterof fin,” bo ued to taport a uid oe Sai tener are oe 20°F. Ten pnd hl te ol ofthe a aitaned at 1757, What best fw wil onc Pir ulin, f= 0.68 Dtu/Cu)G0)CF/) ee Appendix Table 2). 2 Bt) AKAMA OBO ITD «a masint a ea stayed Ton ha eo ae oe ede eee Bete i rm B39 87 covpuerion w about percent, Actually there are 1.57 ft? of external surface per linear foot and 1.31 ft? of:intenal surface. ‘The heat loss per square foot is 343 Btu/br based on the outside surface and 411 Btu/br based on the inside surface. Heat Lossfrom a Pipe. In the precoding examples it was assumed that, the cold external surface could be maintained at a definite temperature. ‘Without this assumption the examples would have been indeterminate, since both Q and At would be unknown and independent in a single oqua- tion. In reality the temperature assigned to the outer wall depends rot, ‘only on tho resistances betwoon the hot and cold aurfaces but also on the ability of the surrounding eolder atmosphere to remove the hext arriving at the outer surface, Consider a pipe as:ehown in Fig. 28 covered 4 (lagged) with rock wool insulation and carrying steam at a:tempera ture t cousidersbly above that of ‘the atmosphere, 4 The overall tempetatore difference driving hest out -of the pipe is &~% The Fia.28 Heat ove from an insulatd poo. resistances to hest flow taken in ofder are (i) the resistance of the steam to condense upon aad give up heat to the inner pipe surface, a resistance which has been found experimentally to be very small so that 4 and # are nearly the samo; (2) the resistance of the pipe metal, which is very small éxcept for thick-walled conduits #0 that % and 2’ are nestly the same; (8) the resist~ ance of the rook wool insulation; and (4) the resistance of the surrounding air to remove heat from the outer surface. The last is appreciable, although the removal of heat is effeeted by the natural convection of ambient air in addition to the radiation caused by the temperature differ ‘ence between the outer surface and colder air. ‘The natural convection results from warming air adjacent to the pipe, thereby lowering its density. ‘The warm air rises and is replaced continuously by cold ait, ‘The com- bined effects of natural convection and radintion cannot: be represented by a conventional resistance term Ry = L,/K.A, since L, is indefinite and ‘the conductance of the air is simultanoously supplemented by the trans- fer of heat by radiation. Experimentally, a temperature difference may be created between a imown outer surface and the air, and the heat pass ing from the outer surface to tho air cam be determined from measure ments on the fluid dowing inthe pipe. Having Q, A, and At, the combined reeistance of both effects is obtained as the quotient of Af/Q. The flow of heat from a pipe to ambient air is usually a heat loss, and it is therefore desirable to report the data ae 8 unit conductance term k/L Btu/(hr)(ft! of18 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘external surfoce)(‘F of tomperature difference). ‘The unit conductance sa real a the uni reilance L/h intend oth reciprocal of the resistance for the entize surface L/kA. In other words, it is the oon ‘ductance per square foot of heatflow surface rather than the oon ‘dyctance of the total surface, ‘The unit resistance has the dimensions naga cf congcon ae radiation \ 40 0 Tepe erect OF ve, Hat ices oeeatn natin rm hereto tern Rosen 18. it resi hhas the (i)(7F)/Biu. The reciprocal of tbe unit resistance, he, Rena ee ig Bbu/(hx) (W)C) and is sometimes designated the eurfoce oeficient of hest transfer. Figure 29 shows the plot of the susfuce confiicient from: pipes of different diameters aiid surface temperatures Jo ambient air at 70°F. Tt is based upon the data of Hellman," which has been substantiated by the Inter experiments of Bailey snd Lyell” ‘The four resistances in terms of the equstions already disoussed are Condensation of steam: a= hadi. — © a2) s 4 Ind Bog. Chane, 16, 405-452 (102), 1 Bags A a NC. ply Bginaring, 4, 00-2 (080) conpuerioN 9 Pipe wall: (2.31) Tagulation: @3) Radiation and convection to a2) combining wn nelitay + Bh oe + BE be Dh + a) ‘The terms inside the parentheses sre the four resistances, and af these the first two can usually be neglected. The equation then reduces to 23 1 B,D + RD, ‘From the abscissa of Fig. 2.9 it ia scen that A, depends upon not only ‘the temperature difference but the actual temperatures at the outaide of the insulation and of the air. Ite reciprocal is also one of the resistances: necessary for the' calculation of the total-temperature difference, and therefore the mirface coefficient h, cannot be computed except by trial- and-error methods. ‘Example 26. Hest Loss trom e Pipe to Air. A 2in. steel pipe (dimensions in ‘Table 11 in the Appendix) carries steam at 30°F. It in lagged with 34 in. of rock ‘wool, f = 0.055, and the surrounding alr in at 70°F, “What will bo tho Rent lowe per Hina foot? Sebi. Anume fe = 150, f, —70 BYP, hy = 2.28 Ben / Ca) ICR). oo a = 1s Bayon Fae 8 305 + TEES Check butoen and ty since 34/8 = Ab/ 23.16 x 01008000 — 2 0s = Sa f= WSF No cack Ascumesti = 1258, f ~ 70 m 5°, he = 210 Bea/(in) (OCF), oo gy OS = 1082 Braye 9 35. 7 TxOme 2976 + TOKE2 PROCRSS BAT TRANGPER Check between and 2x34 x01 1 = TE b= 10887 Chat goes uot appear to vary sigaifcantly forthe diereat assumed auc "been toon ah mee et ri ‘hemajorresistanes ta oat Bow. » When the variation in is considersbe for dierent sstomod temperate off, it adieates inslieentinmlation, ‘Maximum Heat Loss through Pipe Insulation. It would seem at ea tat ‘the thicker the insulation the less the total heat loss, This is slags tre for fiat inston but not for curved imation. Consider a pipe with successive layers of oylindrical insulation. As the thickness the insulation is incressod, tho surface aoa from which heat may be removed by air increases and tho rtotal heat loss may also increase if the area increases more rapidly than the resistance, Referring to Fig, 2.10, the resistance of the inqulation per linear foot J of pipe is Bm int (2.38) Bake Fro, 20, “Th ert cae oie, pipe, although a function of the surface and air temperatures, is given, by =o (2.87) Bem Nee ‘The resistance is a minimum and the heat loss a maximum when the derivative of the sum af the resistances‘R with respect to the radius + is set equal to 2er0 oF 1 git yp tah tak 5, + Rae (2.38) 1 1 - segs “At the maximum beat loss + = r., the critical radius, or ah (2.29) nef other words, maximt um heat loss from a pipe occurs when the crcl run ane the ratio of the thermal conductivity of the insula- tin tothe mace opficient of haut rant, The rato has thovimen- sion of ft. Tt is desirable to keep the citial radius as smali as possible and the resistance of the air per linear foot of - conpuerion a . x0 that the application of insulation will result in a reduction and not an incresso in the heat toss from s pipe. ‘hiss obviously aocomplished by using an insulation of small conductivity so that the critical radius is lace than the radius of the pipe, ot re < rs. ‘The Optimum Thickness of Insulation, ‘The optimum thickness of insulation is arrived at by a purely economio approach. If a bate pipe were to carry & hot fluid, there would be @ certain hourly loss of hent the thickness and initial cost of the inau- lation and the greater the annual fixed charges (maintenance and depreciation) which must be added to the anual heat loss. The fixed eharges on pipe insulation will be about 18 to 20 per cent of the:ini- tial installed cost of the insulation, By assuming s number of thicknesses of insu- Jation and adding the fixe charges to the value of the heat lost, a minimum cost will be obtained and the thickness corre- sponding to it will bo the optimum e0- nomic thickness of the insulation. ‘The form of such an analysisis shown in Fig. 2.11. ‘The most diffieult part is obtaining reliable initial-installation-cost date, since they vary greatly with plant to plant and with the amount of insulating to be done at 4 single time. ment of conduction, only those eases have been considered in which the heat input per square foot of surface was uniform. Tt was also char. sotaristic of theso eases that the heat removal per sjuare foot of surface as also uniform. This wss likewise truo for the oylinder, even though ‘the internal and external surfaces were not identical. ‘Some of the com- mon problems of steady-state conduction in solids involve the removal or ‘input of heat where it is not uniform over a ‘surface, and although the salu- tion of such problems by mathematical analysis is often complicated itis Possible to obtsin close approximations graphically. ‘The method employed here is that of Awbery and Schofield? and carlior investigators Consider the section of a metelboathed wall, as shown in Fig, 2.12, ‘with hot side ABC at the uniform temperature At recurting intervale DF on the cold side DEF st the uniform temperature %, metal bracing Ambery, J. and F. Schofield, Proc. Fatern. Congr. Refrig, Bla Congr., 8, 591-610 19a0.22 PROCESS HEAT TRANSPER ibs are attached to the outer sheath and imbedded two-thirds into the ‘thickness of the wall. Binoe the sheath and metal rib both have a high thermal conductivity compared with the wall material itself, the tib and sheath may both be considered to be at very neatly the same temperature, "The predominantly horizontal lines indicated on the drawing represent isothermal planes ‘to the plane of the drawing, Conte- quently there is no heat flow to be considered in the direction perpendicu- lar to the plane of the drawing. A he 8 fh G [It 27] Rib D ty E h F ‘Bio, 2.12. Graphies! representation of beat eonduetin, Since the drawing is symmetzicl sbout the vertical line BE, consider only the right half of the drawing bounded by BCFE, Assume an srbi- trasy number of isotherms n, in the direction from B to H 20 that, if imoonstant, Mt = ny Ate Wh varies with (then kate = 2 "kdl, Tbe reater the asmumed suber of isothonns the greater the precision af the SSiution. Next, consider the heat to fow from f, to metal at fx through ty lanve emanating from BC and forming the network indicated. Now refer to any small portion of any lane, such as abed with length z, mean wridth y, where y = (ab + od)/2, and unit depth # = 1 perpendicular to thedraving. The etesdy-heat flow into each lane is Q.. ‘Tho conduction ervation is then Q; = Hye) Als/2. ‘The temperature difference from one itotherm to the next is naturally the same, and since Qris constant fr the iano itis evident from the eonduction equation thst the ratio y/z must i be constant, although y and z may vary. ‘The network of the draw {ng is constructed such that, for each quadrilateral, y = 2. Where x is tural it is becauge the isotherms are crowded together owing to the high heat removal by the zib. ‘The heat flow por lane is then given by nt), ™ Es conpucrion 23, fiow from BC thus requires » = Qna/k( — 42) lanes, where Q is the total hest flow. Figure 2.12 was constracted in this manner starting with six isotherms, Although the individual portions of the network are neithet squares that 11 Innes were obtained for each haif of a symmetrical section. If ‘the isotherms were undisturbed by the rib, the portions abd would then ‘be squares and the hest entering BC would flow normal to it and 8.3 lanes ‘would be required. ‘The rib is therefore equivalent to increasing the heat removal by 33 per cent, When the ribe ate spaced more closely together, the fractional heat removal increases, ‘PROBLEMS ALL. A furnace isenclowed by walls asl (rom inside out) of Sin. of kaolin Geeriok, (in, of kaolin innulatiag brick, and 7 n. of freclay brink. What is the heat lowe pez tnquare foot of wall whon the faside of the fornsos ia Tusitained st 2200°F and the uta at 200°F? ‘22, A farnage wall sto const in seis of 7a. of kann frebroke, 6 in, of kaolin inwulating rok, and alent Srclay brick to reduce the hea foe to 100 Bea/(hc) 05) ‘when tbe face temperatures are 1500 and 100°F, respectively. What thicknom of fireclay trick should bo used? If an afetive air gop af 34 in. oan be insrporated botwonn tho Greslay snd insulating brisk when ereting the wall without impating ‘ta nructural support, whet thicknes of inulating brick wil bo required? “£2. A furnace wall conta of thre iamulating materials in srioa, 32 per cont chrome buick, magnesite bricks, and low-grade refractory bricks (4. 0.5). The agnosie bricks orznot withtand a fo00 tearperatare above 1900°F, and the Joe (Bade bricks caanot exeed @00°F. What thicknom of tho wall will give « boat loss {ot in excess of 1500 Bua/(2(¥) when tae extreme face temperatures are 2500an¢ 00°F, respectively? AA Gin, TPS pipe ia coveod with three resistanoos in serie consiatng frm the inside outward of 4 in. of apo, Ll, of rock wool, and 3fia.of powdered agate applied aa a plarer. If the side surface ia maintained at S00"F and the ontads at OIF, what i the hea los per oguare oot of outed pipe surface 28. A 2in, TPS line toa refrigerated ptoctes covered with 34 in. of kapok cation 128% NaCl brine at O°P and wt a Bow rate of 3,000 Ib. Tho outer wurace of the Aapok willbe maintained at 00°F. Whats the equation for th fow of beat? Galou- late ‘the heat loekage into the pipe and the temperature sie of the Buld for a €0ft length of pipe. ‘28. A. vertical cylindrical kin 22 tin diameter in ‘nclosed at the top by a beni spherial dome fabricated from s= Gin. layer of intadlocking and sel-eupportng 2 per cent chrome bricks. Derive an expresion for conduction through the dom. ‘When the inide and outaide of the hemispherial dome are majatxined at 1000 and 200%F, renectively, what is the hext Joes per auare Zoot of internal dome surface? low doen tho total heat lose for the dome sompare with the total beat los for fat ‘trustully eupported roof of the sae material when expoocd to the same differaice in emmpernture?py PROCESS HBAT TRANSFER 42.2, A-Line pipe carying 450°F steam is lagied with 1 in. ofkxpok asrrounded by Lin-of powdered moegneait applied as» plaster. The eurounding airs at 70°F. ‘What isthe loge of hest from the pipe per linear foot? 2.8. A'din. TPS main cara steam from tho powerhouse to the procem planta at a Iinear velocity of 8000 fpm. ‘The steam is at 200 pai (gage), andthe atmompbere it a4 70°F. . What pereentago ofthe total heat flow isthe bare-ibo heat low per 1000 ‘of pipe? 1F the pipe is aed with half 9 thicknoss of kapok and half thickness of Sabewton, what total thicknes will reco the insulated heat loa to 3 per cont of the tube heat losst aaa one cr ruta tr tnctenn asin tthe inside pipe wall as been found experimentally to be 0.00088 (hr) (t4}CF)/Btu. “The Tine fo laggod with’ 4 in. of rock rool tnd 3 ia. of wabentas, What isthe effect inlining the oondensation sad metal pipe-wall resitancos in calculating tho total Theat lor por Hnoar foot to atmoypheric alr at 70°F? NOMENCLATURE FOR CHAPTER 2 A Heatow are, (tt G4, Cy Constants of integration Ch Sutherland constant ‘Volometrio specific heat, Btu /(e9)(°F) Specie eat at constant prose, Btu/(@1F) Diameter, fe : Yoltage oF electromotive foes Surface coat of bent transfor, Bta/(s} 097) Garren, mp lewsiea! ndaniety, Vobmst ‘Thermal eonductvity, Bhu/th) #29 R/10) ‘Thisknons of wall or length of pipe ft Number of heatfow lnea ‘Number of isotherms Beat fiw, Biase “Heat flow per lane, Btu/hr Bist, Bou ‘ eat fo, B/G) in 2) Baitance to heat flow, Qh) CF) Btu eintaace to elec fiw, ohms Batu, vu“ ‘Temperature st any a ‘Temperature difereace promoting hest Sw, °F AbooTte texparaar,“E otume, ft Coordiate of dntasc, Chonge in thrmal eondctivity per degre ine, br ‘Density, lb/ft ‘Resistivity, obantt ae eae NRT TRS QOOPS MEAP ROD CHAPTER 3 CONVECTION Introduction, Heat transfer by convection is due to fluid motion. Cold fiuid adjacent to e hot surface receives heat which it imparts to the bulk of the cold fluid by mixing with it, Free or natural convection ‘cours when the fluid motion is not implemented by mechanical agitation. But when tho fiuid is mechanically agitated, the heat is transferred by forced convection, ‘The mechanical agitation may be eupplied by stir- ring, although in most process applications it is induced by circulating the hot and cold fluids at rapid rates on the opposite sides of pipes or tubes. Free- and foreed-convection heat transfer oceur at very different, speeds, the latter being the more rapid and therefore the more common. Factors which promote high rates for forced conveetion do not neceasarily have the eame effect an free convection. It is the purpore of this chapter to establish a general mothod for obtaining the rates of hest transier particularly in the presence of forced convection. ‘Film