The Periodic Table C

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The Periodic Table of the Elements

Created by: Paul Morlang of Schenectady, New York
Designed at: Dragin My Feet Software - 2014

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Elements
Contents 3
The Periodic Table
8
Hydrogen H 1
9
Helium He 2
13
Lithium Li 3
16
Beryllium 19
Boron B 5
22
Carbon C 6
25
Nitrogen N 7
30
Oxygen O 8
33
Fluorine F 9
36
Neon Ne 10
39
Sodium Na 11
42
Magnesium Mg 12
45
Aluminium Al 13
48
Silicon Si 14
52
Phosphorus P 15
56
Sulfur S 16
59
Chlorine Cl 17
63
Argon Ar 18
66
Potassium K 19
68
Calcium Ca 20
71
Scandium Sc 21
74
Titanium Ti 22
77
Vanadium V 23
81
Chromium Cr 24
84
Manganese Mn 25
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Iron Fe 26
Cobalt Co 27
Nickel Ni 28
Copper Cu 29
Zinc Zn 30
Gallium Ga 31
Germanium Gm 32
Arsenic As 33
Selenium Se 34
Bromine Br 35
Krypton Kr 36
Rubidium Rb 37
Strontium Sr 38
Yttrium Y 39
Zirconium Zr 40
Niobium Nb 41
Molybdenum Mo 42
Technetium Tc 43
Ruthenium Ru 44
Rhodium Rh 45
Palladium Pd 46
Silver Ag 47
Cadmium Cd 48
Indium In 49
Tin Sn 50
Antimony Sb 51
Tellurium Te 52
Iodine I 53
Xenon Xe 54
Caesium Cs 55
Barium Ba 56
Lanthanum La 57
Cerium Ce 58
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Praseodymium Pr 59
Neodymium Nd 60
Promethium Pm 61
Samarium Sm 62
Europium Eu 63
Gadolinium Gd 64
Terbium Tb 65
Dysprosium Dy 66
Holmium Ho 67
Erbium Er 68
Thulium Tm 69
Ytterbium Yb 70
Lutetium Lu 71
Hafnium Hf 72
Tantalum Ta 73
Tungsten W 74
Rhenium Re 75
Osmium Os 76
Iridium Ir 77
Platinum Pt 78
Gold Au 79
Mercury Hg 80
Thallium Tl 81
Lead Pb 82
Bismuth Bi 83
Polonium Po 84
Astatine At 85
Radon Rn 86
Actinium Ac 89
Thorium Th 90
Protactinium Pa 91
Uranium U 92
Neptunium Np 93
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Plutonium Pu 94
Americium Am 95
Curium Cm 96
Berkelium Bk 97
Californium Cf 98
Einsteinium Es 99
Fermium Fm 100
Mendelevium Md 101
Nobelium No 102
Lawrencium Lr 103
Rutherfordium Rf 104
Dubnium Db 105
Seaborgium Sg 106
Bohrium Bh 107
Hassium Hs 108
Meitnerium Mt 109
Darmstadtium Ds 110
Roentgenium Rg 111
Copernicium Cn 112
Ununtrium Uut 113
Flerovium Fl 114
Ununpentium Uup 115
Livermorium Lv 116
Ununseptium Uus 117
Ununoctium Uuo 118
Group 1 Elements
Group 2 Elements
Group 3 Elements
Group 4 Elements
Group 5 Elements
Group 6 Elements
Group 7 Elements
Group 8 Elements
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Group 9 Elements
322
Group 10 Elements
323
Group 11 Elements
324
Group 12 Elements
325
Group 13 Elements
326
Group 14 Elements
328
Group 15 Elements
330
Group 16 Elements
331
Group 17 Elements
332
Group 18 Elements
333
Alkaline Metal Elements
335
Earth Metals
335
Non - Metals
336
Nobel Gases
336
Actinoids 337
Lanthanoids 337
Semi Metallic
338
Transition Metals
339
Transactinides 340
Period 1 Elements
342
Period 2 Elements
343
Period 3 Elements
344
Period 4 Elements
345
Period 5 Elements
346
Period 6 Elements
347
Period 7 Elements
349
Alphabetical List
351
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The Periodic Table

of the Elements
The Periodic Table of the Elements was created to fill a need. I went to the public library looking for a book about the Periodic Table and could not find one, not one. The
purpose of the book was to get information about the Periodic Table so i could create
a software program called aPeriodic Table. Ive wanted to do this for about 19 years so
in 2007 i was diagnosed with a terminal disease and given 1 year to live. After living
through that year and another one after that i decided accomplish something with
the rest of my life.
I taught myself Java and wrote the program aPeriodicTable. It can be downloaded at:
https://kickass.to/aperiodictable-t9575525.html or http://aperiodictable.webs.com/
The program aPeriodic Table comes in two sizes 1280x720 and 1920x1080. It is written
in Java, so you will need Java installed on your computer . Version 1.5 through 1.8 will
work. One thing that is very important is that it needs to be installed at C:\aPeriodicTable otherwise it will not work. With all that it should run any operating system like
Windows, MacIntosh or Linix.
Then with all that information and still living i decided to do more. I made a Periodic
Table.pdf and a Periodic Table.swf and i am working on the .epub version.
I am hopeful that the trend continues, the staying alive part i mean. If so i plan to
create new educational software. Like Electrical Formulas, Physics Formulas and Math
Formulas.
You can e-mail me at: draginmyfeet@gmail.com
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Hydrogen
Hydrogen (Latin: hydrogenium) is the chemical element in the periodic table that
has the symbol H, atomic number 1 and atomic weight of 1.00794. It is a Non-metallic gas.
Name: Hydrogen
Symbol: H
Atomic number: 1
Atomic weight: 1.00794
Standard state: gas at 298 K
CAS Registry ID: 1333-74-0
Group in periodic table: 1
Group name: (none)
Period in periodic table: 1
Block in periodic table: s-block
Colour: colourless
Classification: Non-metallic
At standard temperature and pressure it is a colorless, odorless, non-metallic,

univalent, highly flammable diatomic gas. Hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant element in the universe. It is present in water and in all organic compounds
and living organisms. Hydrogen is able to react chemically with most other elements. Stars in their main sequence are overwhelmingly composed of hydrogen in
its plasma state. This element is used in ammonia production, as a lifting gas, as an
alternative fuel, and more recently as a power-source of fuel cells.
In the laboratory, hydrogen is prepared by reaction of acids on metals such as
zinc. For production in large scale commercial bulk hydrogen is usually manufactured by decomposing natural gas. Electrolysis of water is a simple although inefficient method. Scientists are now researching new methods for hydrogen production. One of them involves use of green algae. Another promising method involves
the conversion of biomass derivatives such as glucose or sorbitol, which can be
done at low temperatures through the use of a new catalyst.
Notable Characteristics
Hydrogen is the lightest chemical element with its most common isotope consisting of just a single proton and electron. At standard temperature and pressure
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conditions, hydrogen forms a diatomic gas, H2, with a boiling point of only 20.27and a
melting point of 14.02Under exceedingly high pressures, like those found at the center of gas giants, the molecules lose their identity and the hydrogen becomes a liquid
metal (see metallic hydrogen). Under the exceedingly low pressure conditions found
in space, hydrogen tends to exist as individual atoms, simply because there is no way
for them to combine; clouds of H2 form and are associated with star formation.
This element plays a vital role in powering the Universe through the proton-proton
reaction and carbon-nitrogen cycle. (These are nuclear fusion processes that release
huge amounts of energy through combining two hydrogen atoms into one helium
atom.)
The Hydrogen Atom

A hydrogen atom is an atom of the element hydrogen. It is composed of a single negatively charged electron, distributed around the positively charged proton which is
the nucleus of the hydrogen atom. The electron is bound to the proton by the Coulomb force.
Applications
Large quantities of hydrogen are needed industrially, notably in the Haber process
for the production of ammonia, the hydrogenation of fats and oils, and the production of methanol. Hydrogen is used in hydrodealkylation, hydrodesulfurization, and
hydrocracking.
Other uses:
* The element is used in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid, welding, and the reduction of metallic ores.
* It is used in rocket fuels.
* Liquid hydrogen is used to perform cryogenic research, including superconductivity studies. * Since hydrogen is fourteen and a half times lighter than air, it was once
widely used as a lifting agent in balloons and airships. However this use was curtailed
when the Hindenburg disaster convinced the public that the gas was too dangerous
for this purpose.
* Deuterium, an isotope (hydrogen-2) of hydrogen, is used in nuclear fission applications as a moderator to slow down neutrons, and is also used in nuclear fusion reactions. Deuterium compounds have applications in chemistry and biology in studies of
reaction isotope effects.
* Tritium (hydrogen-3), produced in nuclear reactors, is used to construct hydrogen
bombs. It is also used as an isotopic label in the biosciences and as a radiation source
in luminous paints. Hydrogen can be burned in internal combustion engines, and a
fleet of hydrogen-burning cars is maintained by Chrysler-BMW (see Hydrogen car).
Hydrogen fuel cells are being looked into as a way to provide power with lower emissions than hydrogen burning internal combustion engines. The low emissions of hydrogen in internal combustion engines and fuel cells is offset by the polution created
by hydrogen production.