Coefficients. In the flow of heat through a pipe to air it was seen that the passage of heat into the air was not accomplished solely by eon- duction. Instead, it occurred partly by radiation and partly by-free convection. A tomperature difference existed between the pipe murface and the average temperature of the air. Since the distance from the pipe surface to the region of average air tempersture is indefinite, the resist ance cannot be computed from Ry = La/keA, using for air. Instead the resistance must be determined experimentally by sppropriately measuring the surface temperature of the pipe, the temperate of the air, and the heat transferred from the pipe as evidenced by the quantity of steam condensed in it. ‘The resistance for the entire surface was then computed from RF WICH /Beu Hf desired, Zq ean also be calculated from this value of 2, and would be the length of a fictitious conduction film of air oquivglent to the com- bined resistance of conduction, free convection, and radiation, The length of the film is of little significance, although the concept of the fictitious film finds numerous applications. Instead it is preferable to % SVNOULAd QO TONNAL LLISHAAINA AuVaaIT26 PROCESS HRAT TRANSFER much om = resistance L/kA, than the use of the total surface A, Wha etter K will now be used to designate L/k (bx)(tt)("F)/Btu and it ill simply be called the resistance. . . man fects other than conduction are necessarily combina ation of twoolfecte. Particularly in the ease of free oF forced convection to ted, in fact, to most gazes at modorate temperatures and texperatis% differences 1, neglected and the experimental resistance w eel face and the average temperature of the act et eh eae om be det Tig, a, Two convection from the sonsible-hoat change in either fluid over tho lengh ofthe pie in which the hat transfer ocgure. Designating the resistance on the inside Tae eatside by Ry, the inside and ovtaide pipe-vall temperatures By fp tod f., and spplying an expression for the steady state, recipre have the dinieasions of ‘The reciprocals of the heat-transfer resistances dinies Btu/(oe) UNCP of temperature difference) ‘and are called individual film CONPRCTION 7 film coefficient. such as the size of the pipe and whether or not the fluid is. ‘considered to be on the inside or outside of the pipe. With so many variables, each having its own degree of influence on the rate of heat (film coefficient), it is fairly understandsble why a rational derivation isnot available for the direct calculation of the film coefficient. (On the other hand, it is impractical to run an experiment to determine the coefficient each time heat is to be added or re~ ‘moved from a fiuid. Instead it is desirable to 7] study some method of correlation whereby sev- eral basic experimente performed with a wide range of the variables can produce a relation abip which will hold for any other combins- 7777777777777 ‘tions of the variables. The intmediate problem wy ito ostabliah a mothod of correlation snd then apply it to some experimental data. 4 ‘The Viscosity. It is not possible to proceed ti ‘very far in the stady of convection and fluid | b—-#« flow without defining a property which has an important bearing upon both, viscosity. tb) In order to ovaluate this property by fluid ia, 5.0. piuid sienis. dynamics two assumptions are required: (1) ‘Where a eolid-liquid interface existe, there is no slip between the solid and liquid, and (2) Newton’s rule: Shear stress is proportional to the rate ‘of shear in the direction perpendicular to motion. An unstressed particle of liquid ss shown in Fig. 3.2c will sseume the form in Fig, 3.2 when a film of liquid is subjected to ‘The rate of shear is proportional to the velocity gradient du/dy. Ap- plying Newton's rule, if r is the shear stress, Fis. 88. Fhid shee. 8 ay where « is the proportionality constant or solide it roaulta in deformation and is equivalent 1 alag {12 the modula of clatcty. {in liquids it results in deformation at a given rato. ‘To evaluate w refer to Fig, 3.3 where shear is produced by maintaining the liquid film between « stationary plate at distance Y and a moving plate with velocity V. At any point in the film the vetocity w is given8 PROCKSS HEAT TRANSFER yu = Wy/Y. Rate of shear = Sf = 5 @ay G4) where jis called the viscosity when V and ¥ bave unit values. "Tne actual force required to move the plate isA. IF is the pound- force, L the length, and 8 the time, the dimensions of the visoosity are Y_PL_ Fo VRIR-B or using the pound-mass Af, where F = Mg and g = L/6?, the aocelera- tion of gravity, » MLL ES DOLS ‘When evaluated in cgs metric units « is commonly called the absolute visoosity. . = eemmemass_ ** centimeter X second uni sentist P ‘This unit‘has beon named the poise after the French scientist Poizeulle. ‘This is ailarge-unit, and it is customary to use and speak of the centi- poise, or one-hundredth poise. In engineering units its equivalent is defined by a -mans 0 = Boex boot ities in centipcises ean be converted to engineering units on multi- wine by 3a "This unit bas no Lame, ‘Another unlt, the kinematic viscosity, is also usod because it occurs frequently in physical systems and produces straighter graphs of viscosity va. temperature on logarithmic coordinates. The kinematic viscosity is the absolute viseosity in centi- ‘poisos divided by the specific gravity. snemte snamniny ., Seste viscosity Kinematic vicosty = Siu who it of kinematic viscosity is the stokes, after the English mathe- municianStokon and th hundredth of theses the centistokes ‘The viscosity ean be determined indirextly by measuring ‘the time of efflux from » calibrated flow device having an orifice and a controlled temperature. The commonest is the Saybolt viscometer, and the time of efflux from a standard cup into a standard receiver is measured in convEcTION 29 seconds and recorded as Saybolt Seconds Universal, SSU. Conversion factors from the time of efflux to centistokes for the Saybolt and other viscometers are given in Fig. 13,1 ‘Heat Transfer between Sofids and Fluids: Streamline and Turbulent Flow. The Reynolds Number. When a liquid dows in a horizontal pipe, it-may flow with a random eddying motion known as turbulent flow, as shown in Fig. 3.4 by a plot of the local velocity in the pipe vs, the distance from its eonter, If tho linear velocity of the liquid ie decreased below some threshold value, the naturo of the flow changes and the turbulence disappenrs. ‘The fluid particles flow in lines along the axis cof the pipe, and this is known as streamline flow. An experiment used for the visual determination of the type of flow consists of a glass tube Fro. 34. Turbulent fow in pipes Fe, 85. Streamline fow in pipes, through which water flows. A thin stream of ink is injected at the ‘center of the tube, and if the ink remains at the center for a reasonable distance, it is indicative of streamline fow. Synonyms for streamline Reynolds? observed that the type of flow assumed by a liquid owing in 4 tubo was influenced by the velocity, density, and visoosity of the liquid and the diameter of the tube. When related ue the quotient of Dup/a, called the Reynolds number, # wae found that turbulent flow always existed when the numerical value-af Dup/u exceeded about 2300 and ‘usually when it exoveded 2100. By definition, the transfer of heat by convention proceeds mainly as the result of mixing, and while this require ‘ment appears to bo satisfied by turbulent flow, itis not fulfilled by stream ‘Figure numbers which are not preceded by a chapter mumber will be found in the Appendix. * Reynolds, 0, «'Seentiso Papers of Osbotoe Reynolds,” p, 81, Cambridge Unie versity Pres, London, 1001. me P. Bh, Cembrigo30 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER i Streamline flow is, in fact, » form of conduction whose study vit fo deferred toa lator chapter. "The speed with which heat is trans- erred to ot from a given liquid to a tube is considerably less for stream- Tine than for turbulent flow, and in industrial practice itis almost always desirable to avoid conditions such as low liquid velocity which promote ‘analysis, A method of correlating a number of variables i ‘an effect is known as dimensional analy- experimentally, : r criosl approach to the equation. Equations which can ons io, italy ana also be cbiizedempinealy, ba the reverse ‘is not true. ‘eldgmant has presented by far the most extensive proof ofthe mathe- of empirical study. It . " Fn on. such aa B Th or 5 ft, possowes two identifying aspects, ane ao cieenited ( {remarial) 3 Ren edher quantittive(dimensiopal. Fundamental tities such as length, time, and tempers- ‘dimensions are quant ‘Derived . ‘are those CONVECTION 31 different groups of variables, each group having the net dimensions of the dependent variable. Ass very simple illustration consider the con dinuity equation which is frequently written in elementary physics and ‘thermodynamics texts in the form 3.5) where w = Guid flow rate, weight/time wu = fluid velocity in conduit, length/time ‘@ = cross seotion of the conduit, length X length = length? ‘0 = specific volume, length X length X length/weight = length*/ weight Why docs Eq. (8.6) have this particular form? w, o, and v must be related ao that their net dimensions are tho exme as those of the depend- ent variable w, namely, weight/time. An equation involving both pare numbers and dimensions must be correct with respect to either and beth. Checking the dimensions slone, writing for the variables in Eq. (6.5) ‘their individcs! dimensions, ‘weight It is seen that the dimensions on the left sido are identical with the net dimensions of the group only when the variables of the group are arranged jn the particular manner indicated by the formula. The three inde- pendent variables above give an snswet in weight/time only when arranged in a single way, wa/0. Conversely it may be deduced that the form determined relationship among the variables. Any physical equation may be written and evaluated in ‘terms of a power scries containing all the variables. If the form were not known in the ilustration sbove and it was desired to find a relationship ‘which must exist between the variables w, w, a, and v, it may be expresed by # power series such as 6, 0, 6, 9) = aural + aluhuat +--+ = 0 (2) ‘The factors a and a’ are dimensionless proportionality constants. Since the dimensions of all the consecutive terms of the series arp identical, itis not necossary to consider any of the terms beyond the first. Aocondingly ‘one ean write , ewan) =1 8) where ¢! indicates the function. Arbitrarily sotting b= —1 so that x32 ‘PROCKSS HBAT TRANSFER ‘will not appeat in the final equation eaised to a fractional exponent, w= ava (3.9) Substituting dimensions, Weight i " ‘Ie ‘take (ibe) % dmanoe x (SE). G10 Tia group of independont variables will establish numerical equality with a dependent variable, the samo is true of their dimensions. Equa- tion (3.6) imposes this condition, The exponents c, d, and ¢ may then ‘assume such values as are necessary to effect the dimensional equality Detwoen the left and right sides. The reméinder of the solution is merely to evaluate c, d, and e by simple algebra. Summing the exponents of the dimensions on both sides and recalling that an exponent of zero reduces « umber to unity, Elength, 0 = ¢ + 2d + 3e E weight, 1 = —¢ 2 time, -1 = -e . ‘Bolving for the unknown, dis found to be +4. ‘The three exponents are thene = +1, @=+1,and¢ = —1. Substituting those in Eq. (8.9), w= autatirt =a 1) ‘Inasmuch as this is an exact relationship, the proportionality constant a is equal to 1.0 and | va ? ‘Thus by purely algobraic means the correct form of the equation has been established. This has been an extremely elementary illustration in which all of the exponents were integers and the dependent aad independent ‘variables were expressed in only threo kinds of dimensions: weight, ength, and time. In gystems involving mechanics and heat it is often necessary to employ other dimensions suth as temperature and a derived heat unit H, the Btu or calorie. ‘In mechanical and chemical enginoering it ia customary to use a set of six dimonsions: force F, heat H, length L, mass Mf, temperature 7, and time @ One of the important alternatives, however, hinges about the ‘unit of forco and the unit of mass. In the preceding illustration the weight ‘was employed. The relationship would hold whether the pound-miass or gramemnass or the pound-foree (poundal) or gram-force (dyne) were uaed convection 83 Tn 81, Dacnons 0 Uae Dimenviou:* Fern = 7, beat = 2, lengh = fy mast = Af, temperature © time = fhe fore pound athe pound te orga the ee “Zor | Quanity: consistent eogiavering nd metric unite Pimen : foxmamen sm if 4, Sette nam i, |S Rae ior # | Density, Ib/tes, g/cant Myis D {Dinmeter, ft, om L a ka | Diffusivity (volumetric), f*/hr, ext/aoe. F | Foree, foree-pound (poundal), foree-grain re ‘HH | Heat, Btu, eal he om) i BL }Length, ft, om L M | Mass, Ib, g i 2 Ee i, | Mace velocity, 1b/ (ix), ¢/(o0) xm) ayers a Mechanical ‘cquivalent of heat, (force-Ib)(tt) “Btu, (loree-g)(em)/ PL/E 1 [eminence : ‘Py | Power, (foree-tIb) force-g} a Pe ted, forces et) fa, Ee rem) awe Lie ¢ | Specific heat, Btu/(lb)(°F), eal/(g)(*C) : | eesinunen vero ig 1 [See derrib tu tone Pas 7 |tempentie, cic 2 k ‘Teal conductivity, Btu/{hri(teN(*¥ ft), eal/(see)(om®)("C/ ‘B/LTO : Teme Minit, 1, em? /tec Tae ee oe of ‘ iT F nee rede ivity, (*F)(ft) (he) (Btu, (°CM{em) (aoe) foal LTH ~ fexikan iy | Viscosity ite, oreo) ce) /om* Peja # | Viscosity (aba), Ib, (cm) ie (eee f(t) Chr), #/fem)ia0e) iad we | Work, {force-th)(ft), (force-g) (em) FL ‘For aeriem without brat changs thae sutoralaly odes to FER a8 long an the weight was always treated in-the eame way. Consider sytem in which the mass is a fundamental dimension as ME. Tt From the acceleration equation, force = mass X actelcfation,’ F = MLe, In another set of dimensions it may be more convenient to consider forces“ PROCESS HEAT TRANSPRR ‘the fundamental dimension, in which case mass ie expressed by Mm FL When some of the variables are commonly expressed in unite of force such as preasore FE-f and other variables by units of mass such 9s the density ML, it is necessary to introduce « dimensional constant into the series exprestion befare solving for the exponents. ‘The constant relating ‘¥ and F naturally has the dimensions of the gravitational acceleration constant L&-*, A similar situstion also srises when describing a phe- nomenon by which a work or kinetic energy change cecurs in a system. Some of the variables may ordinarily be expressed in terms of foot-pounds (force-pound X foot) and others in terms of heat energy such as the Btu. A conversion factor which is the beat equivalont of work must be introduced to convert FL to H, or vice verss. ‘The constant is the kinetic ‘energy equivalent of the hest ACZ?/2¢!. A number of common variables and dimensional constants are given in Table 3.1 together with their net dimensions in a six-dimension eystem. Typical sete of engineering and retrie unite are included, : ‘Analysis forthe Form of a Fiuid-flow Bquation. When an incompressi- ble fluid flows in a straight horizontal uniform pipe with » constant mass rate, the presmure of the fluid decreases along the length of the pipe ‘owing to friction. ‘This is commonly called the preesure drop of the system, AP, The pressure drop per unit length is referred to ss the preemure gradient, 4P/2L, whick has been found experimentally to be influenced by the following pipe and fuid propertioe: diameter D, veloo- ity 1, fluid density p, and viscosity 4. What relationship exists between ‘the pressure gradient and the variables? Solution, ‘The pressure has dimensions of forve/ares, whereas tho density is expressed by mast/volume so that a dimensional constant relating Af to F must be included, Ky ~ ML/F6, ‘The samo result ‘may be seecunplished by including the soveleration constant g slong with ‘the variables above. While the visconity is determined experimentally ‘a8 force effect and hes the dimensions F¢/Za, it isa very amall unit, and it is more common in the engineering sciences to use the absolute vis- ‘cosity M/L# in which the conversion from force to mass has already bean made. Using the samp method of notation as before, BoD nn Ke oan 2 = obey (3.13) convecrion 35 Substituting dimensions and arbitrarily sott fat itearily setting the exponent of dP/aL, F aay (ZY (LY (MY (MD i orl) GY) Ch exo Summing exponents, : BP, Le~e BL, -B-a+b~B0—a 2M, O=etaqe 3, 0~ ~b-d— 2 Solving simultaneously, on-i-d ba 2-@ e= Ind d= @ : ese Substituting back in Eq. (3.13), Bacon sang = ee aP by AR, diz by the longth of pipe Z, or AL, and substituting for Bette ecuivalent g, aGtL(De\~* a ~ F(Z) ew ‘where Dus/u oF DO/s is the Reynolds number Analysis for the Form of a Forced-convection heat rt by eed emit io camped wr turbulent flow in a pipe of uniform diameter st constant been found to be influenced by the velocity density p, spaciic heat36 PROCESS HBAT TRANSFER tion. What relationship holds between ‘the film coefficient or. rate of shoat transfer, ty = H/@L47 [such as Btu/(hr)(f}CE)], and the other variables? ‘Solution. It is not known whether all energy terms will be expressed mechanically or thermally by the dimensions of the varinbles so that the dimensional constant Kx = ML*/H6* must be ‘included. Ifall the dimen- Gions combine to give only thermal quantities such as the Btu, which appears in the dimensions ot the exponent of Kin the series expression ghould be zero and the constant will reduce dimensionally to 1.0, a puse number. he = 6,6, D, by Ke Ay = auth Deh Kig (B17) n= GY C) Gh) Ga) (Gre) 9 Summing exponents, 3H, lad4+f-i | BE, -2 =a B+ e-f—-9tB EM, O=b-—adtgt?d x6, —1 = ~a-f—9~ 2 Solving simultaneously, an b=a goi-s enol f-1 g=i-f-@ i=0 tituti Subelluting back, gota oR (3.18) or collecting termr, pal" om .d 1 ~ f must be evaluated from a minimum of three sots of ce a date ubetting the mee most fr ep in the above, BG) on ‘The dimensionless groups hD/k and t/k, slike the Reynolds number CONVECTION 3? ‘Dup/ye oF DG/s, have been assigned names to houor earlier investigators in the field of fiuid mechanics and heat transfer. A ist of the common ‘groups and tho names assigned to them are included in Table 3.2. Tanux 3:2, Comox Dneexsronunss Gaovrs ‘Group ite frat wef Diptgh t/t ‘AD Die DO/m, Duoln aloha ale One of the usoful aspocts of dimensional analysis is its ability to pro- vide a relationship among the variables when the information about a phenomencn is incomplete. One may have spoculated that both fluid ‘fiotion and foreed conveetion are influenced by the surface tension of tho fluid. The surface tension could have been included as a variable and new equations.obtained, although the form of the equations would have been altered considerably. Nevertheless it would have been found that the exponents for any dimensionless groups involving the surface tension would be nearly zero when evaluated from experimental data. By the same token, the equations obtained above may be considered to be predi- cated on incomplete information. In either case a relationship is obtainable by dimensional analysis. Consistent Units. In establishing the preceding formulas the dimen- sions wore referred to in general terms such as length, time, temperature, etc., without specifying the units of the dimensions. The dimension is ‘the basic measurable quantity, and convention has established a number of different basic units such as temperature, “F and °C; ares, square foot, square inch, square meter, square centimeter; time, second or hour} ote. In order that the net dimensions of the variables may be obtained by cancellation smong the fundamental and derived dimensions, sll must employ the came basic measured units. Thus if several variables employ ‘dimensions containing length auch as velocity /¢, density Mf/L4, and ‘thermal conduetivity H/0LT, each must employ the same basic unit of Tength such as the foot. Accordingly, when substituting values of the variables into a dimensionless group, it is not permisible to signify the38 PROCHSS HEAT TRANSFER dimensions of some variables in feet, some in inches, and etill others in centimeters. However, any unit of length is scoeptable provided all the longths involved in the variables are expressed in the same unit of length. The seme rule applica to the other fundamental and derived dimensions, When a group of dimensions are expressed in this manner, they are oalled consistent units, Any group of consistent unita will yield ‘the same numerical result when the valves of the variables are substi- ‘buted into the dimensionless groups. ‘The Pi Theorem. One of the important mathematical proofs of dimen- sional anslysis is attributed to Buckinghsm,' who deduced that the num- ber of dimensionless groups is equal to the difference between the number ‘of variables and the number of dimensions used to express them. Dimen- sional consiants are also included as variables. ‘The proof of this statement has been presented quite completely by Bridgman* Desig- ‘nating dimensionless groups by the letters 1, 1s, #2, the complete physical statement of a phenomenon can be expressed by Men rere PaO (22) where the total number of « terms or dimensionless groups equals the umber of variables minus the number of dimensions. In the preceding example there were, including fy, eight variables. These were expressed in five dimensions, and the number of dimensionlees groupe consequently ‘was three. ‘There is a notable exception which must be considered, how- ‘ever, or this mothod of obtaining the number of dimensionless groups by Inspection ean leed to an incorrect reault, When two of the variables are expreseed by the same dimension such as tho longth and diameter of a pipe, neither is » unique variablo, since the dimensions of either are indistinguishable, and to proserve the identity of both they must be com- bined as a dimensiontoss constant ratio, L/D or D/L. When treated in this manner, the equation 80 obtained will apply only to a system which ‘in geometrically similar to the experimental arrengement by which the ‘coefficients and exponents were evaluated, namely, one having the aume ratio of L/D or D/L. or this reagon the form of » finid-flow equation, Eq, (8.15), was solved for the prescure gradient rather than the pressure ‘drop direetly. Although the solution for & fotved-convestion equation hhas already been obtained algebraically, it will be solved again to demon- strate the Pi theorem and the extent to which it differs from the direct algebraic solution. In general, it is desirable to eolve for the dimension- Jeas groups appearing in Table 3.2. * Buckingham, B., Phys. Ren, 348-876 (1014). ‘“Brideman, 0p. ot CONVECTION 30 Analysis for a Forced-convection Equation by the Pi Theorem. $m tate. 2) =O = Spee Di eunKG) = 1 (3.23) > (ax) @) GY Gia) © Gay BY Ce) 20 2H, O=atetg—i By O= De $b Bt f—g—mtH 2M,0=d-otmti BT, O= -a-e-@ 2, O= -e~b—g~m—% ‘xy 4, and ry may be evaluated by simple algebra. All tho exponents need not be summed up in one operation, since it has been seen in Eq. (8.20) that the dimensionless groupe comprising it are only compoved of three of four variables exch. Tt is requisite in summing for the three ‘groups individually only that all the exponents be included at some time and that three cummations be made equal to the difference hecween the cight-vatiahles and five dimensions or three groupe, x1, x2, and x». 1. Since itis desired to establish an expression for has the dependent variable, it is preferable that it be expressed raised to the first power or a=1, This will assure that in the final equation the dependent variable will not be present raised to some odd fractional power. Since ail the exponents need not be included in evaluating n,, sasumeb ~ Oand ¢=0. Referring to Eq. (9.20) it will be soen that a3 result of these secumptions neither the Reynolds number nor the Prandt! number will ppest as solutions for x. When b= 0, w= 1 and Dup/a = 1; and whea ¢ = 0, ¢ = Land ou/k = 1. Asume ¢=1, b= 0, ¢=0. Solving the simultaneous equations above, d= 0,f = +1,9 = —1,m=0,2=0, n+) x Having already obtainod Ay it is desitable not to have it appear again in either x, or my. ‘This can be accomplished in solving for the next Goup by assuming o = 0. The entire Nusselt number kD/k will then Teduee to 1. If a Reynolds number is desired, because it is a useful stiterion of fluid flow, apsume b or f = 1. Lastly, if the Prandtl number is to be eliminated, atsume that the exponent of evor k is sero. If the exponent of the viscosity is anumed to be xato, it will not be possible to obtain either a Reynolds number or a Prandtl number.40 PROCKSS HEAP TRANSFER ‘Assume f= 1, 0=0, ¢=0. Solving the simultaneous equations above, b= 1d =1,9=0m= Li =O, noo) zy ‘Toprevent the hy torm ani the velocity or density from appearing again, assume a = 0,6 = 1, f All the exponents will have now appeared in one of more golutions. ; - "Assume @=0, e=1, {=0, Solving the simultaneous equations above, b= 0,d=0,g=—Lm=1i=0, @) (hD, Dup cx) _ (02) 0 825) » wD _ 4. (2%) 4, (# . 3p - (2) «(@) . _ ” fea\* (BOY (28)" 6 BG) GYGY om sehere the proportionality constant and the exponents must be evaluated from experimental data. . "Development of an Equation for Streamline Flow. Since streamline flow is g conduction phenomenon, it is subject to rational mathematical ‘analysis, On the assumption that the distribution of velocities nb any ‘cross seotion is parabolic, the inéide surface of the pipe is uniform, «and the velocity at the wall is zero, Gracta? obtained for radial conduction toa fluid moving in 4 pipe in rodlike flow ooh ge(2 a: tet-t-4(@) ea where ts and f; are the iilet and outlet temperatures of the Guid, t, is the Uniform inside pipe surface temperature, fp — fx the temperature differ ‘ence af the inlet, and @(we/KL) is the numerical value of an infinite series having exponents which are multiples:of we/KD. Equation (9.27) may be replaced through dimensional analysis with an empirical expression which must be evaluated from experiments. If ts — the rise in the Temperature of the fuid flowing in-the pipe, ia considered to be infturnced * cate, dm, Pht AB S27 (88). Tor sree of te vatent of od i Ae mB ry, tre ACHE, 18 COD, ‘The final expression is convecri0N 4 in radial conduction by the length of path Z, the rate af flow w, specific hoot, thermal conductivity #, and the temperature difference between the pipe inside surface and the fluid temperature so that Al; = ty — ty, . th — th = alswhctkt ath (3.28) Solving by the method of dimensional anelysis, bohe “(sy bay (8.29) bobae (gy (3.30) which is similar to Bq, (3.27). Now note thet neither Eq. (3.28) ror (8.29) contains hk or the visoosity 1. But Q = hid, At or ‘well, — t) = hie DL At or and substituting G = 3D’ ‘in Eg, (3.30), ; Now eynthetizally introducing the viscosity by multiplying the right term of Eq. (831) by (u/s), one obtains P-[2@QT--G)" om This is a convenient means of representing streamline flow. using the dimensionless groups incidental to turbulent fiow and including the dimensionless ratio D/L, It should not be inferred, however, that because of this method of representation the heat-tranafer coeflicient is influenced by the viscosity even though the Reynolds number, which is the criterion of streamline flow, is inversely proportional to the viscosity. ‘The values of » in Eq, (3.32) actually cancel out. The Temperature Difference between a Fluid and a Pipe Wall. ‘Before attempting to evaluate the constants of a farce@-convection equs- tion from experimental data, an additional factor must be taken into aecount. When a liquid flows along the axis of a tube and absorbs or transmits senaible heat, the temperature of the liquid varies over the entire length of the pipe. In the cane of heat flow through a flat wall, ‘the temperature over the entire area of each face of the flat wall was identical and the temperature difference was simply the difference between any42 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Squid. js qd equation Q = hiAdly — 2) = hiAc At, where f, is the constant tempera cai rll eats the varying termperture of te Hild inside the pipe? arring to Fig. 3.6, the constant temperature of the inside pipe wall ey the Nocatee ¥f the specific heat is assumed con- “terat ia, £0, Temperature diflerense betmeon a fisid and « pipe wall for the liquid, the riso in temperature is to the total anne aetived by the liquid in passing from tbe inlet temperature (to the outlet temperature fz and if I is considered constant dQ = hdd Ate (833) ‘The slope of the lower line defining the temperature difference At as a function of Q is i te te en here Ah = t —tand Ali = 4 —f Eliminating dQ from Eqs. (8.33) and @.34), Bets caty — at) - [ee G88) Integrating BAddls — . 0 = aah /as ow "The expression f= isthe logahmie am temperature diforenc, abbreviated LMTTD, and the value of hy which has been computed from Qa hdcal, when At, i tho logarithmic mean, is distinct value of convECTION 43 ‘Jy. We the value of Ai; were arbitearily taken as the arithmetic mean of ‘Ais and At, the value of hc would have to be designated to show thst it does not correspond to the logarithmic mean. This is usually acoom- plished by affixing the subscript a or m for arithmetic mean, a8 he OF Fa. ‘When Ais and At, approach equality, the arithmetic and logarithmic ‘means spptoach each other, Experimentation and Correlation, Suppose experimental apparstus waa available with known diameter and length and through whieh liquid could be circulated at vatious measurable flow rates. Suppose, further- nore, that it was equipped with suitable devices to permit measurement of the inlet and outlet liquid temperatures and the temperature of the pipe wall. ‘The heat absorbed by the liquid in flow through the pipe would be identical with the heat passing into the pipe in directions at right anglos to its longitudinal axis, or Q = welt — bh) = hdc dh 37) From the observed values of the experiment and the calculation of At, a8 given in Eq, (8.36), As can be computed from wath = 6.38) ‘The problem encountered in industry, as compared with experiment, i not to determine hy but to apply experimental values of hy to obtain Ay the heat-transfer surface. ‘The process flow sheet ordinarily contains the heat and material balances sbout the various items of equipment which onter into process, From these balances are obtainad the condi- tons which must be falilled by each item if the provess is to operate as a upit, Thws between two points in the process it may be required to raise the temperature of a given weight flow of liquid from t, to ta while another fluid is cooled from 7; to 7;. ‘The question in industrial prob- lems is te determine how much heat-transfer surface is required to fuldll these process conditions. ‘The clue would appear to be present in Eq. 8.38), except that not only 4, but also A; is unknown unless it hes been established by former experiments for identical conditions. Ta order to prepare for the solution of industrial problems it is not practical to run experiments on all Hiquide and under sn infinite variaty of experimental conditions so a5 to have numerical values of hy available. For example, h, will differ for a single weight flow of & liquid absorbing ‘identical quantities of.heat when the numerical values of f, and t, differ, since the liquid proporties are related to theso temperatures. Other factors which affect A, are those encountered in the dimensional analysis44 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘such as the velodity of the liquid and the Wiameter of this tube through ‘whichtheat transfer occurs, Tt ia here that the importance of the equa- tions obtained through dimensional analysis becomes apparent. If tho values of the exponents and’ coefficients of the dimensionless equation for extreme conditions of operation are established from experiments, the value of A; can be ealculated for any intermediate combination of velocity and pipe and liquid properties from the equation, ‘A typical ‘apparatas for the determination of the heat-transfer coef ‘jent Yo liquids flowing inside pipes or tubes is shown in Fig.3.7. The principal part 3s the test exchanger, which consists of a tostseetion of pipe enclosed by = concentric pipe. The annulus is usually connected ‘Foo. 87, Toa apparatus forthe fube tranaler cofBicient, to permit the condensation of steam for liquid-heating experiments or the rapid circulation of water Yor liquid-cooling experiments. The auxiliary exchanger is connected 10 perform the opposing operation of the test section and cools when the test section is used for heating. For a heat- ing experiment, oold liquid from the reservcir is circulated through the sirouit by « centrifugal pump. A by-pasa ie included on the pump dis- charge to permit the regulation of flow through the flow meter. The Tiquid then passes through a temperature-measuring deviee, such as a alibrated thermometer or thermocouple, where t, is obtained. 