History
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Hydrogen (French for water-maker, from Greek hudr, "water" and gennen, "generate") was first recognized as a distinct substance in 1776 by Henry Cavendish. Cavendish stumbled upon it when experimenting with acids and mercury. Altough he
wrongly assumed that hydrogen was a compound of mercury (and not of the acid),
he was still able to describe many of hydrogen's properties quite accurately. Antoine
Lavoisier gave the element its name and proved that water was made of hydrogen and
oxygen. One of its first uses was for balloons. The hydrogen was obtained by mixing
sulfuric acid and iron. Deuterium, one isotope of hydrogen, was discovered by Harold
C. Urey by distilling a sample of water multiple times. Urey received a Nobel Prize for
his discovery in 1934. In the same year, the third isotope, tritium, was discovered.
Occurrence
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, making up 75% of normal
matter by mass and over 90% by number of atoms. This element is found in great
abundance in stars and gas giant planets. Relative to its great abundance elsewhere,
hydrogen is very rare in the earth's atmosphere (1 ppm by volume). The most common
source for this element on earth is water which is composed two parts hydrogen to
one part oxygen (H2O). Other sources include most forms of organic matter (currently
all known life forms), coal, fossil fuels and natural gas. Methane (CH4), which is a byproduct of organic decay, is an increasingly important source of hydrogen.
Compounds
The lightest of all gases, hydrogen combines with most other elements to form compounds. Hydrogen has an electronegativity of 2.2, so it forms compounds where it
is the more non-metallic and where it is the more metallic element. The former are
called hydrides, where hydrogen either exists as H- ions or just as a solute within the
other element (as in palladium hydride). The latter tend to be covalent, since the H+
ion would be a bare nucleus and so has a strong tendency to pull electrons to itself.
These both form acids. Thus even in an acidic solution one sees ions like hydronium
(H3O+) as the protons latch on to something.
Hydrogen combines with oxygen to form water, H2O, and releases a lot of energy in
doing so, burning explosively in air. Deuterium oxide, or D2O, is commonly referred to
as heavy water. Hydrogen also forms a vast array of compounds with carbon. Because
of their association with living things, these compounds are called organic compounds, and the study of the properties of these compounds is called organic chemistry.
Forms
Under normal conditions hydrogen gas is a mix of two different kinds of molecules
which differ from one another by the relative spin of the nuclei. These two forms are
known as ortho- and para-hydrogen (this is different from isotopes, see below). In
ortho-hydrogen the nuclear spins are parallel (form a triplet), while in para they are
antiparallel (form a singlet). At standard conditions hydrogen is composed of about
25% of the para form and 75% of the ortho form (the so-called "normal" form).
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The equilibrium ratio of these two forms depend on temperature but since the ortho
form has higher energy (is an excited state), it cannot be stable in its pure form. In low
temperatures (around boiling point), the equilibrium state is comprised of almost only
para form.
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Isotopes
Hydrogen is the only element that has different names for its isotopes. The symbols D
and T (instead of 2H and 3H) are sometimes used for deuterium and tritium, although
this is not officially sanctioned. (The symbol P is already in use for phosphorus and is
not available for protium.) 1H The most common isotope of hydrogen, this stable isotope has a nucleus consisting of a single proton; hence the descriptive, although rarely used, name protium. 2H
The other stable isotope is deuterium, with an extra neutron in the nucleus. Deuterium comprises 0.0184-0.0082% of all hydrogen (IUPAC); ratios of deuterium to protium
are reported relative to the VSMOW standard reference water. 3H The third naturally-occurring hydrogen isotope is the radioactive tritium. The tritium nucleus contains
two neutrons in addition to the proton. 4H Hydrogen-4 was synthesised by bombarding tritium with fast-moving deuterium nuclei. 5H In 2001 scientists detected hydrogen-5 by bombarding a hydrogen target with heavy ions. 6H Not yet discovered. 7H
In 2003 Hydrogen-7 was created article at the RIKEN laboratory in Japan by collided a
high-energy beam of helium-8 atoms with a cryogenic hydrogen target and detecting
tritons-the nuclei of tritium atoms-and neutrons from the break up of Hydrogen-7,
the same method used to produce and detect Hydrogen-5.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia and webelements
Helium
Helium is the chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol H, atomic
number 2 and atomic weight 4.002602 It is a Noble gas element.
Name: Helium
Symbol: He
Atomic number: 2
Group name: Noble gas
Block in periodic table: p-block
Colour: colourless
Helium is a colorless, odorless, tasteless chemical element, one of the noble gases of
the periodic table of elements. Its boiling and melting points are the lowest among
the elements; except in extreme conditions, it exists only as a gas. The second most
abundant element in the universe, significant amounts are found on Earth only in
natural gas. It is used in cryogenics, in deep-sea breathing systems, for inflating balloons, and as a protective gas for many purposes. Helium is not toxic and has no biological effect.
Helium: Physical Properties

Melting points of the chemical elements displayed on a miniature periodic tableMelting point: 0.95 [or -272.2 C (-458 F)] K
Boiling points of the chemical elements displayed on a miniature periodic tableBoiling point: 4.22 [or -268.93 C (-452.07 F)] K
Density of the chemical elements displayed on a miniature periodic tableDensity of
solid: 214 kg m-3
History
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Helium was first detected in 1868 as a bright yellow line in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the Sun, by French astronomer Pierre Janssen during a solar eclipse in
India. The same year, English astronomer Norman Lockyer also observed a previously
unknown yellow line in the solar spectrum and concluded that it was caused by an
element unknown on Earth. He and English chemist Edward Frankland named the element with the Greek word for the Sun, helios. In 1895, British chemist William Ramsay
isolated helium on Earth by treating cleveite with mineral acids. These samples were
identified as helium by Lockyer and British physicist William Crookes. It was independently isolated from cleveite the same year by Swedish chemists Per Teodor Cleve
and Nils Langlet.
In 1905, American chemists Hamilton Cady and David McFarland discovered that helium could be extracted from natural gas. In 1907, Ernest Rutherford and Thomas Royds
demonstrated that an alpha particle is a helium nucleus. Helium was first liquefied by
Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in 1908 by cooling the gas to less than one
kelvin. It was first solidified in 1926 by his student Willem Hendrik Keesom. In 1938,
Russian physicist Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa discovered that helium-4 has almost no
viscosity at temperatures near absolute zero, a phenomenon now called superfluidity. In 1972, the same phenomenon was observed in helium-3 by American physicists
Douglas D. Osheroff, David M. Lee, and Robert C. Richardson.
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and constitutes nearly a quarter of the mass of the universe. It is concentrated in the
stars, where it is formed from hydrogen by the nuclear fusion of the proton-proton
chain reaction and CNO cycle. According to the Big Bang model of the early development of the universe, the vast majority of helium was formed in the first three minutes after the Big Bang.
However, the concentration of helium in the Earth's atmosphere is only 1 part in
200,000, largely because most helium in the Earth's atmosphere escapes into space
due to its inertness and low mass.
All considerable helium on Earth is a result of radioactive decay. The decay product is
found in minerals of uranium and thorium, including cleveites, pitchblende, carnotite, monazite and beryl. There are also small amounts in mineral springs, volcanic gas,
meteoric iron.
The greatest concentrations on the planet are in natural gas, from which most commercial helium is derived. The principal source in the world is the natural gas wells of
the American states of Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas.
States
Under standard temperature and pressure, helium exists only as a monatomic gas.
It solidifies only under great pressure, the variation of which can drastically change
the volume of the solid. Below its boiling point of 4.21 kelvin and above the lambda
point 2.1768 kelvin, the isotope helium-4 exists in a normal liquid state, called helium
I. Below the lambda point, it begins to exhibit unusual characteristics, in a state called
helium II. Less is known about such properties in the isotope helium-3.
Reactions
Helium is chemically unreactive under all normal conditions. With electric glow discharge or electron bombardment, however, helium can form compounds with tungsten, iodine, fluorine, sulfur and phosphorus.
Isotopes
Although there are eight known isotopes of helium, only helium-3 and helium-4 are
stable. The others, radioactive, rapidly decay into other substances. The most common isotope, helium-4, is produced by alpha decay from heavier radioactive elements;
its nucleus is an alpha particle. It is an unusually stable nucleus because its nucleons
are arranged into complete shells. There is only a trace amount of helium-3 on Earth,
produced from the beta decay of tritium.
Abundance
Helium is the second most abundant element in the known universe after hydrogen
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Lithium
Lithium is the chemical element with symbol Li, atomic number 3 and atomic weight
of 6.941. It is a Alkali metal.
Name: Lithium
Symbol: Li
Atomic number: 3
Standard state: solid at 298 K
Group name: Alkali metal
Colour: silvery white/grey
Classification: Metallic
In the periodic table, it is located in group 1, among the alkali metals. Lithium in its
pure form is a soft, silver white metal, that tarnishes and oxidizes very rapidly in air
and water. It is the lightest solid element and is primarily used in heat transfer alloys,
in batteries and serves as a component in some drugs known as mood stabilizers.
Lithium is the lightest metal and has a density that is only half that of water. Like all
alkali metals, lithium reacts easily in water and does not occur freely in nature due
to its activity, nevertheless it is still less reactive than the chemically similar sodium.