1 is taken at eome distance in the pipe before the test section, so that the temperatare-messuring device does not influence the convestion eddica in the test section itself. ‘The liquid next passes through the test section and snother unheated length of pipe before itis mixed and its temperature fis measured. ‘The unheated extensions of the test pipe aro raferred to ss calming sections, Next the liquid passos through a cooler where its tomnorature fg returned to 4. The annulus of the test section is con- convection “& sures than are obtained with steam), or uantity. presure of stan ean be adjusted by crore lacing valve cin he event tht the hesting vapor doos ot bare a well-established temper e-pressuro saturation curve, therm ometers be inserted in tho ahell. The temporntors of toa or turf of the hosted length of the pipe is obtained by attaching a number of these, couples about the pipe surface and obtaining their avorage temperature. ‘he thermocouples may be calibrated by circulating prchestod olf havay, the tube while the annulus outside the tost pipe is kept unde ene ‘The temperature at the outside of the test-pipe surface can the on be calculated from the uniform temperature of the preheated of nie: points must be safeguarded in the design of expert at experi Consistent reaults are expected. The covers a thePROCESS HEAT TRANSFER convEcrion 46 nad thermometere appest erowhere.? ‘The same is true of equations 19 aad ansfor id Bow through standard ores whon the properties of the BBRormocnowene| | qneseerennensos Hud vary. OSNSNSIABaSay | | NSacsehssdssees ‘Bvaluation of a Forced Convection Equation from Data. si ‘Anan example of correlation, date are given in Table 3.3 which, wel ir — sae py Morzia and Whitmant on keating gus ol and straw ll with EB AeBRERaS Sram in e #4-in. TPS pipe with a heated length of 10.125 ft. 4 adores ot iseecity data are given in Fig, 38 and are taken from the original bo. | Sarees Bs | cesusdugesada | | gegussggsstdges publication. ihe thermal conductivities may be obtained from Fig. 1, Pane aposige heate from ig. 4. Both are plotted in the Appendix s * Z fl g i i E soe q sane eee els) let ie. “= ape acieenSEAaaH | BESESRSRRATREAR tise ss 6 eo 2 deaes: emo + Viscosity, ASR SHARE s| gaeaggs: 1 esa yo 8 SPRARRRSEES [F| STRERSSRRRRASES | as pegegarecsens la] guggeeccasecage with *API as parameters. ‘The therial conductivity of the metal was "a SRZSeRRERSES || BRSSTSaRCESRE SS Tae ty Morrie and Whitman to be 85 Btu/(ar)((8)CH/10) and constants af | Geggegezeeeaacs | eee this higher than the valu gien.in Appondix Table 3. Onty uP? ; a a columns 2, 3, 4, and 5 in Table 3.3 were i F i Stout ture, °F F : |ge: 1S tee ri fn re on er SRBRRRERRRERE SSERRRA so te ine sdvanguanaaes| | Seaaeegnusgdaay «oe gict step in covreating & foroed convection equation isto determine ran tne data are in turbulent Bow, oherroe an attempted correlation By fea, (2.26) would be incorrect, In golumn 1 the Reytolds sonibe ‘using the diameter and flow area of a 4-in. IPS pipe qecene| | snneqeacaannaan fe = |pRegcgagaasaa| | seeseggsussesax have bese ibe found in Table 11. Fluid properties have boon obtained in . ve i" San) > rane mega temperature (+ )/2. ‘The Reynolds numbers all exceed B > | RSSR3Eese8288 | | S8S2RSSSGRSSE9 vet tf Pin Tempe Mewemmtradomiss | _ “Corporation, New York, 194, Pg jsaeseeneasacs sesacsssessshEd ‘kienoe and Industry,” Reinhold Publishing setaria, Hand W.G. Whitman, Jad. Eng. Chem, 80, 204 1908).“e PROCESS HEAT TRANSPER 2100. in substantiation of turbulent flow. Equation (3.26) iajgiven an P-GY@Y ONG MG, ‘and a, p, and g can be found algebraically by taking the date for three ‘test points, Algebraic Solution. This method of correlation is demonstrated by using the three ‘points B4, B12, and C12 in Table 3.3 which ‘include large range of AxD/k, DG/s, and ey/b as calculated presently from flow and Huid properties and tabulated in columns 9, 11, and 12. BP o(2Y (2) E a) Ne. C12; 191 = a(40,200)"(67.8)+ B12: 356 = a(25,560)9(32.9}¢ BA: 70.5 = a(4,620)9(41.4)¢ ‘Taking the logarithms of both sides, . 12: 2.2810 = log a + 4.0086p + 1.76199 Bid: 2.5514 = log a + 4 4065p + 1.51729 ‘BA: 1,9004 = log a + 3.6846 p + 1.61707 ‘Eliminating the unknowns one by one gives a = 0.00682, p = 0.93, and q = 0.407, and the final equation is 1 vam "(2)" ‘When tho equation is to be used frequently, it can be-simplified by fixing 4 98 the cube root of the Prandtl number and solving for new values of cand p, ‘The simplified equation would be aD fou) “F = 0.0089 es) ¢ Graphical Solution. For the correlation of a lange number of points the ‘gtaphical mothod is preferable. Rewriting Eq. (3.28), 2G) --GY oa which is an equation of the form yoo G40) CONVECTION 40 ‘Taking the logarithms of both sides, logy = log a + p log 2 On logarithmie coordinates the entire i a rou; /k)(eu/h)-* i nate y in Eq. (3.41), the Reynolde number fe fol Be ope oie ute when plotted as y vs. z, and a-is the value of the intercept when vill scatter when plotiod as y va. Tf gis assumet ton ‘will not scatter but will give w large deviation by producing oe Preparatory t0 a graphical solution, rn 1 in Table 9. wll evomuied completely from observed dnia lone, un Bl eonsiete of ata, fing a 36.8°API gas of! in s 3¢in. TPS pipe, sone ‘Observed test data: Woight flow of gas cil, w = 722 Ib/hr ‘Temperature of oil at pipo inlet, ty = 771° ‘Temperature of oil at pipe outlet, ts = 106.9°F Average temperature of outside pipe surface, tw = 210.1°F Physical data and calculated regulés: Heat load, Beu/hr: Average oil temperature 92.0°F Average specific heat, ¢ = 0.472 Btu/(Ib)(* @ = well, ~ 4) = 722 x 0.472(108.9 — 7) = 10,180 Btu/ar Tomperature of pipe at inside surface, i ‘ LD. of }4-in. IPS = 0.62 in; O.D, = 0.84 4 Length, 10.125 4; ourface, 1.65 ft!0 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER 1 condutiity of steal, 85 Btu/(ar) (CF /t) Qperta sb hs ‘x 1007 2 og BE = 2103 - gaa icin expression @ = hdc fal, Ais = 208.7 ~ 77.1 = 191.6" Ae atlet, As, = 208.7 — 106.9 = 10LSF 131.6 — 1018 a= Lae = 5 Tog (181.0/101.8) 150 hw gag retin ~ BUICNEENCE) conductivity of the ol will be considered constant at ‘The thermal 0.078 B/HNENETID. Numait number, Wu = 4 = 722, = 342,000 velocity, @ = 574 ~ GIF KOSTER IaH Mass velocity, @ = =pi74 = GIF XO: w/tayeee) vioooeity f Fig. 38 at 02°F is 8.22 contipoieos [gram-mass/100 Te Peer 822 x 242 = 7 sow ds number, Be = PS = 22 5,342,000 X 795 um a = 2280, dimensionless A 730 i Prandtl number, Pr = $= 9472 X78) — 47.2, dimensionless see ea of go 10 and 4 respectively. ‘tial: ja = Nu/Pr ~ 0.76 plotted in Fig, 3.9 & Bi dyn Nap = = 9.88 plotted in Fig, 3.10 os “aur of tft lin whieh oo ona oe = "2 /( ) amumed valun of ¢ = 1 ate plotted in Fig. 3.9 whete two distinct foe sacha tho cls. tis tho objent of = good correlation a ovide but ono equation for «large number of liquide and this oan be xe rplshol ty sdjurting the exponent of the Prandtl number, Sy vrei wn gH ad lng he odie je ="E-/(Z)» tin pole to obtain the singe line as shown in Fig. 3.10. By drawing Jog 084 = 208.7°F = 115.7F 8.86) 53.6 X 0.62 _ dimensionless CONVECTION 51 ‘the best straight line through the pointa of Fig. 3.10, the slope can be measured in the same way as on rectangular coordinates, which in this particular case is found to be 0.90. By extrapolating the straight line 5 1% | cS) 3 a § % 8 50} a 4 2.3 2% ae? a oo ele “Fag 56 oa s| +o 5 a4 4 os 3 oa] 2 ais 45 ae a a ‘eon Sa a ‘re, 88, Plo ol Re vm fu wih Pranddl Fro, 10. Plott Revs with Poa, exponent of 1.0, exponent of 34. Been dn with until the Reynolds number is 1.0, é value of « = 0.0115 is obtained as the intercept. ‘The equation for all the data is thus kee A value of ¢ = 0.40 would cause less bowing and s amaller deviation. ‘The correlation of data need not be confined to heating or cooling runs on gids separately. Ts entaly posle to combi both types of din into 1 single correlation, called the isothermal heat-transier equaticn, but the procedure involves an additional consideration which ia deferred until Chap. 5, Correlation of Fluid Friction in Pipes. When a fiuid flows in a pipe isothormally, it undergoes decrease in presmure. From Eq. (8.16) it in peen that for isothermal turbulent flow this pressure drop is a function of tho Reynolds number and, in addition, to the roughness of the pipe52 PROCKSS HEAT TRANSFER Rewriting Eq. (3.16) in dimensionloss form, p SP ged _ (Da) * AP = «(PS where J” is one of the dimensionless factors found in the literature to designate the friction factor. and AP is tho pressure drop in pounds per square foot, For conibination with other bydrodynamie equations it is more.convenient to use « ftiction factor f so that AP 29D a a@L Ret ‘When experimental data are available, it is thus convenient to obtain correlation by plotting f as a function of the Reynolds number and the conventional Fanning equation as shown in Fig. 3.11. The Fanning ‘equation comprises the fitst and second terms of Eq. (3.43) and is usually written as AF = AP/p where AF is the pressure drop expressed in feet of ae i= (8.43) co For the portion of the graph corresponding to streamline flow (Re < 2100 10 2300), the equation for the pressure drop may be deduced from theoretical con- (8.44) siderations alone and has been verified by experiment. The equation is 8 oF = GD an) By equating (8.44) and (8.45), since each applies at the transition point from streamline to turbulent flow, the equation of this line, known as the Hagen-Poiseuille equation, where f is used with Bq. (8.44), is 16 I= 3a, (8.48) ‘To the right of the transition region in turbulent flow there are two ines, one for commercial. pipes anid the other for tubes. ‘Tubes have ‘smoother finishes than pipes and therefore give lower pressure drops when all other factors aro the same. ‘This is not so of streataline flow where ‘the fluid at the pipo or tube wall is assumed to be stationary or nearly stationary and the pressure drop is not influenced by roughness. ‘The equation of f in Eq, (3.44) for fuids in tubes in turbulent flow is given by convacrion 3 Drew, Koo, and MeAdamst within +5 per cont by = 0.00 8.125, f= 000140 + app, (B70) For clean commerval iron and stel pipes an equation given by Win, 0.20 ‘ ous bm 77 oo oa = ae 003 are. Booz 3 oo Eco = e BE toe 3 4 oe ee Ta Pre 2.11, Prion taco fr Sow in ips aa ten ‘MoAdams, and Seltser* within +10 per cent is 0.264 ware Gaz; . ‘Tecan be seen that, if the transition fr streamline rbulent is given by Dup/u = 2300, approximately, then ‘he veloc which ‘pipe changes from streamline to turbulent flow is . | = t ¥or water flowing in a 1-n. IPS pips at 100°, the vicoityis 0.72 cent {Drew, T. B, B,C. Koo, and W. H. McAdams, Trane, eo72 4 BABS. H AICAE, 98, 56-72 (1932), can BBs W. H. MeAdasas, and M Selim Ind. Bop, Chon. ta toby f= 0.0085 +on PROCESS HEAT TRANSPER is gram-maas X 100 (em) (800) or 0.72 X 242 = 1-74 b/d) ie the fade datsetar of the pe 8 1.09, ot 1.00/12 = 0.091 ft sen = BOO ATE = 107 ths, 0.198 fps i ‘viscosity is 0.0185 X 2.42 = 0.0447 Ib/(ft)(br) sad ror ty w aperoinately (0.075 Ib/ft® ‘Then for the same pipe en = OD X SORT = 1100 Fee, 419 fs ‘Analogy. Both heat transfer and fluid ftietion in The ‘whereas theit streamfine- ‘turbulent flow have been treated empirically, & Sa a eng? a fd im amount W Ib/ar and epic host C 1 Read op, pp. I-85. CONVECTION 55 L +41 the temperature of the fuid is T, and the temperature at the inside surface of the pipe wall is, Of the total fluid flow along the axis cof the pipe, assume that m Ib/(hr){ft*) impinges on the pipe wall where its velocity falls to zoro and ite temperature approaches the temperature of the pipe wall, f,. Each particle of fluid which thus contacts the wall gives up ite axial momentum and upon returning to the main body of the fiuid has its axial momentum renewed at the expense of the energy of the main stream, The constant loss and renewal of momentum are the cause of tho pressure drop. The traction or drag on unit area of the pipe ‘wall is obtained by equating the drag on unit length of pipe wall to the product of the pressure gradient and the crose-tectional area of the pipe, which reduces to rade Gas) where vis the drag, Since the drag is assumed to be equal to the loss of momentum of the fuid, (3.49) ‘The rate of host transfer between the fluid and the wall is given by muncatnt mer did? ~ 4) = WOdT G0) from Eqs. (8.40) and (8.50) "= ae “5 (3.51) ‘In simple terms the last two members af Eq. (3.51) state Heat actually given up to pipe wall ‘Total heat available to be given up “_, Bomentam lost by skin friction to pipe wall, ~ ‘total momentum available = 4 constant ‘Rewriting Eq. (3.50) to include the heat-transfer coefficient, WOT = hper at — t) (80) Wear we _f foe Me sear =a) a BO EB) or in dimensionless form, oe . cd It is interesting to note in Eq. (3.53) that an equation has been obtained for the heat-transfér coefficient which involves the friction factor and56 PROCHSS HWAT TRANSFER ‘hich can be determined from an experiment in which no heat was trans- erred. Like most derivations which require a number of assumptions, ‘the use of Eq. (3.53) applies only to a staall range of fluids, particularly permanont gases. Tt was Reynolds as quoted by Stanton’ who predicted that:the coeffi- cient of heat transfer obtained irom Eq. (3.53) should bo affostod by the ratio of the thermal conductivity and viscosity of a specifie fiuid. While tho presence of the thermal conductivity suggests the influence of con- duction, it was observed experimentally that the entire cross aoction of a fluid in-turbulent flow is not turbulent. Tnstead. it has been found that ‘a laminar layet exisis near the pipe wall through which conduction must ‘ocour. Prandtl and Taylor? independently included this layer. Jf it is assumed that the layer has a thickness b and that the temperature of ite inner circumference is (', the hest flow per squaro foot of layer is, given by q~ Heat) crn) ‘where kia the mean conductivity for the layer. Assume that the transfer of heat and momentum is carried through this layer by molecular motion without disturbing its laminar low. ‘The inner surface of the layer moves wwith a velocity w’ in streamline flow, and writing (u — w’) for w in Eq. (3.58), QE —t) = ee (8.55) ‘From the definition of viscosity given by Eq. (3.4), r= § ~ (3.56) where » is the viscosity of the fluid in the layer. From Eq. (3.54), (4-2 md Bsn And from Eq, (8.55), py Wu) T= “a (8.58) Combining Eqa. (3.57) and (3.58), (8.59) r-1ne(+3-2) ‘Stanton, T. E., Phil. Trans. Roy. Sec. (London), A 190, 67-88 (1807). Prandtl, L., Phyoth Z., 9, 487-489 (1928). Taylor, G. 1, Brit. Ado. Comm. Aero., Repl.ond Meme 272 (1017). CONVECTION 87 ‘The corrected value of hy becomes ha peat @-O "wpe e Se) EtC-e Substituting r’ for the ratio w//u and eliminating r by means of Eq. (3.48), - pie ie er ec) Gon or in dimensionless form using ¢ for C jven i nome using ¢ for C and A for hy as usually given in the AS 1 BBP ST Gea) Equation (3.61) is the Prandtl modification of the Reynolds which is sometimes called the Prandi! analogy. ‘The dimentewe Prandtl group ¢x/k bas appenred earlier in this shapter, and when it is numerically equal to 1.0, Eq.-(8.61) reduces to Eq. (8.63). This is 3-8. The rate of cooling ofa hot solid in till ir hasbeen found Wo bo ; {be pei Bot c, thermal eonducvty deity and vonaly ot ihe rary Zength of the solid andthe temperature difference At between thé rufuoe of tha wlld58 PROCESS HRAT TRANSFER found to be * function of the viscosity 1, density ¢ and velocity «of the gas, and the diamoter D of the sphere. Ratablish an expression for tho presmre drop of the fluid ae ot cletae wanie af Be ‘25. The heating of gas oil end straw oil in « pipe bas been found for « }4-in, IPS pipe to follow Eq. (8.42). AD (Daye ‘a SP cons (2) (2) Tt is desired to circulate $600 Tb/hr of the 36.8°API gaa oil through 6 1-in. IPS pipe ‘while ite temperatare in raised from 110 to 130°F. In the absence of any additional cee ere oe atone coddcont he tin 1 pe How fee ont Sin tn uo rs oes quo pe ol Bove ‘Kim. IPB pipe as caleulated by the same equation? The dats will be found in the illustration in the chapter. ‘B.8. Using Bq. (3.42), it in desired to circulate 4000 lb /hr of amyl acetate through ‘3 3¢-in, IPB pipe while its temperature is raised from 180 to 150°F. (a) From date Laie enemas cre ruyual popes syste alee the heat-transier eosfficient, It may be meccasary to extrapolate some of the data, (b) ‘Do the sume for 6000 iip/hr of ethylene glyool in the same pipe when heated from 170 oer Ef only one point is given for a property, such as the thermal conductivity, and it is ear aa tenet hs ot ectalyarsunes ah lncor bri : ‘8.1. One }¢-in. IPS pipe 10.125 ft long Morris and Whitzoan reported the following for heating water in s pipe while steam is cireulsted on the outside. Note that ’, ‘the reported mass velocity, is not in consistent units. To/tooeyt) | | fF Be 1.6 | 381.5 0.5 2.7 | 180.3 ae 102.2 | 176.8 5 108.1 | 37.8 8 103.4 | 168.5 M5 105.0 | 185.0 168 107.2 | 168.8 im 100.7 | 104.6 00 198.5 | 160.1 aid 100.3 | 158.0 26 00.3 | 100.2 me 307.6 | 158.3 ‘Vivositien and oonductivition can be found ia the Appendix. Th speci heat and _pavity should be taken os 10, Ratablih an eguxtin ofthe form of Ba, (8.26) ing ‘ll the data, (inl, To sre time in the necotion of the exponent of tho Prandtl ‘munber, take three random point euch a theft, lat, and an intermediate one and ‘solve algebraically.) ‘32. On cooling a S5-8°API gas oil with water Morria and Whitman reported the following for 10.135 f of 34 TPS pipe: convection 59 FB eoch Ge) 82.6 15 SESE SSRRE EEE ‘The viscosity of the oil is 2.75 centipoises at 100°P and 1.06 omntipcises xt : on Sess seem ey nt errr neti Q n Sauation > ‘Eq, 8.26) using all the dein, Sey eRe av nea rwvorted the following for 10.125 ft of 3¢-in. IPS pipe: ad GF, Wiel] ty a ML 302.8 a8. a 07.8 194, 165 a7. 116, 2 188.7 | 193.2 | oo. . 252 0.5 | 190-1 | aa. a0 v2.3 | ims | 66.0 04 uso | 146] O68 at mag | zs7 | aa a aoe | usa | a7 a 6.1 | a0.6 | 292.9 485 saa} 100.5 | roz.8 505 4.9 | 13.8 | 75.4 58 im.o | 100.5 | o.8 on wie | 39.6 | m6 618 310.8 | 21-6 | 27.0 os mai | ams | i004 ora 124 | 0 | 93 me 106.6 | 382.7 | 1201. 761 97.6 \6) Eatablish an equation of the form of Eq. (3.26) for all the data. iwi ho Prk 010 oa oe Sandan or yea60 PROCRSS HEAT TRANSPER swtien the exponent of tho Prandl! nuthber is % and plot Rogethér with the-data for ‘the illustration inthe text on heating. What conchusion inay be'drawn? "2.10. Bioder anil Tale! obtained data.en the cooling of « 21°API oil owing on the inside of capper tube having an inside diameter of 0.62 in. and 5: ft long: ‘w,Ib/hr bE | & 1308 135.15 | 73.0 1330 162 | 740 100 18.5 | 76.5 1388, 170 | 75.8 281 19.6 | 77.0 20 18.45 | 78.0 ar ms.2 | 89.0 916 20.4 | 86.0 905 20:0 | 85.5 138, mao | 87.5 1300 wo | 87.5 1850 8.7 |. 88.5 1880 m0 | 90.6 20 wees | a5 85 18.05 | 77.0 1820 vw.o | 78 478 4.75 | 118.5 469 ws | 136.0 480 wo | 1870 ‘The temperature ty is for the inside surface of the tube. Insamuch aa these data fall below a Reynolis number of 2100, obtain an equation of the form of Eq. (3.82). The ‘viscosity of the oil is 24.0 oentipoizes at 200°F nnd 250 centipoises at 100°F, Inter ‘mediate visosities ean be obtained by drawing a straight line on logarithmic paper a4 shown in Fig, 38, (Tho hint of Problem 2.7 is applicable.) NOMENCLATURE FOR CHAPTER 3 Preasure drop, fof liquid ‘Rvietion factor in the Fanning equation, dimensionless Friction factor, dimensionless ‘Maze velocity, Tb/Ohe}t8) 1 Ini, Brg. Chem, 98, 1420-1435 (1996). A Heattranafer wurece, £4 Fluid flow area, ft! ‘Thickness of laminar layer, © Specific heat of hot fluid n derivations, Beu/(b)(*F) ¢—Bpscifc heat of cold fuid, Tta/(b)("F) D__Inside diameter of pipe or-tube, ft F Fundamental dimension of foree, force 1) ar £ r @ Peeee coNrECTION 61 Arotleration of gusty, het ‘eas yn, Bia eat-trander cote in general, Bru /ts)0("P) Heat-trnaercofiient bnsed on the inside pipe sursce, Bur) (8) Leactaraereoficont based on the oul pipe surface, Bla/ Con GO¥) tr for best tre, imental wemion fctor between Kiaele energy and heat, (asi) /Bta Gonveron ner btn a aad many mate fee Thermal conductivity, Beu/(e) 0 Toemal ty, Bau be) UC) ‘Fundamental dinession of tase, maaetb ‘Mint velocity parpendtslar to Inde pipe surtace, b/s) ety rae pe Hsp) Heat ow, Beufie ‘Thermal rrisdace on inside of pie, (hu) (09 8)/2bu ‘Theraal maltan on outa ofp ) coal Pipe, Gu) (9 CPY/Bta Ratio of 1/4, dimensioalsa Temperature of hot ful ‘Temperate of bot Bud indie a pipe, °F Temperature of iner surface of lamina eye, *F ‘Temperate of cold fi outaile «pipe, oF ‘Temperature at inide ates of a pipe, °F Temperature at outaida surface of «pipe, *F + Inland out gold Sid temperature, Tony diferent, °F rexperstue diference between Snede pipe Sid and inide pipe wal, “omperaturediferncebolweencvlalde pipe ula aad ‘elocity in gonora,fe/hr “ ous epe als Velo of laminar nee, ar Specie vtume, {0/76 Weight ow of hot fad far St fw of cl fd ye ants, 1 (yn ao used to indicate as wrt ondiaata) Any af several proportionality constants, dimensionless ‘Time, br 7 ‘Waouity, 1/410) Dimensions Density, thee Shear ere tt Fonction ‘Suporcsite Pq Constants Sbecipts (except as noted abore) ‘ inside a pipe or tube © — Ontaide pipe or tube BRS + PRORS RE pp “AMP ERSE steer eneCHAPTER 4 ‘RADIATION Introduction. All too often radiation is regarded as a phenomenon incidental only to bot, Iuminous bodies In this chapter it will be seen that this is not the case and that radiation, as a third means of trans- forring heat, differs greatly from conduction and convection. In heat conduction through solids the mechanism consists of an energy transfer through & body whose molecules, exceyt for vibrations, remain continu- ously in fixed positions, In convection the heat is first absorbed from a source by particles of fuid immodistely adjacent to it and.then trans- ferred to the interior of the fluid by mixture with it. (Both mechaniems require the presence of a medium to convey the-heat,from a soures to 8 receiver. ‘transfer does not requite an intervening ‘nd heat can be transmitted by radiation across an absolute vacuum) ‘Wavelength and Frequency. Tt is emveniont to mention the charac- teristics of radiant energy in transit before diseusing the origins of radiant enetgy, Radiant energy is of the same nature as ordinary visible Hight. It is considered, in accordance with( Maxwell's electromagnetic theory, to consist of an,cecillating electric fitkd scoompanied by a mag- netio field oscillating in pliase with it.) College physics texte usually the theory in detail. ‘"Sfhs variation with time of the intensity ofthe electro eld passing a given point can be represented by a sine wave having finite length from creat to crest and which is, the wwelengih. ‘The number of waves paming & given point in unit time is the frequency of the radiation, and the product of the frequency and wavdength is the velocity of the wave. For travel in a vacuum the velocity of propagation of radiation is very ‘nearly 188,000 miles/sce. For travel through a medium the velocity is somewhat loss, although the deviation is generally noglected. ‘The wavelength of radiation may be specified in any unite of length, but the micron, 1 X L0~‘em, is common. All the known waves included in the electromagnetic theory lis between the short wavelengths of comic rays, leas than 1 X 10-* micron, and thé long wavelength of radio sbovo 1X 10" mlerona. OF these, only waves in the region between the near and far infrared with wavelengths of 3{ to 400 microns are of importanco to radiant-heat transfer as found in ordinary industrial equipment. RADIATION 63 ‘The Origins of Radiant Energy. Radiant evergy is belioved to origi- nate within the molecules of the radiating body, the atoms of auch mole- cules vibrating in a simple harmonic motion as linear oscillators. ‘The cemistion of radiant energy is believed to ropresent a decrease in the ampli- ‘tudes of the vibrations within tho molecules, while an absorption of energy represents an increase, In its essence the quantum theory postulates that for every frequency of redistion thare is s small minimum pulsation of energy which may be emitted. This is the quantum, and a amaller ‘quantity cannot be emitted although many such quanta may be emitted. ‘The total radiation of energy cf a given frequency emitted by a body isan integral number of quanta at that frequency. For different frequencies, the muzabet of quanta and thus the total energy may be different, Planck showed that the energy associated with a quantum is proportional to the frequency of the vibration or, if the velocity of all radiation is considered ‘constant, inversely proportional to the wavelength. ‘Thus radiant energy of a given frequeney may be pictured 9s consisting of exccessive pulsos of radiant energy, esch pulse of which has the value of the quantum for a given frequency. ‘The picture of the stom proposed by Bohr is helpful to a clearer under- ° standing of one possible origin of radiant energy. Electrons are pre- suined to travel about the nucleus of an atom in elliptical orbite at vary- ing distances from the nucleus. ‘The outermost orbital electrons possess definite energies comprising their kinetic and potential energies, by virtue of their rotation about the nucleus, The potential energy is the energy required to temove an eloctron from its orbit to an infinite distance from. ‘the nucleus. A given electron in an orbit st given distance from the nucleus will have a certain energy. Should a disturbance oceur such a8 ‘the collision of the atom with another atom or eleetron, the given electron may be displaced from ita orbit and may (1) return to its original orbit, (2) pass to another orbit whose electrons possess a different energy, or (3) entirely leave the aystem influenced by the nucleus. If the transition is from an orbit of high energy to one of lower energy, the readjustment is affected by the radiation of the excess exergy. Another origin of radiant energy may be attributed to the changes in the energies of atoms and molecules themselves without reference to their individual electrons. If two or more nuclei of the molecule are vibrating with respect to each other, « change in the amplitude or smplitudes of ‘vibration will cause a change in energy content. A decrease in amplitude is the result of an emission of radiant energy, while an inerease is the result of the absorption of radiant energy. ‘The energy of a molecule may be changed by an alteration of its kinetic energy of translation or rotation, snd this wil Hewise romlt in the emiasion of radiant energy. (A decreaseot PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER in veldcity corresponds to the émission of radiant energy, whilean increase corresponds'to the absorption of radiant energy. ‘Sinee temperature is s measure of the average kinetic nergy of mole- ‘the higher the temperature the higher the average kinetic enorgy both of translation and of vibration. Tt can therefore be expected that ‘the higher the temperature the greater the quantity of radiant energy emitted from s substance.) Since molecular movement ceases com- pletely only at the absolute 2tro of temperature, it may be concluded that all substances will emit or absorb radiant energy provided the tempera laire of the substances is abovo shsolute zero. \For radiant energy to be emitted from the interior of a solid it must pénetrate the surface of the solid without being dissipated by producing other energy changes within its molecules. There is little probability that radiant energy generated in the interior of a solid will reach its sur- face without oncountering other moletulos, and therefore all rediant energy emitted from the surfacos of solid bodies is generated by energy- level changes in molecules near and on their surfaces, “The quantity of radiant energy emitted by a solid body is consequently a function of the surface of the body, and conversely, radiation incident on solid bodies is absorbed at the surface. ‘The probsbility that internally generated ‘radiant enorgy will reach the surface is fat greater for hot radiating gases ‘than for solids, and the radiant energy emitted by a gas isa function of the ‘gas:volume rather than the surface of the gas shape. In liquids the situ- ation is intermediate between gases and solids, and radiation may orig inate somewhat below the surface, depeading on the nature of the liquid. ‘The Distribution of Radiant Energy. A body at a given temperature will emit radiation of a whole tange of wavelengths and not a single wave- length, This is attributed to the existence of an infinite variety of linear osciliators. ‘The energy emitted at each wavelength can be determined through the use of dispersing prism snd thermopiles. Such measure- ‘ments on a given body will produce curves as shown in Vig. 4.1 for each given-tomporature. ‘The curves are plots of the intensities of the radiant, energy 1, Btu/ (hr) (tt?}(mieron) against the wavelengths in microns \ as ‘at numerdus wavelengths and connecting points. For any given'temperature ench curve possesses a Wavelength at whieh the amount of spectral energy given offis a maximum: ‘the same body at a lower temperature the maximum intensity of radiation is obviously less, but it is also significant that the wavelength at which the maximum occurs is longer, Since the curve for a single temperature depicts the amount of energy emitted for s single wavelongth, the aros under the curve must equal the sum of all the energy radiated by the body at all its wavelengths. ‘The maximum intonsity falls between 3 and 400 microns, indicating that RADIATION 65 red heat is a far better source of whit ii for this fact, the nearwhite Ireandstont any weak ree ne energy for illuainstion and give off uncomfortable quantities of wheat, ‘When dealing with the properties of radiation, itis necessary to differ- entiate between two kinds of properties: monochromatic and total. A. monochromatic property, such as the maximum values of f, in Fig. 4.1 refers to a singlo wavelength. A total property indiontes that it Ssh TTT T 7 | (nicron) £. =| © infentty of maachrona emis, tube KK B 8 OF I * ine. i % z i i a or neat 2 weletength microns Inns of monochromato radiation fr hat hoy deen temperate slgebraie sum of the monochromatic values of the proper shromatic radiation literally means “one ecler™ or exe wevelength et experimentally #t actually refers toa group of band of wavelengtts, ince vavelengths cannot be resolved individually. Monochromatie values are not important to the direct solution of engineering problems but wae ‘necessary for the derivation of basic Tadiation relationships, The Emissive Power, Tho total quantity of radiant energy af all wavelengths emitied by a body por unit area and time is the toot smseste power EB, Beu/(hr){ftt). If the intensity of the radiant energy at Wavelength in Fig. 4.1 is Z Btu/(or)(f*)(miioron), the total enlace, Power is the area under the curve and may be computed by ° Ea fTha (4.1)iy : 68 PROCESS HEAT TRANSPER A relationship between J, and ) was the subject of many investigations both experimental and mathematical during the nineteenth century. Planck was the first to recognize the quantum nature of radiant energy ‘and developed an equation which fite the spectral energy ourve of Fig. 4.1 at any temperature, It is given by n= oe, a2 where I, = monochromatic intensity of emissic ion, ‘Btu/(br) (ft) (micron) = wavelength, microns Cy and Cy = constants with values 1.16 X 10" and 25,740 T = temperature of the body, °R ‘Wien postulated another law known as Wien’s displacement law, which states that the product of the wavelength of the maximum value of the monochromatic intensity of emission and the absolute temperature is a constant, or WP = 2884 micron *R (43) ‘Equation (4.3) may be derived from Eq, (4.2) as follows, an, = a(,0,) -0 ao (-Bon-syeer — 1) + Carney SF = 0 ( 5+ Blom tsn0 43) By trial and orror, the firt term equals 5 when XT’ = 2864. ‘Spectral measurements of the radiation received on the earth’s surface from the mun and allowing for sbsorption by the atmosphere indicate that the peak J, lies approximately at 0.25 micron, which is well in theultra~ violet. This accounts for the high ultraviolet content of the sun's rays and the predominance of blue in the visible portion of the spectrum. The Toeation of the peak allows an estimation of the sun's temperature from Eq, (43) st 11,000°F. ‘The Incidence of Radiant Enezgy: The Black Body. The preceding iscuesion haa deatt, with the generation of radiant energy. What hap- pens when radiant energy falls upon a body? In the simple case of light it may be all or partially absorbed or reflected. If the receiving medium is transparent to the radiation, it will tranmnit some of the energy through iteclf, ‘The same effects are applicable to radiant energy, and an energy Ibalance about a reoeiver on which the total incident energy is unity is RADIATION 67 ven by atrtrad (48) where the absorptivity « is the fraction absorbed, the reflectinily r the frac- tion reflected, and the transmissivity + the fraction transmitted. ‘The majority of engineering materials are opaque substancos having sero trazismissivities, but there are none which completely absorb or reflect all the incident energy. ‘The substances having nearly complete or unit, aboorptivities are lampblack, platinum black, and bismuth black, absorb- ing 0.98 to 0.99 of all incident radiation. If an ordinary body omits radiation to another body, it will havo some of the emitted energy returned to itself by reflection. When Planck doveloped Eq. (4.2), he