When placed over a flame, this metal gives off a striking crimson color but when it
burns strongly, the flame becomes a brilliant white. Lithium is a univalent element.
Applications
Because of its large specific heat (the largest of any solid), lithium is used in heat
transfer applications. It is also an important battery anode material due to its high
electrochemical potential.
Other uses:
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* Lithium salts such as lithium carbonate (Li2CO3), lithium citrate, and lithium orotate are mood stabilizers used in the treatment of bipolar disorder. Lithium may also
have antidepressant effects.
* Lithium chloride and lithium bromide are extremely hygroscopic and frequently
used as desiccants.
* Lithium stearate is a common all-purpose high-temperature lubricant.
* Lithium is an alloying agent used to synthesize organic compounds, and also has
nuclear applications.
* Lithium is sometimes used in glasses and ceramics including the glass for the 200inch telescope at Mt. Palomar.
* Lithium hydroxide is employed to extract carbon dioxide from the air in spacecraft
and submarines.
* Alloys of the metal with aluminium, cadmium, copper, and manganese are used to
make high performance aircraft parts.
* Lithium niobate is used extensively in the telecoms market, such as mobile phones
and optical modulators.
* The high nonlinearity of lithium niobate also makes a good choice for nonlinear
applications.
History
Lithium (Greek lithos, meaning "stone") was discovered by Johann Arfvedson in 1817.
Arfvedson found the new element within the minerals spodumene and lepidolite in
a petalite ore, LiAl (Si2O5) 2, he was analyzing from the island Uto in Sweden. In 1818
Christian Gmelin was the first to observe that lithium salts give a bright red color in
flame. Both men tried and failed to isolate the element from its salts, however.
The element was not isolated until W.T. Brande and Sir Humphrey Davy later used
electrolysis on lithium oxide. Commercial production of lithium metal was achieved in
1923 by the German company Metallgesellschaft AG through using electrolysis of molten lithium chloride and potassium chloride.
It was apparently given the name "lithium" because it was discovered from a mineral
while other common alkali metals were first discovered from plant tissue.
Occurrence
Lithium is widely distributed but does not occur in nature in its free form. Because
of its reactivity, it is always found bound with one or more other elements or compounds. It forms a minor part of almost all igneous rocks and is also found in many
natural brines. Since the end of World War II, lithium production has greatly increased. The metal is separated from other elements in igneous rocks, and is also extracted from the water of mineral springs. Lepidolite, spodumene, petalite, and amblygonite are the more important minerals containing it.
In the United States lithium is recovered from brine pools in the dry Searles Lake, in
California, and from places in Nevada and elsewhere. The metal, which is silvery in appearance like sodium, potassium and other members of the alkali metal series, is produced electrolytically from a mixture of fused lithium and potassium chloride. This
metal cost about US$ 300 per pound in 1997.
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Isotopes
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Naturally occurring lithium is composed of 2 stable isotopes Li-6 and Li-7 with Li-7
being the most abundant (92.5% natural abundance). Six radioisotopes have been
characterized with the most stable being Li-8 with a half-life of 838 ms and Li-9 with
a half-life of 178.3 ms. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are
less than 8.5 ms or are not known.
The isotopes of lithium range in atomic weight from 4.027 amu (Li-4) to 11.0438 amu
(Li-11). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, Li-7, is proton emission (with one case of alpha decay) and the primary mode after is beta emission (with some neutron emission). The primary decay products before Li-7 are element 2 (helium) isotopes and the primary products after are element 4 (beryllium)
isotopes.
Lithium-7 is one of the primordial elements (produced in big bang nucleosynthesis).
Lithium isotopes fractionate substantially during a wide variety of natural processes,
including mineral formation (chemical precipitation), metabolism, ion exchange (Li
substitutes for magnesium and iron in octahedral sites in clay minerals, where Li-6 is
preferential over Li-7), hyperfiltration, and rock alteration.
F rom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia and webelements
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Beryllium
Beryllium is the chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Be, atomic number 4 and atomic weight of 9.012182 It is a Alkaline Earth Metal.
Name: Beryllium
Symbol: Be
Atomic number: 4
Group name: Alkaline earth metal
Colour: lead grey
A toxic bivalent element, beryllium is a steel grey, strong, light-weight yet brittle, alkaline earth metal, that is primarily used as a hardening agent in alloys (most notably,
beryllium copper).
Notable characteristics
Beryllium has one of the highest melting points of the light metals. The modulus of
elasticity of beryllium is approximately 1/3 greater than that of steel. It has excellent
thermal conductivity, is nonmagnetic and resists attack by concentrated nitric acid.
It is highly permeable to X-rays, and neutrons are liberated when it is hit by alpha
particles, as from radium or polonium (about 30 neutrons/million alpha particles). At
standard temperature and pressures beryllium resists oxidation when exposed to air
(although its ability to scratch glass is probably due to the formation of a thin layer of
the oxide)
Applications
Beryllium is used as an alloying agent in the production of beryllium copper. (Be has
the ability to absorb large amounts of heat.) Beryllium-copper alloys are used in a
wide variety of applications because of their electrical and thermal conductivity, high
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strength and hardness, nonmagnetic properties, along with good corrosion and fatigue resistance. These applications include the making of: spot-welding electrodes,
springs, non-sparking tools and electrical contacts.
Due to their stiffness, light weight, and dimensional stability over a wide temperature range, beryllium-copper alloys are also used in the defense and aerospace industries as light-weight structural materials in high-speed aircraft, missiles, space vehicles and communication satellites. Thin sheets of beryllium foil are used with X-ray
detection diagnostics to filter out visible light and allow only X-rays to be detected.
In the field of X-ray lithography beryllium is being used for the reproduction of microscopic integrated circuits. Because it has a low thermal neutron absorption cross
section, the nuclear power industry uses this metal in nuclear reactors as a neutron
reflector and moderator.
Beryllium is also used in the making of gyroscopes, various computer equipment,
watch springs and instruments where light-weight, rigidity and dimensional stability
are needed. Beryllium oxide is useful for many applications that require an excellent
heat conductor, with high strength and hardness, with a very high melting point, and
that acts as an electrical insulator.
Beryllium compounds were once used in fluorescent lighting tubes, but this use was
discontinued because of berylliosis in the workers manufacturing the tubes (see below). It is expected that the James Webb Space Telescope will have a beryllium mirror.
Because JWST will face a temperature of -240Celsius (30 Kelvin), the mirror is made
of beryllium, a material capable of handling extreme cold better than glass. Beryllium
contracts and deforms less than glass and thus remains more uniform in such temperatures.
History
The name beryllium comes from the Greek beryllos, beryl. At one time beryllium was
referred to as glucinium (from Greek glykys, sweet), due to the sweet taste of its salts.
This element was discovered by Louis Vauquelin in 1798 as the oxide in beryl and in
emeralds. Friedrich Whler and A. A. Bussy independently isolatated the metal in 1828
by reacting potassium on beryllium chloride.
Occurrence
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rainwater. As the precipitation quickly becomes more alkaline, Be drops out of solution. Cosmogenic Be-10 thereby accumulates at the soil surface, where its relatively
long half-life (1.5 million years) permits a long residence time before decaying to B-10
(boron). Be-10 and its daughter products have been used to examine soil erosion, soil
formation from regolith, the development of lateritic soils, as well as variations in solar activity and the age of ice cores.
The fact that Be-7 and Be-8 are unstable has profound cosmological consequences as
it means that elements heavier than beryllium could not be produced by nuclear fusion in the big bang. Moreover, the nuclear energy levels of beryllium-8 are such that
carbon can be produced within stars, thus making life possible. (See triple-alpha process and big bang nucleosynthesis).
Precautions
Beryllium ore, Beryllium and its salts are toxic substances and potentially carcinogenic. Chronic berylliosis is a pulmonary and systemic granulomatous disease caused
by exposure to beryllium. Acute beryllium disease in the form of chemical pneumonitis was first reported in Europe in 1933 and in the United States in 1943. Cases of
chronic berylliosis were first described in 1946 among workers in plants manufacturing fluorescent lamps in Massachusetts. Chronic berylliosis resembles sarcoidosis in
many respects, and the differential diagnosis is often difficult.
Although the use of beryllium compounds in fluorescent lighting tubes was discontinued in 1949, potential for exposure to beryllium exists in the nuclear and aerospace
industries and in the refining of beryllium metal and melting of beryllium-containing
alloys, the manufacturing of electronic devices, and the handling of other beryllium-containing material.
Early researchers tasted beryllium and its various compounds for sweetness in order
to verify its presence. Modern diagnostic equipment no longer necessitates this highly risky procedure and no attempt should be made to ingest this substance. Beryllium
and its compounds should be handled with great care and special precautions must
be taken when carrying out any activity which could result in the release of beryllium
dust (lung cancer is a possible result of prolonged exposure to beryllium laden dust).
This substance can be handled safely if certain procedures are followed. No attempt
should be made to work with beryllium before familiarization with correct handling
procedures.
Beryllium is found in 30 different minerals, the most important of which are bertrandite, beryl, chrysoberyl, and phenacite. Precious forms of beryl are aquamarine and
emerald. The most important commercial sources of beryllium and its compounds are
beryl and bertrandite. Currently, most production of this metal is accomplished by
reducing beryllium fluoride with magnesium metal. Beryllium metal did not become
readily available until 1957.