assumed that none of the emitted energy was returned, this was equivalent to an assumption that bodies having sero transmimivity also had vero reflectivity. ‘This is the concept of the perfect black body and for which a = 1.0. Relationship between Emissivity and Absorptivity : Kirchhof?'s Law. Consider a body of given size and shape placed within a hollow sphere of constant temperature, and assume that the air has been evacuated. After thermal equilibrium hag been reached, the temperature of the body ‘and that of the enclosure will be the same, inferring that the body is absorbing and radiating heat st identical rates. Let the intensity of radiation falling on the body be 7 Btu/(hx){ft*), the fraction absorbed a, and the total emissive power 5, Btu/(br)(ft*), Then the energy emitted by the body of total surface A1 is equal to that reosived, or ByAy = JasA; (An) \ Br = Ia (48) If the body is replaced by another of identical shape and equilibrium is again attained, Bs = Io as) If g third body, a black body, is introduced, then B= To 410) But by definition the absorptivity of a black body is 1.0, ks an anh (aul) or at thermal equilibrium the ratio of the total missive power to the absorptivity for all bodies is the same, ‘Thisis known as Kirchhoffslaw. Since the maximum absorptivity of the black body is talcen'as 1.0 from Eq, (4.8), ite reflectivity must be sero. Absolute values of the total8 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘omissive power are not obtainable, but Ey = aby (432) Ey = 0:8 (4.18) Brana a1) 2 =ase (4.15) ‘The use of the ratio of the actual emisaive power to tho black-body emis- sive power under identical conditions is the emissivity « Since it is the reference, tho emissivity of the black body is unity. ‘The emissivities of common materials cover a large range snd are tabulated in Table 4.1 ‘Emissivities are influenced by the finish or polish of the surface and ‘increase with its temperature. Highly polished and white surfaces generally havo lower values than rough or black surfaces. From Eq. (4.12) it can be seen that any body Having s high emissivity as a radiator will have a high absorptivity when acting asa receiver, ‘The usual state- ‘ment is gs follows: Good radiators make good absorbers, Esperimental Determination of the Emissivity. ~The experimental determination of the omissivities of moterials is particularly difficult at ‘high temperatures. The problems of mainteining a system free of con- duction, convection, and a radintion-absorbing medium require careful analysis, A method is given here which is satisfactory for the measure- ment of emissivities in the range of room temperatures and might be applicable to the calculation of euch problems as the lose of heat from a pipe to air by radiation alone, A hollow, opaque, internally blackened cylinder is maintained in a constant-temperature bath as shown in Fig. 4.2. A total radiation receiver is mounted by a bracket to the wall af the cylinder. ‘The radiation receiver consists of a copper eylinder a, which is blaokened on the inside and highly polished on the outside. Two extremely thia, blackened, and highly conducting copper dises b and 6” are moupted in the receiver for the purpose of absorbing radiation, By mounting the dises at equal distances from the top and bottom of the emall cylinder, the angles a1 and as are equal and the dises have equal areas for receiving radiation. ‘The lower disc receives radiation from the blackoned constant-temperature walls of the vessel. The upper dise receives radia tion ftom a plate of specimen matetial ¢ which is electrically maintained ‘at a fixed temperature. ‘The two discs are wired together by a sensitive thermocouple £0 thet they oppose each other, and-only net differences jn the quantity of radiation are measured by the gulvanometer. By ‘wiring thom to oppose each other, any effects within the receiver itself ‘aro also canceled. If the galvanometer deflection for the specimen non- RADIATION 69 black body is measured and then cis replaced by a perfect black body, the ratio of the two galvanometer deflections is the emissivity of the specimen. Data obtained in this manner are tho normal folal emizsivity as given in Table 4.1. ‘They may also be used in the solution of problems having hemispherical radiation except in the presence of highly polished surfaces “Fra. 42, Appatates for menvuring emislvitian, Influence of Temperature on the Emissive Power: Stefan-Boltzmann, Law. Ifa perfect black body radiates energy, the total radiation may be determined from Planck's law. Starting with the monochromatic black- hody equation it may be applied to sum up all the-onergy by integration of the aren under a curve in Fig. 4.1 or at a fixed temperature _ Oa B= (pay Labs = Our, = C/T, dh = (—Ca/Ta*) de, froxs which 4.18) ae — Its (an0 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER awe 41, ‘Tas Noman Tora, Taassverr or Vauious Soxrices (orrat) . “ (A, Metsis and Their Oxides ‘RADIATION ‘Tasca 4.1, ‘Tam Nomsas, Torat, Kacmarreee oF Vantous Sumracas (Horm) — ‘Burtace a-F* | Eminivity* 0.012 Atumimuze 0.089-0.057 0.685 Highly plate, 98.8% pure. “0.040 0.657 Eins. Oe oo oer Sed a ito oti a.9 ons Algurfeced rooGng- ie : 0.78-0.82 Sibel sarc i i eae a set amino | 0.69-0.87 0187-0.08 ‘os oe .028-0.051 080 088-0.087 ost 0.080, 085 oa 0.088 0.960.97 oon 0.018 0200.0 0.096-0,008 0:38-0:38, 0.00 2D 200-440 0.057-0.075 2 7 0.381 0.61-0.80 0 0.68 0:08-0.35, . ama | 0000.12 Melybdenuanfiaaeat. 7 1816-4700 | 0,006-0.ai2 o.ais Monn! metal, cxidned 2 110°. Beoaite| “oat Nickel oor leetroplaed on poised ion, then potiod.....) 4 ous 0-008 ‘echacaly pure (989% Ni, + Ma), polabed.-.-| 40-710 | 0.07-0.067 dsctroplaed on picked iro, not pobabed.-.....| eB ot 0.87.57 Base hating ab 118687. “osrese 0.66-0.54 Nickel oxide. . ” . 0.5-0.86 0:16-0:13 [Nickel alloys [rr 0.640.70 0.018-0.085 Nigkelin (16-82 Nij 65-68 Ca; 20 Zn) oxidized) 0.262 KAS alley (844 NI 18% Co, a ou | o4e0.90 oiaeo.er NEEBaley QMS C” Brows, wluiched,| veo 5 | 3 Ni: ). i 9.42 und Tom mv, 400-060 | 0,900.07 0.98 0,89-0.1 2a om 0.82 ®, 440-116 0.054-0.101 osso.e1 00-2000 | “9.39-0.39 : 20-2240 | 0.036-0:199 0:60-0.0 440-3510 |_ 078-0.RADIATION 73 ‘Tamu 43. Tam Nomus Tors, Exassrviry oy Vaxtous Soxracs (Horret)— {Continued 2 PROCESS HEAT TRANSPER qanun A, Tue Nowat Toran, Euresviry oF Vaniovs Saurscss (Horses) — Continued) nF? | Bovaivity® 440-3200 | 0.0198-0.0824 {oo-r00" | 0.0221-0:0512 2iao-siao | 0.194-0.81 Yo |0.0td and 6.004 80-0000 | 0.082-0,38 000 0.29 440-020 | 0,045-0.058 10 Ot 2 01203 i. 1% m8 _Babvanized sheet om gray ial, Paint, ond Mibellaneous _ = eS er Asbestos - ‘bowed. u 0.96 Paper 00-00 | 0.68-0,048 Back rough, bus no 0 0.99 iit alae, rot. we | oe Slice, slosed, rough. 2012 oss (Grom bie, gazed. a 075 oon Hn (Gebrader Siemans) 094% ab... ..-| 200-1160 | 0.81-0.70 ‘Tiss gurted wih emivty ab 200°F of 0.72 but og changed to values geen. catn taent en sooo-2s00 | 0.590 ‘Canc not. esa) | 0.982 Lampbiade iovaea | 0.050-0.007 Saas, BoOHO | 0.967-0.053 Thin ar) ‘0.08 se 8 0.067 roo zoo | 0045 " o Ose + on 2 ed ik oa oot or bincned plat] - 0: i " 2 ovoat palihed 7 0.895 os a 0.085 oar as on oe Biatace (i layers on aasinun fi ied i). Al foil. . . y 1 coat il. FR ooats off. Pata, Inequer, varie ‘Snove-white enamel varnish on rough irom plate... ‘Black shiny lacquer, sprayed on iron ‘Black abiny shellac on tinned iron sheet. Black matte shellac : Black Isequer..... Flat black lacquer... 2. il paints, 16 diferent, sll colors. ‘Aluminum paints and lacquers ‘Tard, glouy plate... Soft, gray, rough (reciaimed). ‘Sepestin, blab. Fe u % um apn ‘Nore. The rons of suay Invecnors hare boon cited beaase of chvious deena in tepei. swans "When wo iemperatayn asd wool are lve, they eeeopond rg to at to and cond to ‘eon, od neat laterplation be pari "anak he aac rculy gh tigi for cmparan with he date, by the tae ‘extor, to show the atfect of oil layers (00s Aluminum, part 4 of this table), eh teres© = DO — DO — Dg :peumyry @- DG - Da © 0 . Sa Pope soy p09 > — 1) — 1) — Da ipoumyor > — 1) — Dig paverper @ — 1g :poumyoR, fy PR ouoyd v0 are soued omg ogy ye soFTEqO OMT, “( — 1) — DT genome ou ang orwpSA UNS WON [a Tea HIG OY “Ej — T joayar poe ty quoeqy Ta Teak puoses omy “ AyawENO pus Ys yO ‘ae Jo 300} arunbs sod pea gery agp Aq porn wy ABsoue jr ony, “Povey 9q Wwe [Tea yous Jo WoREIPET OY ORE OPIUE Jo sTTRA om LOT “soos 97} 0} oq popes epurwurax Oty pu ‘pequoequ oq yum owe; 3x5 OT wou peyram ART oyR.jo omg “JUAN oq YM ABzous yo oawyoxs 900 ayy ‘sonlAweREe yuaIETP 9asy put seq] FowG jou ams sored om oR JI “sorpoq 3puIq 94 pode uowEnosp Surpocaud oy, “ANS ARMY SEVORIC JO BOUNTY [oTEIBG Oa], weemieq Ayoug po euwT Ganev /me o08'¢ = ioen) — sown) exvo ~ & ‘U0 = OOF + 008 = FL ALOFT = 09% + COOT = ty sone dempemen yoryrag « umyeywo oT 9pT00 oy HON PoACUTN og HME HOT eM oy ‘oorpoq owe are Cony Furumry _l.000T PEE 00g 70 Samyezedare yeTEVATOO Oy IF ar AINA odie] Sas om, roung ORie] OL Doaseg woREpTE “Ty OWN Gn L@ -@ |] 2ar0 = (ea) Ga ue = ag =F se somperadmno} 4um}Eu09 Ws poureyurenr woud og woadyeg 3005 arenbs sod oFuvyoxo you Oy) PUT oqlosge sf soatooer 3x ABrou9 amp ITs ‘Apoq yowIG & Jo TorUyep ou AT $y8'= "iq puosos oy} wor paw fy2 = My st yay om moss ABs009 ‘sorpog 3¥1q axe sauyyd so soyed ayy JO YROg JL “HEVOYrUspaNy sf FOALS ow} Jo sefipo omy 3940 pure somos oy} Jo seBpe oy} wory no SUB} OR ‘VOTE pes Jo guNoUrE oy yor) oF ‘ABre] APyUYUL are sound quMIpE JO a woleviava : jaar Ayenaydanoo of rns soya om FL n000 Tea 4E_ “apo o1n £4 PA} ‘emo oy soay BOLPERpEE 9 Te ORHAA F9PA ‘woRpHOS ot Mee gore aan eye uomper Uy [puss £r04 sy ooumerp 4eauS 98 pod 7 Huon "poms wor} WORURPES Ty POpI00 24 2a AE ive oa "scope ewe a0 seve Oy S428 x n= wy 8 peo ae) men a ~ Te ccnert -uoqooaano 026 1v WH ~ O Fem ae sae eac tay ones eaRoo eH 0} ATL on Fede 9 98:0 (OE) La prreBeeP oo pre ruven enh #7 HOEY GUL) /P ‘eymprcion SN NIEAGL Woy (err) WwoX Th ~F squat ve sno} 2835 on} yuo Poyorins pre wu yowe Rae 7 ay Qin Bho tester arte) B57 7! Ssomaryruared uy mazey oy Surpuvd HadSNVUL IVEH S9TOONE whPROCESS HEAT TRANSFER {2: — BAG — ) — FAs - «0 ~ }* = FAQ. = (0 = a = oe) + Lm Lede - Seat arn = @) ~ abl — 4) = a)? +] 4.25) Byis given by aot, Bs by eT, ond Bq. (4.25) is 8 series whose colution is s - $+ amram 42. -Radietion between Planes with Difterent Emissivition, Mf the two walls in Example 4.1 have oriiesivitiog of 0.6 and 0.8, rospootively, what ix the net exchange? Sekution: (4.26) @ 0178 — 26 = 1895 Btu (he) S = re Mies 1104 ~ 0201 see) For perfect block bodie the value was 2600 Btu/(hs)(Q). Radiation Interceptod by # Shield, Suppose ‘two infinite and parallel planes are separated by a third plane which is opaque to direct radiation bdotween the two and which is extremely thin (or haa infinite thermal conductivity) aa shown in Fig, 43, The net exchange between the two initial shied planes is given by Eq. (4.26). oA. o~ apyF Oa — = a bub # «, the net exchange from 1 to 3 is given by w hoo& qtt- 7) 42 oA 4 _ oA rs = 0 Gray area 9 = Gipay OTe A (4.28) ‘rom mish T= WT + 7) (429) ‘Then oA Lon - 4.30 = ways (430) When ¢: = «, Qi = 34@, and for the simple case where n shields are cnployed, each having the same emiasvities as the intit planes, 1 = 77e er RADIATION 7 where @ is the exchange if the initial planoa were not separated. Spheres or Cylinders with Spherical or Cylindrical Enctooures. The radiation between @ sphere and an enclosing sphere of radii ri and rs may be treated in the same manner as Eq, (£26). ‘The radiation emitted initially by the inner sphere is EiAy, all of which falls on Ax. Of this total, however, (1 -- :)B1A, is reflected of which @ (~ er inion Asand [3 - ¢) ] (1 - :)B:A; falls on Ay. If this analysis is continued as before, the energy exchange will again be represented by a geometrical seties and the net exchango between the innor and outer sphere is given by oAy oAy ae ¥ OT) = «rt 7 1 ee 1, Aft ath, 7) ataen) (431) ‘The samo rolation will be cen to hold for infinitely long concentric eylin- dors except that A1/Aa is r1/rs instead of ri/r8 ‘Radiation of Energy to a Completely Absorbing Receiver. In Fxam- ple 2.5, calculations were made on the loss of heat from a pipe to air. ‘When a heat souree is small by comparison with the enclosure it is custom- ary to make the simplifying assumption that-noze of the heat radiated from the source is reflocted to it. Tn such cases, Eq. (4.26) reduices to Q a 7 ett = TD (4.32) Sometimes it is convenient to represent the net effect of the radiation in the same form employed in convection; namely, Q = hrs ~ 1) (43) where hy is a fictitious film coefficient representing the rate at which the radiation passes from the surface of the radiator. The values of @ in ‘Haq. (4.82) and (4.88) are identical, but the value in Eq. (4.82) is related to the mechanism by which the heat was transferred. Eq. (4.83) is a statentent of the heat balance ss applied before in the Fourier equatior to conduction snd convection, Fishenden and Seunderg! have treatod a ‘number of interesting aspects of the subject. Yighendei, M., and O. A. Saunders, “Tho Calculation of Hent ‘Transminion,” ‘Wis Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1032.& 8 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER from s Pipe. In Example 2.5 the outside ems, srt nan mse ot erie was A "The heat loea by free convection and radiation was aie ce ne eee teen see cf. Sean rvch of the heat Ione waz due to radiation, and what waa the equivalent sohient of heat tranafer for the radiation alone? oon e = BRE x1 = ont ‘From Table 4.18, the emisivity is spproximstely 0.90. - = 585°R Tym 70 + 400 = 520R 0.0 KOBE 0 ITRLCABE oe — (HFfon)4 = 828 Bta/the) Gin a &. 525 ___ 3.98 Beu/(he)(t = ge ng” aamtias =H” HH BAIN three preceding ilustrations-bave been extremely limited. The study of vo planes was directed only to sources and receivers which were SaGaitely largo eo that every point on one plane could be connected ‘with every point on the second and no radistion from the one etry by which the radiation falls on the sur- faces and the manner in which those surfaces reflect their energy are difficult to evaluate. * ‘The cimplest elemente are treated here, but tiesi applications require the em- Fu 44, Raman bvomn Shown in Tig. 44. Tho two plates are not frost face-to-face and therefore have only an few of each other, The lower plate, represented isometrically se crvocial plane, radiates in all directions upward and outward. Some of the radiation from the surface of the hot plate, d, falls upon the seed plate but not perpendicular to it. ‘The second plate dA will RADIATION 9 reflect come of the incident energy, but only a part of it will return to the frat plate. What is the net exchange of energy betwoen the two? ‘The lines ¢o and eo’ are porpendiculars to the two plates, respectively, ‘on their mutually exposed surfaces. The length of the shortest. Ene joining the two plates at their centers is r. When viewed from of, a fore- shortened picture of dd, is obtained. Instead of isometrically, the plate dA, may be viewed from its end as in Fig. 4.5, where das is assumed perpendicular to the plane of the paper for simplicity, the line ab rerre- cents « side of a1, and the line a” reprosenta the width of ab in the view obtained from o'. Since eo and oo’ are mutually perpendicular to its ra. 46. Holid dangle, sides, angle aba’ must equal a, and the side a’ corresponding to dA{ is dA{ = dA, cos a. For the second plate, dé = dds 00s as. ‘Tho center of eurface dA{ may be considered to lie’in the hemisphere radiation from 4A,, and the quantity falling on n surface in the hemisphere consequently diminishes with the square of the radius. If both are black bodies, the radiation from plate I to plate 2s proportional to the normal surfaces exposed to each other and inversely to the equare of the distance between them. a2 = Raat aay aw where J; is the proportionality sb diensi equal to de intensty of radian Subang the eigiaal maces 401-4 =F coe a1 008 ay 2A: dds 35) ‘An important relationship exists between the intensity F,and the emiasive power E, In Fig. 4.6 let du; be the solid angle which ia by definition the intercepted area on a sphere divided by %. dA, is a emall plate in80 PROCESS HEAT TRANSPER the center of the isometric plane of the bese, ‘Then 2 gAy _ rsinads eda day = oe 7 = sin oda dp (4.36) From Eqs. (4.35), (4.354), and (4.36), sin coon ade fas (a7) (4.88) Substituting Eq. (4.38) in Eq. (4.35) tho net exchange between 7 and 7; is 4g meats antl Bs ery 7p (420) If 008 a cos ae @As/sr* is written Fy, FP is known as the configuration or geometric factor. For some systems it is very difficult to derive, but for 10 & Factor Fa = 0 t 3 ie or diameter Rotio- tance betneen planes Fro. 47, Radiation betwoen parlll panes. (Hole) several basic arrangements it is fairly simple, Hottel! has integrated a number of eases, the commonest of which are plotied in Figs. 4.7, 4.8 and 4.9. Equation (4.99) ean thus be written in integrated form Q=FAw(Tt - TD (4.40) \ Hottel, HC, Mech, Bag, #2, 600 (10980). RADIATION ra. 48, Radiat “a IN NO ze, SG SATS sD Dimension rai, ft on between tn element and m pare plane. (fatt) Dinersian 259 Be "a0. 