Isotopes
Beryllium has only one stable isotope, Be-9. Cosmogenic beryllium (Be-10) is produced
in the atmosphere by cosmic ray spallation of oxygen and nitrogen. Because beryllium tends to exist in solution at pH levels less than about 5.5 (and most rainwater has a
pH less than 5), it will enter into solution and be transported to the Earth's surface via
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Boron
Boron is the chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol B, atomic
number 5 and atomic weight of 10.811. It is a Semi-metallic element..
Name: Boron
Symbol: B
Atomic number: 5
Group name: (none)
Colour: black
Classification: Semi-metallic
A trivalent metalloid element, boron occurs abundantly in the ore borax. There are
two allotropes of boron; amorphous boron is a brown powder, but metallic boron is
black. The metallic form is hard (9.3 on Mohs' scale) and a bad conductor in room temperatures. It is never found free in nature.
Boron is electron-deficient, possessing a vacant p-orbital. Compounds of boron often
behave as Lewis acids, readily bonding with electron-rich substances in an attempt to
quench boron's insatiable hunger for electrons.
Optical characteristics of this element include the transmittance of infrared light. At
standard temperatures boron is a poor electrical conductor but is a good conductor at
high temperatures.
Boron has the highest tensile strength of any known element. Boron nitride can be
used to make materials that are as hard as diamond. The nitride also acts as an electrical insulator but conducts heat similar to a metal. This element also has lubricating
qualities that are similar to graphite. Boron is also similar to carbon with its capability
to form stable covalently bonded molecular networks.
Applications
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The most economically important compound of boron is sodium tetraborate decahydrate Na2B4O7 - 10H2O, or borax, which is used in large amounts in making insulating
fiberglass and sodium perborate bleach. Other uses: Because of its distinctive green
color, amorphous boron is used in pyrotechnic flares. Boric acid is an important compound used in textile products.
Compounds of boron are used extensively in organic synthesis and in the manufacture of borosilicate glasses. Other compounds are used as wood preservatives, and
are particularly attractive in this regard because they possess low toxicity. Boron-10
is used to assist control of nuclear reactors, a shield against radiation and in neutron
detection. Boron filaments are high-strength, lightweight materials that are chiefly
used for advanced aerospace structures
Boron compounds are being investigated for use in a broad range of applications,
including as components in sugar-permeable membranes, carbohydrate sensors and
bioconjugates. Medicinal applications being investigated include boron neutron capture therapy and drug delivery. Other boron compounds show promise in treating
arthritis.Hydrides of boron are oxidized easily and liberate a considerable amount of
energy. They have therefore been studied for use as possible rocket fuels.
History
Compounds of boron (Arabic Buraq from Persian Burah) have been known of for
thousands of years. In early Egypt, mummification depended upon an ore known as
natron, which contained borates as well as some other common salts. Borax glazes
were used in China from AD 300, and boron compounds were used in glassmaking in
ancient Rome.
The element was not isolated until 1808 by Sir Humphry Davy, Gay-Lussac and L. J.
Thenard, to about 50% purity. These men did not recognize the substance as an element. It was Jns Jacob Berzelius in 1824 who identified boron as an element. The first
pure boron was produced by the American chemist W. Weintraub in 1909.
Occurrence
The United States and Turkey are the world's largest producers of boron. Boron does
not appear in nature in elemental form but is found combined in borax, boric acid,
colemanite, kernite, ulexite and borates. Boric acid is sometimes found in volcanic
spring waters. Ulexite is a borate mineral that naturally has properties of fiber optics.
Economically important sources are from the ore rasorite (kernite) and tincal (borax
ore) which are both found in the Mojave Desert of California (with borax being the
most important source there). Turkey is another place where extensive borax deposits
are found.
Pure elemental boron is not easy to prepare. The earliest methods used involve reduction of boric oxide with metals such as magnesium or aluminium. However the
product is almost always contaminated with metal borides. (The reaction is quite
spectacular though.) Pure boron can be prepared reducing volatile boron halogenides
with hydrogen at high temperatures. In 1997 crystalline boron (99% pure) cost about
US$5 per gram and amorphous boron cost about US$2 per gram.
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Boron has two naturally-occurring stable isotopes, B-11 (80.1%) and B-10 (19.9%). The
mass difference results in a wide range of B-11 values in natural waters, ranging from
-16 to +59. Isotopic fractionation of boron is controlled by the exchange reactions of
the boron species B(OH)3 and B(OH)4. Boron isotopes are also fractionated during mineral crystallization, during H2O phase changes in hydrothermal systems, and during
hydrothermal alteration of rock. The latter effect (species preferential removal of the
10B(OH)4 ion onto clays results in solutions enriched in 11B(OH)3 may be responsible
for the large 11B enrichment in seawater relative to both oceanic crust and continental
crust.
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Carbon
Carbon is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol C, atomic
number 6 and atomic weight of 12.0107. It is a Non-Metal.
Name: Carbon
Symbol: C
Atomic number: 6
Group name: (none)
Colour: graphite is black, diamond is colourless
Carbon is a remarkable element for many reasons. Its different forms include one
of the softest (graphite) and one of the hardest (diamond) substances known to man.
Moreover, it has a great affinity for bonding with other small atoms, including other
carbon atoms, and its small size makes it capable of forming multiple bonds. Because
of these properties, carbon is known to form nearly ten million different compounds,
the large majority of all chemical compounds. Carbon compounds form the basis of all
life on Earth and the carbon-nitrogen cycle provides some of the energy produced by
the sun and other stars.
Carbon was not created in the big bang due to the fact that it needs a triple collision
of alpha particles (helium nuclei) to be produced. The universe initially expanded and
cooled too fast for that to be possible. It is produced, however, in the interior of stars
in the horizontal branch, where stars transform a helium core into carbon by means of
the triple-alpha process.
An abundant nonmetallic, tetravalent element, carbon has several allotropic forms:
* Diamonds (hardest known mineral). Binding structure: 4 electrons in 3-dimensional so-called sp3-orbitals
* Graphite (one of the softest substances). Binding structure: 3 electrons in 2-dimensional sp2-orbitals and 1 electron in s-orbitals.
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* Covalent bound sp1 orbitals are of chemical interest only.
Fullerite (fullerenes) are nanometre-scale molecules. In the simple form 60 carbon
atoms form a graphitic layer which is bent to a 3-dimensional structure, similar to
a soccer ball. Lamp black consists of small graphitic areas. These areas are randomly
distributed, so the whole structure is isotropic. So-called 'glassy carbon' is isotropic
and as strong as glass. Unlike normal graphite, the graphitic layers are not arranged
like pages in a book, but are crumpled like crumpled paper. Carbon fibers are similar
to glassy carbon. Under special treatment (stretching of organic fibers and carbonization) it is possible to arrange the carbon planes in direction of the fiber. Perpendicular
to the fiber axis there is no orientation of the carbon planes. The result are fibers with
a higher specific strength than steel.
Carbon occurs in all organic life and is the basis of organic chemistry. This nonmetal also has the interesting chemical property of being able to bond with itself and a
wide variety of other elements, forming nearly 10 million known compounds. When
united with oxygen it forms carbon dioxide which is absolutely vital to plant growth.
When united with hydrogen, it forms various compounds called hydrocarbons which
are essential to industry in the form of fossil fuels. When combined with both oxygen
and hydrogen it can form many groups of compounds including fatty acids, which are
essential to life, and esters, which give flavor to many fruits. The isotope carbon-14 is
commonly used in radioactive dating.
Applications
Carbon is a vital component of all known living systems, and without it life as we
know it could not exist (see carbon chauvinism). The major economic use of carbon
is in the form of hydrocarbons, most notably the fossil fuels methane gas and crude
oil. Crude oil is used by the petrochemical industry to produce, amongst others, petroleum, gasoline and kerosene, through a distillation process, in so-called refineries.
Crude oil forms the raw material for many synthetic substances, many of which are
collectively called plastics
Other uses:
* The isotope 14C, discovered February 27, 1940, is used in radiocarbon dating.
* Some smoke detectors use tiny amounts of a radioactive isotope of carbon as
source of ionizing radiation (Most smoke detectors of this type use an isotope of Americium)
* Graphite is combined with clays to form the 'lead' used in pencils.
* Diamond is used for decorative purposes, and also as drill bits and other applications making use of its hardness.
* Carbon is added to iron to make steel.
* Carbon is used for control rods in nuclear reactors.
* Graphite carbon in a powdered, caked form is used as charcoal for cooking, artwork and other uses.
* Charcoal pills are used in medicine in pill or powder form to adsorb toxins or poisons from the digestive system. The chemical and structural properties of fullerenes,
in the form of carbon nanotubes, has promising potential uses in the nascent field of
nanotechnology.
History
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Carbon (Latin carbo meaning "charcoal") was discovered in prehistory and was known
to the ancients, who manufactured it by burning organic material in insufficient oxygen (making charcoal). Diamonds have long been considered rare and beautiful. The
last-known allotrope of carbon, fullerenes, were discovered as byproducts of molecular beam experiments in the 1980s.
Allotropes
Four allotropes of carbon are known to exist: amorphous, graphite, diamond and
fullerenes. The discovery of a fifth form was announced on March 22, 2004.
In its amorphous form, carbon is essentially graphite but not held in a crystalline
macrostructure. It is, rather, present as a powder which is the main constituent of
substances such as charcoal and lamp black (soot).
At normal pressures carbon takes the form of graphite, in which each atom is bonded
to three others in a plane composed of fused hexagonal rings, just like those in aromatic hydrocarbons. The two known forms of graphite, alpha (hexagonal) and beta
(rhombohedral), both have identical physical properties, except for their crystal structure. Graphites that naturally occur have been found to contain up to 30% of the beta
form, when synthetically-produced graphite only contains the alpha form. The alpha
form can be converted to the beta form through mechanical treatment and the beta
form reverts back to the alpha form when it is heated above 1000C.
Because of the delocalization of the pi-cloud, graphite conducts electricity. The material is soft and the sheets, frequently separated by other atoms, are held together only
by van der Waals forces, so easily slip past one another
At very high pressures carbon has an allotrope called diamond, in which each atom
is bonded to four others. Diamond has the same cubic structure as silicon and germanium and, thanks to the strength of the carbon-carbon bonds, is together with
the isoelectronic boron nitride (BN) the hardest substance in terms of resistance to
scratching. The transition to graphite at room temperature is so slow as to be unnoticeable. Under some conditions, carbon crystallizes as Lonsdaleite, a form similar to
diamond but hexagonal.
Fullerenes have a graphite-like structure, but instead of purely hexagonal packing,
also contain pentagons (or possibly heptagons) of carbon atoms, which bend the sheet
into spheres, ellipses or cylinders. The properties of fullerenes (also called "buckyballs" and "buckytubes") have not yet been fully analyzed. All the names of fullerenes
are after Buckminster Fuller, developer of the geodesic dome, which mimics the structure of "buckyballs". A nanofoam allotrope has been dicovered which is ferromagnetic.
Occurrence
There are nearly ten million carbon compounds that are known to science and many
thousands of these are vital to life processes and very economically important organic-based reactions. This element is abundant in the sun, stars, comets, and in the atmospheres of most planets. Some meteorites contain microscopic diamonds that were
formed when the solar system was still a protoplanetary disk. In combination with
other elements, carbon is found the earth's atmosphere and dissolved in all bodies
of water. With smaller amounts of calcium, magnesium, and iron, it is a major component of very large masses carbonate rock (limestone, dolomite, marble etc.). When
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combined with hydrogen, carbon form coal, petroleum, and natural gas which are
called hydrocarbons.
Graphite is found in large quantities in New York and Texas, the United States; Russia;
Mexico; Greenland and India.
Natural diamonds occur in the mineral kimberlite found in ancient volcanic "necks,"
or "pipes". Most diamond deposits are in Africa, notably in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, the Republic of the Congo and Sierra Leone. There are also deposits in Canada, the Russian Arctic, Brazil and in Northern and Western Australia.
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of plants (C4 pathway plants), composed of aquatic plants, desert plants, salt marsh
plants, and tropical grasses, have dC-13 values that range from -6 to -19. An intermediate group (CAM plants) composed of algae and lichens has dC-13 values range from
-12 to -23. The dC-13 of plants and organisms can provide useful information about
sources of nutrients and food web relations. In 1961 the International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry adopted the isotope carbon-12 as the basis for atomic weights.
Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5715 years and has been used extensively for radiocarbon
dating wood, archaeological sites and specimens
Inorganic compounds
The most prominent oxide of carbon is carbon dioxide, CO2. This is a minor component of the Earth's atmosphere, produced and used by living things, and a common
volatile elsewhere. In water it forms trace amounts of carbonic acid, H2CO3, but as
most compounds with multiple single-bonded oxygens on a single carbon it is unstable. Through this intermediate, though, resonance-stabilized carbonate ions are
produced. Some important minerals are carbonates, notably calcite. Carbon disulfide,
CS2, is similar.
The other oxides are carbon monoxide, CO, and the uncommon carbon suboxide,
C3O2. Carbon monoxide is formed by incomplete combustion, and is a colorless, odorless gas. The molecules each contain a triple bond and are fairly polar, resulting in
a tendency to bind permanently to hemoglobin molecules, so that the gas is highly
poisonous. Cyanide, CN-, has a similar structure and behaves a lot like a halide ion; the
nitride cyanogen, (CN)2, is related.
With strong metals carbon forms either carbides, C, or acetylides, C22-; these are
associated with methane and acetylene, both incredibly pathetic acids. All in all, with
an electronegativity of 2.5, carbon prefers to form covalent bonds. A few carbides are
covalent lattices, like carborundum, SiC, which resembles diamond.
Carbon chains
It is the atomic structure of hydrocarbons in which a series of carbon atoms, saturated by hydrogen atoms, form a chain. Volatile oils have shorter chains. Fats have longer
chain lengths, and waxes have extremely long chains. Carbon cycle The continuous
process of combining and releasing carbon and oxygen thereby storing and emitting
heat and energy. Catabolism + anabolism = metabolism. See carbon cycle.
Isotopes
Carbon has two stable, naturally-occurring isotopes: Carbon-12, or C-12, (98.89%) and
Carbon-13, or C-13, (1.11%), and one unstable, naturally-occurring, radioisotope, Carbon-14 or C-14. Ratios of these isotopes are reported inrelative to the standard VPDB
(Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite from the Peedee Formation of South Carolina). The dC-13 of
the atmosphere is -7. During photosynthesis, the carbon that becomes fixed in plant
tissue is significantly depleted in C-13 relative to the atmosphere.
There is two mode distribution in the dC-13 values of terrestrial plants resulting from
differences in the photosynthetic reaction used by the plant. Most terrestrial plants
are C3 pathway plants and have dC-13 values range from -24 to -34. A second category
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Nitrogen
Nitrogen is the chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol N, atomic
number 7 and atomic weight of 14.0067. It is a Non-metallic Pnictogen.
Name: Nitrogen
Symbol: N
Atomic number: 7
Group name: Pnictogen
Colour: colourless
A common normally colorless, odorless, tasteless and mostly inert diatomic non-metal gas, nitrogen constitutes 78 percent of Earth's atmosphere and is a constituent of
all living tissues. Nitrogen forms many important compounds such as ammonia, nitric
acid, and cyanides.
Nitrogen is a non-metal, with an electronegativity of 3.0. It has five electrons in its
outer shell, so is trivalent in most compounds. Pure nitrogen is an unreactive colorless diatomic gas at room temperature, and comprises about 78% of the Earth's atmosphere. It condenses at 77 K and freezes at 63 K. Liquid nitrogen is a common cryogen.
Applications
The greatest single commercial use of nitrogen is as a component in the manufacture
of ammonia via the Haber process. Ammonia is subsequently used for fertilizer production and to produce nitric acid. Nitrogen is used as an inert atmosphere in tanks
of explosive liquids, during production of electronic parts such as transistors, diodes,
and integrated circuits, and is used in the manufacture of stainless steel. Nitrogen is
used as a coolant both for the immersion freezing of food products and for transpor-
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tation of foods, for the preservation of bodies and reproductive cells (sperm and egg),
and for the stable storage of biological samples in biology.
The salts of nitric acid include some important compounds, for example potassium
nitrate, or saltpeter, and ammonium nitrate. The former compound is a component
of gunpowder, the latter important in fertilizer. Nitrated organic compounds, such as
nitroglycerin and trinitrotoluene, are often explosives.
Nitric acid is used as an oxidizer in liquid fueled rockets. Hydrazine and hydrazine derivatives find use as rocket fuels. Nitrogen in its liquid state (often referred to as LN2)
is often used in cryogenics. Liquid nitrogen is produced by distillation from liquid air.
At atmospheric pressure, nitrogen condenses at -195.8 degrees Celsius. (-320.4 degrees
Fahrenheit). It is the liquid coolant frequently used for demonstrations in science education.
History
Nitrogen (Latin nitrum, Greek Nitron meaning "native soda", "genes", "forming") is
formally considered to have been discovered by Daniel Rutherford in 1772, who called
it noxious air or phlogisticated air. That there was a fraction of air that did not support combustion was well known to the late 18th century chemist. Nitrogen was also
studied at about the same time by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry Cavendish, and Joseph
Priestley, who referred to it as burnt air or dephlogisticated air. Nitrogen gas was
inert enough that Antoine Lavoisier referred to it as azote, which stands for without
life.
Compounds of nitrogen were known in the Middle Ages. The alchemists knew nitric
acid as aqua fortis. The mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids was known as aqua
regia, celebrated for its ability to dissolve gold. Nitrogen is also used in filling automotive tires due to its realatively flat line of thermal expansion.
Occurrence
Nitrogen is the largest single component of the Earth's atmosphere (78.1% by volume,
75.5% by weight) and is acquired for industrial purposes by the fractional distillation
of liquid air. Compounds that contain this element have been observed in outer space.
Nitrogen-14 is created as part of the fusion processes in stars. Nitrogen is a large component of animal waste (for example, guano), usually in the form of urea, uric acid,
and compounds of these nitrogenous products.