35 ALE 8182 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER If the two surfaces are gray and.therefore nonblack, from Eq. (4.26) FiAw _ em ara ait aa) Writing F, for the emissivity correction, Eq. (4.41) becomes, Q= FP Aw(T— TD (4.42) "The summary in Table 4.2 gives the values of F, and F. for a number of the common cases derived here and elsewhere. Taus 42, Varina or Fa AND Fy Fa (@) Barfaco Ay small compared with the ‘totally enclosing surface As 1 Pa (@) Busacen As and As of parallel disor ‘squares, 2:1 rectangles, long. ree ‘angen retz| ae (@) Banove dA, and parallel rctanglar fares wih ono oman of Tee 344 prpntinte| “ Safater dvr Ay - ° faving vcommon ede |Fig. 49 |” ae (0 San sy of inte para smutce A of a completaly sao te vith oo Gancanicie spores of infinite co Satie eptain wth rao snd Ae at ‘Reamplo 44. Radiation from 1 Pipe to a Duct, Celeulate the radiation from a ‘bin, TPS etonl pipe oacrying steam af 300°F snd passing through the center of @ 1-by {ft galvanised shoctizon dct at 75°F and whoee outeide is inwalated. ‘Solution, From ‘Table 11 in the Appendix A ~ 0.632 {0 of external aurises per linear foot of pipe. The emiesvity of oxidised stool from Table 4.1 is « = 0.79. "Tho euince of the duct is Ax = 4 (1X1) = 40 tri ft. ‘The surface of the pipe in nat negligible by comparinan with that of the duct, and (of Table 22 aplin oat meal. ‘ex = 0.276 (oxidised sine in Table 4.1) : Fanl L (Table 4.2) re 4 - 000 © (Table 4.) TEC -) dete an) Q = FaFAa(T - T) (aaa) 21 x'0.00 x 0.622 x 0.178 X 10-*(760+ — 6359) ‘= 104 Beu Cor) Qin ft) RADIATION 33 PROBLEMS 44. A 2in. IPS ate! pipe carion steam at 325°F through a oom at 70°F. What decrease in rdistion occurs ifthe bare pipe is goated with 28 per cont aluminum paint? ‘42, One wall of corridar 8 by 28 by 4ft wide between & drying chamber and an coulside wall of the building ia nt 00°F, and the &- by 26 wall of the building will be 1 40°F during normal winter westher, What will be the heat passing scroes the tatidor in winter if the drying chammbe:ia surfaced with unglasod ales brick and the ‘building wall is plastered? ‘42. A chomber for hes-curing ste! sheets lacquered black on both siden opersies by paoning the shoets vertically between two steal plates Gt apart, One of the plates ‘nat 600° and tho other, exposed tothe stmouphere, it at 80°F. What het is frana- {ered between the walls, and what ie the temperature of the Ieequored sheet when ‘eqilibciom haa been resched? "44, A Bin, TPS lngred pipe carvis steam at 400°F through a room at 70°F. The Ingging coussts of » Hin, thick layer of aabesioe, Tao uno of an overcoat of 26 per cent suninu punt tobe invited, Wat percentage vagy in het lm an bo effected “4. A molten organic oompaund is carried in the smaller of two concentie steel pips 2 and Sn, 128, The annulus can be Sooded with steam to prevent slidifes- fion, or the liquid can be heated somewhat and circulated without steam ao that the annulus octs a6 an insulator. If the molten fuid is at 400°F and the outer pipe is at pom pera (°7), win eto oer rom he en mate in 4 3 408, Calculate the radiant-bant loa from a furnsce through a 2-in.diameter peep door when the inside temperature is 1750°F and the outside temperature in 70°F, ‘Consider the emimion dve to a black body. 1. A bare conereto purap house 10 by 20 by 10 ft high is to be heated by pipes laid in the concrete flor. Hot water isto be usod as the hesting medium to maintain 1 floor surface temperature of 76°F. Tha walls and ceiling are of such thickaees ws ssintain temperatures of 62°F on al inside surfuces in the winter. (2) What ie the rate of radiation beteen the foor and the ceiling ifthe walls are considered noneon- Gusting and rerndiating? ‘The pumps cover a negligible area of the Soor. (2) What ina eat bo required tho Boor aren i doubled by enlarging ihe rom to hy WAT ‘48, Absth of molten xin inlocated in the commer of the foor ef sine dipping roam 20 by 20 by 10 high, Zine melts af 787°F, and tho calling could be maintained at {90°F in the summer by conduction through the roof, (a) What heat will be rediatod feom » 1-6 batht (6) Ifthe bath is moved to the center ofthe room, what heat wil, bormdisted? NOMENCLATURE FOR CHAPTER 4 A Heat-transfor of emitting or abeacbing murtace, (0 A! Efctive eurtase, fet %, — Goomstrc factor, dimensionless . J Heat-tranafer coefficient equivalent to radiation, Btu/(hs) (7)PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER yeas) sect Pt, arn re fae fow or net heat exchange, Beu/(hr) ‘Raflectivity, dimensionless; rading, ft Temperate, R Angle, ‘Emiasivity, dimensionless ‘Wavelength, microns Sat an a0 “Tranomiasivity, dimensionless 104 Bua/HrN NCR Black body. Source Receiver CHAPTER 5 TEMPERATURE ‘The Temperature Diteronse, A temperate difference she diving sere by which Be transferred from pone Tat traveler afta which includes both a source and receiver is the immediate aubject for study. In the experimental data of Chap. 3 the temperature of the inside pipe ‘wall f, Was calculated from the reported value of the outside pipe-wall temperature f, The logarithmic mean of the differences f — t, and ly — ty was used to calculate Af. The reported temperature of the pipe was the average of a number of thermocouples which were not actually constant over the length of the pipe. It is not ordinarily possible in industzial equipment to measure the average pipe-wall temperature. the inlet and outlet temperatures of the hat. and gold Aids are kaowh"or-ent OE meatal ant ‘are, referred. (0 98 the procise tenperatures. Plots of temperature vs. pipe fength, ¢ vs. L, for a system of two con- centric pipes in which the annulus fluid is cooled sensibly and the pipe fluid heated sensibly sre shown in Figs. 5.1 and 5.2. When the two fluids travel in gpposite direotions along a pipe as in Fig. 5.1, they are in counterfine. . Figure 6.1 can be com with Fig, 3.6 to whieh it is a similar except that one is a plot of tvs. Land the other is a plot of t vs. Q, ‘the heat transferred. When the fluids traveliin the same direction ga in Fig. 5.2, they are in pargilél How. The temperature of the inner pipe fluid “In cither case varies according to one curve as it proceeds along the length of the pipe, and the temperature of the annulus fid varies according to Bis soo rersinde of in book the mbasik aware dec he ile aad mb seript 2 the outlet. ‘The cold terminal difference Af, or at ia given by Ta ~ ty and ‘the bot terminal difference Sts or Ah by Ts ~ ty. There aro two additional ters which are often used inindustry. ‘These nre the rangeand the approach. By “range” inmeant the actual teanperature rise'or fll, which for the bot tuid ia Ty ~ 7 and jor ‘the cold uid f ~The ‘spproach” haa two different mesnings deponding upon ‘Whether counterflow equipment euch aa concantrio pipes or other types of exapment are intended. Tor eounterflow the approsch isthe number of degrees between the hols fuid inlet ond eald-fuid outlet, 7 ~ fy or hot-uid outlet she cold fvid inlet, 7, — ty, whichaverisamaller. “Thus lowe approach means thet one terminal diffar: ‘ce wil be very smal significant factor in best transfer. The definition of approach for other typea of equipment wil be digcumed in Chap. 7, 8586 PROCESS HRAT TRANSFER a dl = i We wr — q emus , encountered ‘ic pipes, the inner pipe being very thin, the resintances se the pipe uid-ilm resistanee, the pipo-wall resistance, La/kq, and the ‘nnolus finid-film resistance, Since Q is equel to At/2R as before, awlyleyt 6.1) wBm=E+E+R, « where ZR is the overall resistance, It is customary to subetitute 1/07 for ZR whore U i conficient of i different areas pe aaa ire dh mua bo refered othe sana heatflow aro hey wll ‘hot coincide per unit length. If the outaide area A of the inner pipe is ‘teed, then hy must be multiplied by Ay/A to give the value that h, would hhave if originally calculated on tho basis of the larger area A’ instead of ‘Ay. For 8 pipe with s thick wall Eq. (5.1) becomes 1,28) De i 1 28D. Be gaat ae Det” Bape * Hee ‘The integrated steady-state modification of Fourier’s general equation may then be written, Qe uss (63) Peg h tk 6 TEMPERATURE 87 where Af is the temperature difference between the two streams for the entire surface A. Using the simplification that the thin metal pipe-wall resistance is negligible, Eq. (5.2) bocomes on Mamt on ‘Hereafter Eq. (5.3) will be referred to simply as the Fourier equation. Just as Ay was obtained from hy = Q/A, At, in Eq. (3.2) using thermo- ‘couples, eo U can be obtained from U = Q/A At using process tempera- tures alone. In experiments involving sensible beat transfer between two fiuide, Eqs. (5.2) and (5.4) can be used to obtain either individual film sient from the overall of the two respective streams are given, the total heat transfer @ Btu/hr in also given, being computed from Q = we(t, — 4) = WC(T: — T). ‘The Controliing Film Coefficient. When the résistance of the pipe ‘metal is small by comparison with the sum of the resistances of both fim {is small and the other very large, the amall coefficient provides the major resistance and the overall coeficient of heat tranafer for the apparatas is ‘very nearly the reciprocal of the major resistance. Suppose h,(A,/A) = 10 and he = 1000 Bta/(br)(t)((F) Ri = Ho = 0.1, Re = Koon = 0.001, and ZR = 0.101 A variation of 50 per cont in R, doos nob materially infiuence Q, since a value of h, = 600 will change ZR only from 0.101 to 0.102. 4 significant diforence exits, the smaller conficient is the veoh ‘Temperature Difference : Counterflow. Generally both uids undergo temperature variations which are not straight linea when temperatares are plotted against length asin Figs 5.1 and 6.2. At every point T — t between the two streams differs, yetrthis should lead to the same result as Eq, (8.36), in which the logarithmic mean tempere- ‘ture difference was obtained from a stady of T’ — tvs. @. However, there is an advantage to a derivation based on 7 — 1 va. L, einco it permits ff88 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER identification of the temperature diffetence anywheref long the pipe length, Leter, when more complex flow pate éocountered, this information witl bo essential. Althongh tworfuids may transfer heat {ns concentrie pipe apparséus in either counterflow or parallel flow, the relative direction of the two fluids influences the value of the temperature difference. This point cannot be overemphasized: Any flow pattem formed by two fluids must be identified with ite unique temperature difference. For the detivation of the temperature difference between the ‘to fluids of Fig.'5.] in counterflow, the following assumptions must be wr, 1, The overall coeficient of heat transler U is constant over the entire length of path. qaus Lone 2 ‘The pounds per hour of fluid flow is constant, obeying the stesdy- state requirement, 3, The spocific heat is constant over the entire length of path. 4, There aresno partial phase changes in the system, i.e., vaporization or condensation. ‘The derivation is applicable for sensible-heat changes and when vaporization or condensation is isothermal over the whole length of path, ~ 5. Heat losses are negligible. Applying the differential form of the steady-state equation, dQ = UT — ha" db (6.5) where a” is tho equare fect of surface por foot of pipe length or a! dm dA, From a differential heat balance 4Q = WCaP = we dt 68) where @ is the limit as-dQ varies from 0 to Q. At any point in the pipe from left to right the heat gained by the cold fuid ié equal to that given up by the hot fluid. ‘Taking a balance from L = OtoL = X WC(T — T:) = welt — 4) 6a from which T=T+ pat-%) (58) From Eqs. (5,5) and (5.6} substituting for 7’, + e-0-dean 9 = wea ~ o[ ) 7 TEMPERATURE 89 tand Liare’the only variables. Collecting terma of ¢ and L, Ua! ak adi = 69) [reat =1): ‘This right-hand term is of the form a 1 [Bean hoe 00 Integrating dL between-0 and L and dt between f, and t, _ we we val wont ($5 -1) we Fue we work 7 Want (5 —1)a ‘To simplify this expression substitute for Ts in the numerator th sion from Eq. (6.7), expand the denominator, and cancel terms (6.10) YALA we ~ GacJWC) 1 Te (6.1) Substitute for we/WC the expression from Ka. (8.7) mpce fh Tat Hea H RE 61D Since we(ls ~ 4) = Q and substituting Atz and At; for the hot terminal temperature differences T; — t and P; “* het and eld ~ ua (Saab en-us (ee 6.18) If the difference between the two terminals Als — Ats is writ positive then the ratio of the two terminals taken in the name orders nuneraly {renter than unity and any confusion due to negative signs logaithmie mean or og mean tamnesstas flea et Sgt vst a IMTD. Equation (6.13) srw [0 UA a= va xu (6.130) and ® Na At = LMTD = (= 4) = (Tr— 4) _ dt = bt T= TB) inane | O18)90 PROCESS HNAT TRANSFER Parallel Flow. Roferring to Fig. 5.2 for the case where both fluids flow in the same direction, the basic equations arc essentially the same, For the steady state, dQ = UCT ~ ta" ab but dQ = WCdT = —we dt . ‘since { declines in the direction of increasing values of 7. Taking the hheat balance between X and the left end, WOT — Ts) = wel - ‘Again considering the hot terininal diflerence Als = 71 — & athe groaler temperature diference in parallel flow snd Aty = Ts — ts the lesser tem- perature diference, the renult is (My - 4) = (T=) ‘te — Als QUAD (feat) ~ U4 in ath Tay (5.15) Relation between Parallel Flow and Counterflow. Tt may sppesr from the final form of the derivations for two flow arrangements that ‘there is little to choose between the examples which folloy demonstrate that except where one fluid is isothermal (euch as condensing ‘Soam) there is a distinct thermal disadsantage to the use of parallel flow. ‘Baample 6.4. Calcalation of the LMTD, A hot fuid enters s eonoontzio-pipe ‘apparatus at 0 temperature of B00°F and is to be cooled to 200°F by 1 cold uid ‘ehering at 100°F and hented to 160"F. Shall they be directed in parallel fow or "Solution, Ts io convenient to write the fn the form employed here snd to realise that the log mean ie always amowhat lees than the arithmetic menn wy (Ble + Ob) Counters: wh f OGamiatee saa paid Cold fit y (7) 300 — 180-444) = 190 (4) (72) 200 — 100 (h) = 100 (At) tate an aly = A, Ten = gfeSaofah FET es 7 SF @) Poralld foe: lot frid Cold fi (74) 00 — 300 (= 200 (84) (7) 0 — 1856) = 50 (an) 70 (a ~ a4) “MTD 3 = 108 * TB iog "Fe ~ ‘The LMTD for the same process temperatures in parallel flow is lower than for counterfiow. e 2 TEMPERATURE 1 ‘Bxample EA. Calealation of the LMTD with Equal Ontlet Temperatures. Abot {nid enters a concentro-pipe apparatus at 800°F and into be cooled 40 200°F by « {hid entering at 160°F ad heated to 200°P. * SoaMY bya cod (@) Costerfow: Ho fd Cold fui 70-200 = 100 (a4) m0 150 = 50 (aN) 36 (Als ~ an) Ia = 2 0) Paral fow: TVET Heb uid Cold uid 300-180 = 150 (a1) m0 = 20 = _ 044) TWO (tte — a) MTD © gy toes, = Baio tH? In parallel flow the of Hd tgmperstite were attained, the LMTD waold be.sero. equation Q = UA At, since Q and U are finite, the heat-transfer surface A would have to be infinite. ‘The last is obviously not feasible. ‘The insbility of the hot fluid in parallel flow to fall below the outlet ‘temperstare of the cold fiuid has a marked effect upon the ability of ‘spparatus to recover heat, Suppose it is desired to recover much heat as possible from the hot fluid in Example 5.1 by using the f mame quintities of hot and cold fuid as before but by assuming that ‘more heat-transfer surface is available. In a counterfiow apparatus it ia possible to have the hot-Sluid outlet 7 fall to within perhaps 5 or 10° of the cold-fuid inlet ¢, say 110°F. Tn parallel-flow apparatus the hest ‘transfer would be restricted by the cold-fiuid outlet temperature rather ‘than the cold-fiuid inlet and the difference would be the loss in recover- able hest. Parallel flow is used for cold viscous @uids, however, since err, ment the where the oe eat ieee vai " cane hot terminal di fn the preolitg seamless atthe grsier tonyeraiurediflerencs Keample 53, Calcaiation of the LMTD When ss hot fi ceed fm 5000 2007 ln ontario, #0 ad iat tom 00 216, Counterflow: Hel fuid Cold sid ‘0 25 = 2% (au) . 