Molecular nitrogen has been known to occur in Titan's atmosphere for some time,
and has now been detected in interstellar space by David Knauth and coworkers using
the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer.
Compounds
The main hydride of nitrogen is ammonia (NH3) although hydrazine (N2H4) is also
well known. Ammonia is somewhat more basic than water, and in solution forms ammonium ions (NH4+). Liquid ammonia in fact slightly amphiprotic and forms ammonium and amide ions (NH2-); both amides and nitride (N3-) salts are known, but decompose in water. Singly and doubly substituted compounds of ammonia are called
amines. Larger chains, rings and structures of nitogen hydrides are also known but
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virtually unstable.
Other classes of nitrogen anions are azides (N3-), which are linear and isoelectronic to
carbon dioxide. Another molecule of the same structure is dinitrogen monoxide (N2O),
or laughing gas. This is one of a variety of oxides, the most prominent of which are
nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), which both contain an unpaired
electron. The latter shows some tendency to dimerize and is an important component
of smog.
The more standard oxides, dinitrogen trioxide (N2O3) and dinitrogen pentoxide
(N2O5), are actually fairly unstable and explosive. The corresponding acids are nitrous
(HNO2) and nitric acid (HNO3), with the corresponding salts called nitrites and nitrates. Nitric acid is one of the few acids stronger than hydronium.
Biological role
Nitrogen is an essential part of amino and nucleic acids which makes nitrogen vital to
all life. Legumes like the soybean plant, can recover nitrogen directly from the atmosphere because their roots have nodules harboring microbes that do the actual conversion to ammonia in a process known as nitrogen fixation. The legume subsequently converts ammonia to nitrogen oxides and amino acids to form proteins.
Isotopes
There are two stable isotopes: N-14 and N-15. By far the most common is N-14
(99.634%), which is produced in the CNO cycle in stars. The rest is N-15. Of the ten isotopes produced synthetically, one has a half life of nine minutes and the remaining
isotopes have half lives on the order of seconds or less. Biologically-mediated reactions (e.g., assimilation, nitrification, and denitrification) strongly control nitrogen
dynamics in the soil. These reactions almost always result in N-15 enrichment of the
substrate and depletion of the product. Although precipitation often contains subequal quantities of ammonium and nitrate, because ammonium is preferentially retained by the canopy relative to atmospheric nitrate, most of the atmospheric nitrogen that reaches the soil surface is in the form of nitrate. Soil nitrate is preferentially
assimilated by tree roots relative to soil ammonium.
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Oxygen
Oxygen is the chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol O, atomic
number 8 and atomic weight of 15.9994. It is a Chalcogen a non-metallic element.
Name: Oxygen
Symbol: O
Atomic number: 8
Group name: Chalcogen
Colour: colourless as a gas, liquid is pale blue
The element is very common, found not only on Earth but throughout the universe.
Molecular oxygen (O2, often called free oxygen) on Earth is thermodynamically unstable. Its initial appearance was due to the action of photosynthetic anaerobes (archaea
and bacteria). Its abundance in later epochs and up to the present day has been largely
driven by terrestrial plants, which release oxygen during photosynthesis.
At standard temperature and pressure, oxygen is found as a gas consisting of a diatomic molecule, with the chemical formula O2. Oxygen is an important component of
air, produced by plants during photosynthesis and is necessary for aerobic respiration
in animals. The word oxygen derives from two words in Greek, oxus or oxys (acid) geinomai (engender). The name "oxygen" was chosen because, at the time it was discovered in the late 18th century, it was believed that all acids contained oxygen. It is now
known that acids need not contain oxygen. Liquid O2 and solid O2 have a light blue
color and both are highly paramagnetic. Liquid O2 is usually obtained by the fractional
distillation of liquid air. Both liquid and solid O3 (ozone) have a deeper color of blue.
Another recently discovered allotrope of oxygen, O4, is a deep red solid that is created
by pressurizing O2 to the order of 20 GPa. Its properties are being studied for use in
rocket fuels and similar applications, as it is a much more powerful oxidizer than either O2 or O3.
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topes all have half lives of less than three minutes.
Applications
Oxygen finds considerable use as an oxidizer, with only fluorine having a higher
electronegativity. Liquid oxygen finds use as an oxidizer in rocket propulsion. Oxygen is essential to respiration, so oxygen supplementation has found use in medicine.
People who climb mountains or fly in airplanes sometimes have supplemental oxygen
supplies (as air). Oxygen is used in welding, and in the making of steel and methanol.
Oxygen, as a mild euphoric, has a history of recreational use that extends into modern times. Oxygen bars can be seen at parties to this day. In the 19th century, oxygen
was often mixed with nitrous.
History
Oxygen was discovered by the Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1771, but
this discovery was not immediately recognized, and the independent discovery by
Joseph Priestley on August 1st 1774 was more widely known. It was named by Antoine
Laurent Lavoisier in 1774. The systematic element name for oxygen is octium.
Occurrence
Oxygen is the most abundant element in the Earth's crust, of which it is estimated to
comprise 46.7%. Oxygen comprises about 87% by weight of the oceans (as H2O, water)
and 20% of the atmosphere of Earth (as O2, molecular oxygen, or O3, ozone). Oxygen
compounds, particularly metal oxides, silicates, and carbonates, are commonly found
in rocks and soil. Frozen water is a common solid on the outer planets and comets.
The ice caps of Mars are made of frozen carbon dioxide. Oxygen compounds are found
throughout the universe and the spectrum of oxygen is often seen in stars.
Compounds
Due to its electronegativity, oxygen forms chemical bonds with almost all other elements (which is the origin of the original definition of oxidation). The only elements
to escape the possibility of oxidation are a few of the noble gases. The most famous
of these oxides is of course hydrogen oxide, or water (H2O). Other well known examples include compounds of carbon and oxygen, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), alcohols
(R-OH), aldehydes, (R-CHO), and carboxylic acids (R-COOH). Oxygenated radicals such
as chlorates, perchlorates, chromates, dichromates, permanganates, and nitrates are
strong oxidizing agents in and of themselves. Many metals such as Iron bond with oxygen atoms, iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3). Ozone (O3) is formed by electrostatic discharge in
the presence of molecular oxygen. A double oxygen molecule (O2)2 is known, found as
a minor component of liquid oxygen. Epoxides are ethers in which the oxygen atom is
part of a ring of three atoms.
Isotopes
Oxygen has three stable isotopes and ten known radioactive isotopes. The radioiso-
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Applications
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Fluorine is used in the production of low friction plastics such as Teflon, and in halons such as Freon.
Other uses:
Fluorine
Fluorine (from L. Fluere, meaning "to flow"), is the chemical element in the periodic
table that has the symbol F, atomic number 9 and atomic weight of 18.9984032 . It is a
Non-metallic Halogen.
Name: Fluorine
Symbol: F
Atomic number: 9
Group name: Halogen
Colour: pale yellow
It is a poisonous pale yellow, univalent gaseous halogen that is the most chemically
reactive and electronegative of all the elements. In its pure form, it is highly dangerous, causing severe chemical burns on contact with skin.
Pure fluorine is a corrosive pale yellow gas that is a powerful oxidizing agent. It is the
most reactive and electronegative of all the elements, and readily forms compounds
with most other elements. Fluorine even combines with the noble gases xenon and
radon. Even in dark, cool conditions, fluorine reacts explosively with hydrogen. In a
jet of fluorine gas, glass, metals, water and other substances burn with a bright flame.
It is far too reactive to be found in elemental form and has such an affinity for most
elements, especially silicon, that it can neither be prepared nor should be kept in glass
vessels. In moist air it attacks water to form the equally dangerous hydrofluoric acid.
In aqueous solution, fluorine commonly occurs as the fluoride ion F-. Other forms
are fluoro-complexes (such as [FeF4]-) or H2F+. Fluorides are compounds that combine
fluoride with some positively charged rest. They often consist of ions. Fluorine compounds with metals are among the most stable of salts.
* Hydrofluoric acid (chemical formula HF) is used to etch glass in light bulbs and
other products.
* Monatomic fluorine is used for plasma ashing in semiconductor manufacturing.
* Along with its compounds, fluorine is used in the production of uranium (from the
hexafluoride) and in more than 100 different commercial fluorochemicals, including
many high-temperature plastics.
* Fluorochlorohydrocarbons are used extensively in air conditioning and in refrigeration. Chlorofluorocarbons have been banned for these applications because they are
suspected to contribute to the ozone hole. Sulfurhexafluoride is an extremely inert
and (unusually for a fluorine compound) nontoxic gas. These classes of compounds
are potent greenhouse gases.
* Potassium hexafluoroaluminate, the so-called cryolite, is used in electrolysis of
aluminium.
* Sodium fluoride has been used as an insecticide, especially against cockroaches.
* Some other fluorides are often added to toothpaste and (somewhat controversially) to municipal water supplies to prevent dental cavities. Some researchers - including US space scientists in the early 1960s have studied elemental fluorine gas a
possible rocket propellant due to its exceptionally high specific impulse. Experiments
failed since fluorine was so hard to handle
History
Fluorine (L fluere meaning flow or flux) in the form of fluorspar (calcium fluoride)
was described in 1529 by Georigius Agricola for its use as a flux, which is a substance
that is used to promote the fusion of metals or minerals. In 1670 Schwandhard found
that glass was etched when it was exposed to fluorspar that was treated with acid.
Karl Scheele and many later researchers, including Humphry Davy, Gay-Lussac, Antoine Lavoisier, and Louis Thenard all would experiment with hydrofluoric acid, easily obtained by treating calcium fluoride (fluorspar) with concentrated sulfuric acid.
It was eventually realised that hydrofluoric acid contained a previously unknown
element. This element was not isolated for many years after this due to its extreme
reactivity - it is separated from its compounds only with difficulty and then it immediately attacks the remaining materials of the compound. Finally in 1886 fluorine
was isolated by Henri Moissan after almost 74 years of continuous effort. It was an
effort which cost several researchers their health or even their lives, and for Moissan,
it earned him the 1906 Nobel Prize in chemistry. The first commercial production of
fluorine was needed for the atomic bomb Manhattan project in World War II where
the compound uranium hexafluoride (UF6) was used to separate the U-235 and U-238
isotopes of uranium. Today both the gaseous diffusion process and the gas centrifuge
process use gaseous (UF6) to produce enriched uranium for nuclear power applications.
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Neon
Neon is the chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Ne, atomic
number 10 and atomic weight of 20.1797. It is a Nobel Gas.
Name: Neon
Symbol: Ne
Atomic number: 10
Colour: colourless
A colorless nearly inert noble gas, neon gives a distinct reddish glow when used in
vacuum discharge tubes and neon lamps and is found in air in trace amounts.
Neon is the second-lightest noble gas, glows reddish-orange in a vacuum discharge
tube and has over 40 times the refrigerating capacity of liquid helium and three times
that of liquid hydrogen (on a per unit volume basis). In most applications it is a less
expensive refrigerant than helium. Neon has the most intense discharge at normal
voltages and currents of all the rare gases.
Applications
The reddish-orange color that neon emits in neon lights is widely used to make
advertising signs. "Neon" is also used generically for these types of lights when in
reality many other gases are used to produce different colors of light. Other uses:
* High-voltage indicators. * Lightning arrestors. * Wave meter tubes. * Television
tubes. * Neon and helium are used to make a type of gas laser. Liquefied neon is commercially used as an economical cryogenic refrigerant.
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History
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Neon (Greek neos meaning "new") was discovered by William Ramsay and Morris Travers in 1898.
Occurrence
Neon is usually found in the form of a gas with molecules consisting of a single neon
atom. Neon is a rare gas that is found in the Earth's atmosphere at 1 part in 65,000 and
is produced by supercooling air and fractionally distilling it from the resulting cryogenic liquid.
Compounds
Even though neon is for most practical purposes an inert element, it can form an
exotic compound with fluorine in the laboratory. It is not known for certain if this
or any neon compound exists naturally but some evidence suggests that this may be
true. The ions, Ne+, (NeAr)+, (NeH)+, and (HeNe+) are have also been observed from optical and mass spectrometric research. In addition, neon forms an unstable hydrate.
Isotopes
Neon has three stable isotopes: Ne-20 (90.48%), Ne-21 (0.27%) and Ne-22 (9.25%). Ne-21
and Ne-22 are nucleogenic and their variations are well understood. In contrast, Ne-20
is not known to be nucleogenic and the causes of its variation in the Earth have been
hotly debated. The principal nuclear reactions which generate neon isotopes are neutron emission, alpha decay reactions on Mg-24 and Mg-25, which produce Ne-21 and
Ne-22, respectively. The alpha particles are derived from uranium-series decay chains,
while the neutrons are mostly produced by secondary reactions from alpha particles.
The net result yields a trend towards lower Ne-20/Ne-22 and higher Ne-21/Ne-22 ratios
observed in uranium-rich rocks such as granites. Isotopic analysis of exposed terrestrial rocks has demonstrated the cosmogenic production of Ne-21. This isotope is generated by spallation reactions on Mg, Na, Si and Al. By analyzing all three isotopes, the
cosmogenic component can be resolved from magmatic neon and nucleogenic neon.
This suggests that neon will be a useful tool in determining cosmic exposure ages of
surficial rocks and meteorites.
Similar to xenon, neon contents observed in samples of volcanic gases are enriched in
Ne-20, as well as nucleogenic Ne-21, relative to Ne-22 contents. The neon isotopic contents of these mantle-derived samples represent a non-atmospheric source of neon.
The Ne-20-enriched components were attributed to exotic primordial rare gas components in the Earth, possibly representing solar neon. Elevated Ne-20 abundances were
also found in diamonds, further suggesting a solar neon reservoir in the Earth.
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Sodium
Sodium is the chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Na, (Natrium in Latin) atomc number 11 and atomic weight 22.98976928. It is a Alkali metal.
Name: Sodium
Symbol: Na
Atomic number: 11
Colour: silvery white
Sodium is a soft, waxy, silvery reactive metal belonging to the alkali metals that is
abundant in natural compounds (especially halite). It is highly reactive, burns with a
yellow flame, oxidizes in air and reacts violently with water, forcing it to be kept under oil.
Like the other alkali metals, sodium is a soft, light-weight, silvery white, reactive
element that is never found unbound in nature. Sodium floats in water, as well as
decomposing it to release hydrogen and thus is formed hydroxide. If ground to a fine
enough powder, sodium will ignite spontaneously in water. However, this metal does
not normally ignite in air below 388 kelvin.
Applications
Sodium in its metallic form is an essential component in the making of esters and in
the manufacture of organic compounds. This alkali metal is also a component of sodium chloride (NaCl) which is vital to life.
Other uses:
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* In certain alloys to improve their structure,
* In soap (in combination with fatty acids),
* To descale metal.(make its surface smooth)
* To purify molten metals.
* In sodium vapor lamps, an efficient means of producing light from electricity. NaK,
an alloy of sodium and potassium, is an important heat transfer material.
History
Sodium (English, soda) has long been recognized in compounds, but was not isolated
until 1807 by Sir Humphry Davy through the electrolysis of caustic soda. In medieval
Europe a compound of sodium with the Latin name of sodanum was used as a headache remedy. Sodium's symbol, Na, comes for the neo-Latin name for a common sodium compound named natrium, which comes from the Greek ntron, a kind of natural
salt.
Occurrence
Sodium is relatively abundant in stars and the D spectral lines of this element are
among the most prominent in star light. Sodium makes up about 2.6% of the Earth's
crust making it the fourth most abundant element overall and the most abundant
alkali metal. It is now produced commercially through the electrolysis of completely
dry fused sodium chloride. This method is less expensive than the previous method
of electrolyzing sodium hydroxide. Metallic sodium cost about 15 to 20 US cents per
pound in 1997 but reagent grade (ACS) sodium cost about US$35 per pound in 1990. It
is the cheapest of all metals by volume.
Compounds
Sodium chloride, better known as common salt, is the most common compound of
sodium, but sodium occurs in many other minerals, such as amphibole, cryolite, halite, soda niter, zeolite, etc. Sodium compounds are important to the chemical, glass,
metal, paper, petroleum, soap, and textile industries. Soap is generally a sodium salt
of certain fatty acids.
The sodium compounds that are the most important to industry are common salt
(NaCl), soda ash (Na2CO3), baking soda (NaHCO3), caustic soda (NaOH), Chile saltpeter
(NaNO3), di- and tri-sodium phosphates, sodium thiosulfate (hypo, Na2S2O3 5H2O),
and borax (Na2B4O7 10H2O).
Isotopes
There are thirteen isotopes of sodium that have been recognized. The only stable isotope is Na-23. Sodium has two radioactive cosmogenic isotopes (Na-22, half-life = 2.605
years; Na-24, half-life = ~ 15 hours).
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Magnesium
Magnesium is the chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Mg,
atomic number 12 and atomic weigh of 24.3050. It is a Alkaline Earth Metal.
Name: Magnesium
Symbol: Mg
Atomic number: 12
Classification: Metallic Magnesium is the eighth most abundant element and constitutes about 2% of the Earth's crust, and it is the third most plentiful element dissolved in seawater. This alkaline earth metal is primarily used as an alloying agent to
make aluminium-magnesium alloys..
Magnesium is a fairly strong, silvery-white, light-weight metal (one third lighter than
aluminium) that slightly tarnishes when exposed to air. In a powder, this metal heats
and ignites when exposed to air and burns with a white flame. It is difficult to ignite
in bulk, though it is easy to light if it is shaved into thin strips. Once ignited, it is difficult to extinguish, being able to burn in both nitrogen (forming magnesium nitride),
and carbon dioxide.
Uses
Magnesium compounds, primarily magnesium oxide, are used mainly as refractory
material in furnace linings for producing iron and steel, nonferrous metals, glass, and
cement. Magnesium oxide and other compounds also are used in agricultural, chemical, and construction industries. This element's principal use is as an alloying additive
to aluminium with these aluminium-magnesium alloys being used mainly for bever-
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age cans. Magnesium alloys also are used as structural components of automobiles
and machinery. Another use of this metal is to aid the removal of sulfur from iron and
steel. Other uses include:
* Magnesium, like aluminium, is strong and light, so it is often used in high grade
car wheels, called "mag wheels.
* Combined in alloys this metal is essential for airplane and missile construction.