200 = 100 = 100 fax) 7 (the ~ At) © TMOD & sacs, = ASF92 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Lastly, when one of the fluids proceeds through the apparatus isother- nally (condensing steam), parallel flow and counterflow yield‘identical temperature differences. ‘Example 6.4. Catculaion of the LMTD with One Isothermal Fluid. A cold Quid 4 heated from 100 to 275°F by steam at 300°P. (0) Counterfow: Ht uid Cold fect 300-85 = 25 300 — 100 = 200 (0) Porat fous Het fluid Cold fit 390-100 = 200 30 m5 = 5 ‘Thewe are identical. Hereafter, unless specifically qualified, all temperature arrangements will be assumed in counterfiow, Many industriel types of equipment are actually a compromise between parallel flow and counterflow and receive additional study in later chapters. . ‘Heat Recovery in Gounterflow. Very often a counterflow apparatus is available which has given length L and therefore a fixed surface 4. ‘Two process streams are available with inlet temperatures 11, and flow rates and specific heats W, C end w,c, What outlet temperatures sill be attained in the apparatus? . ‘This problem requires an estimate of U which can be checked by the methods of succeeding chapters for different types of eounterflow heat- transfer equipment. Rewriting Eq. (6.12), wets = va Oe = = 8) Rearranging Mot UA{T%—% nga we Cao ) 6.16) Since WEP, ~ T2) = wells ~ t), we/WC = (Ta — Ta —3t). This means that the ratio of the temperature ranges can be established with- ‘out recourse to actual working temperatures. Calling this unique ratio Rewithout s eubseript pam Pints Substituting in Eq. (6.16) and removing logarithms, eearmes) 6.7) TEMPERATURE 93 "To obtain an expression for 7 alone. aah + -T: Substituting in Eq. (6.17) and solving, = CSR + fl ~ eeanoie ory, ™ Toke 18) For parallel flow it becomes ab erewoimnyD, + feearmmcesn — Ry th ee ie (6.19) 4 may be obtained from 7's by applying the heat balance WCU, — 72) = well ~ 4) ‘The Caloric or Average Fluid Temperature. Of the f ons used in the derivation of Faq. (6.14) for tho LMT, the one which naan jot to the lurgest deviation is that of » constant overall heat-transtes coefficient U. In the csleulations of Chap. 3 the film coefficient was computed for the propertis of the fuid at the stithmetic mean tempera. ture between inlet and outlet, although the correctness of this taleulation ‘was not verified. In fuidfluid heat exchange tho hot 19 heated. ‘There is a hot terminal 7, — fs and a cold terarin = ts end the values of hy and h, t the of the pi a pipe to produce anit earners ie ‘Bxample 6.5, Celeulation of and he. Calculation of point BO: a1 ya 2 tana: creating C2)" = (GERELE)” ~ Honore purtanencrmy (p= (W208 RAD og 4 0078 x gly x 0018 x25 58» 18 ana* PaocKss HEAT PRANereR outta 10027: eres 2” - Geese)” 9 ae (4) = (CBN as se = 0078 x gly 0018 x 300 x 3.9 » 10a edt ‘At the arithmetic mean (114.3°F) h = 1745, which is only 3.6 per eat in arror of the tal valve of 182 but the varistions againet A. at the arithmetic mean are (Bilt) = “nena (8 = seo ‘Fro the above it is seen that under actus} conditions the variation of U may be even greater than that of A; alone, since the outside film cocffcient A, will vary at the same time and in the seme direction as hy. ‘The variation of U ean be taken into account by numerical integration di Q, tho heat transferred over incremental lengths of the pipea”dL = dA, nd using the average values of J from point to paint in the differential equation dQ = U.dA Af. The summstion from point to point then gives Q = UA At very closely. This is a time-consuming method, and ‘the inorenso in the accuracy of the result does not warrant the effort. coefficient which is the true mean rather than the arithmetic mean. Assume: 1. The variation of Y is given by the-expression U = a'(1 + 0/4) flow Over the whole transfer path Q = WOT: — Pr) = welt — 4) Since R = we/WC = (T, — Ts)/(ta — 4) oF generalised as in Fig. 6.1, (TT, ao The heat balance for the differential area dA is given by dQ = UT — had = wedt Colburn, A. P,, Ind. Eng. Chem., 98, 873-877 (1083). TEMPERATURE 95 where {is the average value for the inctement or de a4 (r= we Since U = a'(1 + 0/0), substitute for U, _ dt ai PEF UNT = * ie From the heat balance obtain the for P stot il expression for P in terms of ¢ and (R=) a wear flay Be ]-f 4 ; 62) Integrating, 1 Me-Ri+(@—-My_ +H) _ A ears Prt | i MT FP ee (6.21) ‘Using the subscript 1 to indicate the cold terminal and 2 the hot terminal heretofore H=cAte) real hs = o'( h) a(l + bh) she M—& the Tb and fnatoring Eq. (6.21) hob Ua A Trai = Uri Dyas, ~ we (620) Combining with Q = we(ts — th), Qian ~ Tyan . 4” in TRU, th, 628) Equation (6.28) is modification of Faq. (6.13) which accounts for vacation of U by replacing it with Us and Uy, where d= Dand don, respectively. This ia still unsatsfastory, however, since it requires twice ‘aloulsting both individual fl coaficieats to obtain U, and Us. Gol, burn chose to obtain a single overall coetiicient, U,, at which all the Suen an be gard tbe tranfaing haat he SEED, Ui ten Q _ Dia — Wat = G> irayotas~ %(Hatt) oan98 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Substituting Us = 01 + V4), a(t + b'6) Ay — a’ + Bh) Ah AIG F BAA + YE) AH (5. y5) a le Be in Bta/Aty Yea a Tht) = il tified by finding é, the temperature ‘of the properties west sd bear ie od ase a whigh such value of U, eit Let F, be a fraction, By multiplying ‘the temperature rise a e on trating (fm) stream by Fe and adding the reculting fraetfonal tke te te lower terminal feraperstare ofthe stream, a temperature ie obtained SN Fish to evstuate heat transfer proportes and osleulate hi, hey Bn U. ato (6.26) bot nth Kore Or and substiuting the equivalents in Eq, (6.25), Kt PopRe Kea) from which ake) thre =) A a0 7 - WE eK Gay 1+ Te? ‘Equation (6.27) hes beon plotted in Fig. 17 in the Appendix with Uy - Ui Ua Ue Ke= yarameter dh ref to the cold and hot terminals, ws the parame SS aton Prem be ted fom Be 17 by computing K, from Us and Us and Mte/ ta for the process conditions. ‘The caloric temperature of ‘the hot fluid Ty is T, = 12+ FAT: — T) ($28) and for the cold fuid bat + Pla - 4) (6.29) Colburn in the i of K, where the shes correlated in the insert of Fig, 17 the values of Ky ‘conirlling fim is thet of a petrolecm cut, A correlation of this type opr _TRMPERATURE 7 be made in any industry which deals with a perticular group of fluids by obtaining a’ and b’ from properties and eliminates the calculation of Us end U. Tf an apparatus transfers beat between two petroleum cuts, the cut giving the largest value of K. is controlling and can be used directly to establish F, for botb streams from the figure. Thus, whenever there is a sizeable difference between Uy and U, the LMTD is not the true temperature difference for counterflow, The LMTD may be retained, however, if suitable value of U is employed to compensate for its use in Bq, (6.18). Example 86. Calculation f the Calorie Temperature. A 20°APT crude ail is cooled from 900 to 200'F by heating cold 60°APT gasoline fromm 80 to 120°F in a countesfow apparatus. At what fiuid temperatures abould U be evaluated? Solution: Shalt Taber 20°APT crude: GOAT pasol Crude, 7, — Tr = 900 — 200 = 100°R, X, = 0.68 from Fig, 17 insert Gasoline, ~~ 120 — BD = 40°F, K, 5.0.10 ‘The larger vaiue of K, correeponds tothe controlling heat-transfer coeSigient which is sanumed to extablish the variation of U with temperature. ‘Then. =9 atom Si O7 Fe = O25 from Fig. 17 Caloric temperature of crue, 7, = 200 + 0.425(300 — 200) = 243.5°F, Calorie temperature of gasoline, , = 80 + 0.428(120 ~ a0) = 97 0'F. It should be noted that there can be but oae caloric mean and that the factor Fy ‘splice to both streams but is determined by the controling stream. ‘The Pipe-wall Temperature, ‘The temperature of the pipe wall can be computed from the caloric temperatures when both hy and A are known. Referring to‘Fig. 5.3 it is customary to neglect the temperature Aigerence acrots the pipe metal t. — t, and to consider the entire pipe to be at the temperature of the outside surface of the wall (If the out- tide caloric temperature is T, and the inside calorie temperature t, and A/Rie = Bie = Bi(As/A) = he X (ID/OD), where the subscript io refers98 (PROCESS HEAT TRANSPER to the value of the coofficient inside the pipe referred to the outside sur- face of the pipe. at nk 4 530) Om sem RFR Re (630) ‘Roplacing the resistances in the Int treo terms by fm confclents, Tok bb The Fie Whe Bolving for te de — 6.31) pant EO @an “ bs (632) anne ‘When the hot fluid is inside the pipe these become eet eee o (5310) and (5.32a) wan ee. Isothermal Representation of Heating and Cooting. In streamline flow when 2 fluid flows isothermally, the velosity distribution is assumed ‘tobe parabolic. When a given quantity of q- ‘uid is hoated aa it-travels along a pipe, the vi~ ‘cotity near the pipe wall is lower than that of the balk of the fluid. ‘The flubd near the wall trav- cle at a faster velocity than it would in isother- ‘mal flow and modiGes the parabolic velocity % = ty onal ume 4 Ting, ng sd Het sti distribution as indicated by the heating curve in Fig 5.4. If the liquid Gtribution tern: The ful nea tho wall ows st lower velociiy than in isothermal flow, producing the velocity distribution indicated for cooling, For the liquid to flow more rapidly at the wall during heating some of the liquid near the center axis of the pipe must TEMPERATURE 90 flow outward toward the wall to maintain the increased velocity. ‘This js « radial velocity component which actually modifies the nature of the streamline flow. If data for heating an oil in » given temperature rango are plotted as in Fig. 3.10 together with data for cooling the oil in the same temperature range, two families of pointa are obtained. ‘The data on heating give higher heettransfer coufficients than those on ‘Colburn! undertook to convert both heating and cooling data to a single Jeothermal line, He was able to employ a basic equation of the form of Eq, (8.32) by multiplying the right-hand term by the dimensiones ratio viscosity at an arbitrary film temperature defined for streamline flow by ty = ter + Hille — te) (6.38) and for turbulent flow by fy = be + Bille — he) 634) Sieder and Tate* undertock the correlation of a large quantity of data in tubes, rather than pipes, and obtained s dimensionless factor (j5/1=)"" ‘where im is the viscosity at the tube-wall temperatare Sieder and Tats correction, Eq. (3.82) for streamline flow becomes F-(A@GPE — Equation (8.26) for turbulent flow becomes #0) @)'@) 620 By incorporating the ‘correlation factor for heating and cooling in this ‘manner A single curve is obtained for both heating and cooling, sinos the ‘value of 4/n» is greater than 1.0 for Liquid heating and lower than 1.0 for iquid cooling. Inasmuch as the visoositios of gases increase rather than decrease with higher the.devintions from the isothermal ‘velocity distribution are the reverse of liquids. PROBLEMS. & concentric-pipe hest-transfer apparates having lin. IPS mner pipe ‘the film coefficient hy has been computed to be 10.0 Btu/(hr}(t!)("). By suitable calculation thres diferent uid, when cirelated through the annul. will sve fla ‘oefinieats of 10., 200, snd 200, respectively. Nogieatng th rsiriauce ofthe pipe, how does the value of the annulus coefficient affect the value of the overall coefficient? ‘SA. (a) For valves of by = 100 and A, = 600, what error rengjts in the ealelated value of U for a rie-pipe heat-transfer apparatus having a 210. IPS inner Pipe when the motal resistance is obtained from Ba = La/End ianlead of (28/2ck.) 1Gotbar, AP, Troms. ATCRE, 9, 176-210 (10983). ‘*Sieder, E. N., and G. E. Tate, Ind. Eng. Chem., 98, 1420-1436 (1936),‘LIBRARY UNTVERSITI TEKNOLOGI PETRONAS 100 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER {log D1/Ds and wher the pipe reslatince is orpifted entirely. (6) What aro tho errore ‘when the coefficienté are hy.~ 10,and 3, = 50? ‘8. Calculate: the:LMTD for} "the following,casos in-whigh the hot © (aid ia cooled from 200 to a0"F land the cold Suid, heated though an equal range in ‘each case, is (2) 00 t0'140°F, (8) 80 to130°F, hnd (c) 60 to IO"F. Observe the mature. ‘of she digintion of the LMTD from the arithmetic means of ihe two terminal difer- ‘ences in each case. A. hot fluid in oled from 245 to 296°F in cash ange. Compare the advantage of counterfiow over parallel flow in the nigoiof fie LMTTD whan o cold Suid is to be ‘heated from (a) 286 to 220°F, (6) 125 to 210°F; and (¢) 50.to"136°F. ‘KB, 10,000 tb/prof cold bensene jp hestéd tinder preamure from 100°F by cooling “soo i rot seca x OLGNP, Treat transfor wil coeur in conomtriepipe apenas bang w 1}¢n. TRS ine go 240° ong. ‘Teets on similar equipment transferring heat between the same liquids indicatea that a value of U = 120 based on the outside surftes of the inver pipe may be expested. (a) What outlet temperatures may be expected in counterion (2) What outlet tamperabures aay be expected in parallel dow? (e) If part of the conceatrie-ppe is removed Jeav- ing only 100 fin ff, what outlet temperatures may be expected in counterfiow? 5.6, Bensene id to be heated in s concamtrie-pipe apparatur-having « 13(-in. IPS ‘inser pipe from 100 lo 140°F by 8000 Ib7hr of nitrobenzene having an initial temper- ature of 180°F. A value of U = 100 ciny be expected bused on the outaide surface of ‘the pipe. How much odld bensenetcan be heated in 160 li ft of concentric pipo (e) in counjerdow, @) in parallel fow? (Hin. "TVia-and-oror solution.) "ET. -Ailine is to be cooled from 200 to 1502F fa coucentrie-ppe apparetas having “TO It} of externa! pipe surface by 8600 lb/hr of toluene entering at 00°F. A value of 1 m=:75 maayrbo anticipated. How much hot anilio san ke cooled in ovunterBow? 4.8. In a counterflow concentric-pipe apparatua scliquid is eooled rom 250 to :200°P by heating another froti100-10:225°F. ‘The value of U;, at the cold terminal, a calculated to be 50.0 fromthe proportion at the cold terminal, and Us at,the' hot ‘termizial is ealoulated to bo 66.0. At what fluid temperatures should U be computed {9 exprei the overall heat ntoafor forthe eative apparatus? ‘8. Ine couterfiow concentric pipe apparatun squid ia cooled from:250 to 60°F “by heating anether from 126 to 160°F. The val of J; atthe ood terminal in 83 and at the hot terminal U, ia 58, At what liquid ¢emperstures should U for the overall, ‘transfer bo computed? “40. Thecaleulation of the oaloris tempersturys can be accomplished directly by evalusting o’ and ¥ in U = a'(1 +)sfor a given temperaturé:rangs. If the hot liquid in Prob. §.8 always provides the contzoliing film coefficient, what are the numerical values of the constants a! and b'? ‘B.L. A-AO°APY keropene is coololi from 400 to 200°F by heating 24°API crude oil from 100 to200"F, Between what caloric temperatures is the heat transferred, and how do these deviate from the mean? {6.12 A 25° API distillate used as heating.il is cooled from 400 t0 B00°F by fresh ‘SB°API disttlats heated fro 200 to 800°F, “ Botwoon whet caloric. temperatures ir ‘dhe oak ao these from the mesa? ‘NOMENCLATURE YOR CHAPTER 5 ‘Heat-tranoter murteee or srorfane of pipes, ft? ‘External pipe surface per foot of length, tt ew Constants in the equation:U = a'(1 +0) TEMPERATURE 101 z Constanta “Spore het of hot uid in derivations; Rix/0b)(7F) Spbeife heat of cold Guid, Btu/)() “ode diameter af pipe, ft ‘Gari fraction, dimensionless [ i i F | ' 3 3 MuAd/A, inside fm conficient referred to outside surface, Btu/ Gx) Ge9CF) Cabrio nto Sine ‘Therinal conductivity, Btu/thr)9CF/At) Length, ft ‘Log mean temperature diferenct, °F Heat flow, Btu /he Ratio of we/WC = (1 — T0/(h ~ 4), dimensiontons Overall resistance to hent fow, Gu)}t3(°F)/Bta ‘Ratio of cold to hot terminal diferences, dimensionless ‘Temperature of the hot Suid, "F Galoric temperature of hot fuid, ‘Hot-Guid inlet and outlet temperatures, respectively, “¥ ‘Temperature of tho oold Sid, "F Galorio temperature of cold Hid, F ‘Fila temperatare in Eqs. (6.88) and (6.34), + Inside pipe-wall emperature, “F Tesespnes ymegers Freorysa a & = 3 E z E i emperatures,reapectively, °F ‘Temperature diferense ats point or mean over au area, ‘F ‘empertaediference a th nd and ot terminal rptivty, ‘Seca oma ta te gr in general, Bt, recall cofilnt of heat toner coll and os stn, Bia/du)(it)CF) u, Valuo of 7 at fe Btu (ar) t0)CF) ¥ Weight Sow of hot fini, To fbr * Weight Sow of cold aid, b/hr e ‘Propottionalty constant, dimensionless * ‘isoosity at mean or eaoric temperature, Ib/(t) (he) wa SR Re E geste” Constante + Subscripts (except as noted above) ‘ Inside a pipe or tube ° ‘Outside a pipe or tube . fo ‘Value based on inside of » pipe or tube referred to the outaide of ‘the tube.