* When used as an alloying agent, this metal improves the mechanical, fabrication,
and welding characteristics of aluminium.
* Additive agent for conventional propellants and used in producing nodular graphite in cast iron.
* Reducing agent for the production of pure uranium and other metals from their
salts.
* Its hydroxide is used in milk of magnesia, its chloride and sulfate in Epsom salts,
and its citrates are used in medicine.
* Dead-burned magnesite is used for refractory purposes such as brick and liners in
furnaces and converters.
* Magnesium is also flammable, burning at a temperature of approximately 4000F.
* The extremely high temperature at which magnesium burns makes it a handy tool
for starting emergency fires during outdoor recreation.
* Magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) powder is also used by athletes, such as gymnasts
and weightlifters, to improve the grip on objectsthe apparatus or lifting bar.
* Other uses include flashlight photography, flares, and pyrotechnics, including incendiary bombs..
History
The name originates from the Greek word for a district in Thessaly called Magnesia.
Joseph Black in England recognized magnesium as being an element in 1755, Sir Humphrey Davey electrolytically isolated pure magnesium metal in 1808 from a mix of
magnesia and HgO and A. A. B. Bussy prepared it in coherent form in 1831. Magnesium
is the eighth most abundant element in the earth's crust. It is an alkaline earth metal and therefore does not occur uncombined with other elements. It is found in large
deposits of magnesite, dolomite, and other minerals.
Sources
In the United States this metal is principally obtained by electrolysis of fused magnesium chloride from brines, wells, and sea water. Although magnesium is found in over
60 minerals, only dolomite, magnesite, brucite, carnallite, talc, and olivine are of commercial importance.
Compounds in living organisms
Organic magnesium is important in both plant and animal life. Chlorophylls are magnesium-centered porphyrins. The adult daily nutritional requirement, which is affected by various factors including gender, weight and size, is 300-400 mg/day. Many enzymes require the presence of magnesium ions for their catalytic action. Inadequate
magnesium intake frequently causes muscle spasms, and has been associated with
cardiovascular disease, diabetes, high blood pressure and osteoporosis.
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Food sources
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Green vegetables such as spinach provide magnesium because the center of the chlorophyll molecule contains magnesium. Nuts, seeds, and some whole grains are also
good sources of magnesium.
Although magnesium is present in many foods, it usually occurs in small amounts.
As with most nutrients, daily needs for magnesium cannot be met from a single food.
Eating a wide variety of foods, including five servings of fruits and vegetables daily
and plenty of whole grains, helps to ensure an adequate intake of magnesium.
The magnesium content of refined foods is usually low. Whole-wheat bread, for example, has twice as much magnesium as white bread because the magnesium-rich
germ and bran are removed when white flour is processed. The table of food sources
of magnesium suggests many dietary sources of magnesium. Water can provide magnesium, but the amount varies according to the water supply. "Hard" water contains
more magnesium than "soft" water. Dietary surveys do not estimate magnesium intake from water, which may lead to underestimating total magnesium intake and its
variability.
Following are some foods and the amount of magnesium in them:
* spinach (1/2 cup) = 80 milligrams (mg) * peanut butter (2 tablespoons) = 50 mg
* black-eyed peas (1/2 cup) = 45 mg * milk, low fat (1 cup) = 40 mg
Isotopes
Magnesium-26 is a stable isotope that has found application in isotopic geology, similar to that of aluminium. Mg-26 is a radiogenic daughter product of Al-26, which has
a half-life of 717,000 years. Large enrichments of stable Mg-26 have been observed in
the Ca-Al-rich inclusions of some carbonaceous chondrite meteorites. The anomalous
abundance of Mg-26 is attributed to the decay of its parent Al-26 in the inclusions.
Therefore, the meteorite must have formed in the solar nebula before the Al-26 had
decayed. Hence, these fragments are among the oldest objects in the solar system and
have preserved information about its earliest history.
It is conventional to plot Mg-26/Mg-24 against an Al/Mg ratio. In an isochrone plot,
the Al/Mg ratio plotted is Al-27/Mg-24. The slope of the isochron has no age significance, but indicates the initial Al-26/Al-27 ratio in the sample at the time when the
systems were separated from a common reservoir.
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Aluminium
Aluminium (or aluminum in North American English) is the chemical element in the
periodic table with the symbol Al, atomic number 13, and atomic weight of 26.98154. It
is a Metallic element.
Name: Aluminium
Symbol: Al
Atomic number: 13
Atomic weight: 26.9815386 (8)
Group name: (none)
Colour: silvery
A silvery and ductile member of the poor metal group of elements, aluminium is
found primarily as the ore bauxite and is remarkable for its resistance to oxidation (aluminium is actually almost always already oxidized, but is usable in this form unlike
most metals), its strength, and its light weight. Aluminium is used in many industries
to make millions of different products and is very important to the world economy.
Structural components made from aluminium are vital to the aerospace industry and
very important in other areas of transportation and building in which light weight,
durability, and strength are needed.
Aluminium is a soft and lightweight but strong metal with a dull silver-gray appearance, due to a thin layer of oxidation that forms quickly when it is exposed to air and
which prevents further corrosion. Aluminium is about one-third as dense as steel or
copper; is malleable, ductile, and easily machined and cast; and has excellent corrosion resistance and durability. It is also nonmagnetic and nonsparking and is the second most malleable metal (behind gold) and the sixth most ductile.
Applications
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Whether measured in terms of quantity or value, the use of aluminium exceeds that
of any other metal except iron, and it is important in virtually all segments of the
world economy. Pure aluminium is soft and weak, but it can form alloys with small
amounts of copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon, and other elements to make alloys having a variety of useful properties. These alloys form vital components of aircraft and rockets. When aluminium is evaporated in a vacuum it forms a coating that
reflects both visible light and radiant heat. These coatings form a thin layer of protective aluminium oxide that does not deteriorate as silver coatings do. Coating telescope mirrors is another use of this metal. Some of the many uses for aluminium are
in Transportation (automobiles, airplanes, trucks, railcars, marine vessels, etc.), Packaging (cans, foil, etc.), Machinery, Water treatment, Construction (windows, doors,
siding, etc. however it has fallen out of favor for end-user wiring Consumer durable
goods (appliances, cooking utensils, etc.)
Electrical transmission lines (although its electrical conductivity is only 60% of copper, it's lighter in weight and lower in price
Despite its usual magnetically resistant nature, it is used in MKM steel and Alnico
magnets. Super Purity Aluminium (SPA, 99.980%-99.999% Al) is used in electronics and
CDs. Its oxide, alumina, is found naturally as corundum, emery, ruby, and sapphire
and is used in glass making. Synthetic ruby and sapphire are used in lasers for the
production of coherent light. Aluminium oxidizes very energetically and as a result
has found use in solid rocket fuels and thermite.
History
The oldest suspected (although unprovable) reference to aluminium is in Pliny the
Elder's Naturalis Historia: One day a goldsmith in Rome was allowed to show the Emperor Tiberius a dinner plate of a new metal. The plate was very light, and almost as
bright as silver. The goldsmith told the Emperor that he had made the metal from
plain clay. He also assured the Emperor that only he, himself, and the Gods knew how
to produce this metal from clay. The Emperor became very interested, and as a financial expert he was also a little concerned. The Emperor felt immediately, however, that
all his treasures of gold and silver would fall in value if people started to produce this
bright metal of clay. Therefore, instead of giving the goldsmith the regard expected,
he ordered him to be beheaded.
Ancient Greeks and Romans used salts of this metal as dyeing mordants and as astringents to bind wounds, and alum is still used as a styptic. In 1761 Guyton de Morveau
proposed calling the base alum alumine. In 1808, Humphry Davy identified the existence of a metal base of alum, which he named (see Spelling below for more information on the name).
Friedrich Whler is generally credited with isolating aluminium (Latin alumen, alum)
in 1827. However, this metal was produced for the first time in impure form two years
earlier by Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian rsted.
Charles Martin Hall received the patent (400655) in 1886, on electrolytic process to extract aluminium. Henri Saint-Claire Deville (France) improved Whler's method (1846)
and presented these in a book in 1859 with two improvements to the process as to substitute potassium to sodium and double instead of simple chlorure. The invention of
the Hall-Hroult process in 1886 made extracting aluminium from minerals inexpensive, and so it is now in common use throughout the world.
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Occurrence and Resources
Although Al is an abundant element in Earth's crust (8.1%), it is very rare in its free
form and was once considered a precious metal more valuable than gold (It is said that
Napoleon III of France had a set of aluminium plates reserved for his finest guests.
Others had to make do with gold ones). It is therefore comparatively new as an industrial metal and has been produced in commercial quantities for just over 100 years.
Aluminium was, when it was first discovered, extremely difficult to separate from the
rocks it was part of. Since the whole of Earth's aluminium was bound up in the form of
compounds, it was the most difficult metal on earth to get, despite the fact that it is
one of the planet's most common.
Recovery of this metal from scrap (via recycling) has become an important component of the aluminium industry. Recycling involves simply melting the metal, which
is far less expensive than creating it from ore. Refining aluminium requires enormous
amounts of electricity; recycling it requires only 5% of the energy to produce it. A
common practice since the early 1900s, aluminium recycling is not new. It was, however, a low-profile activity until the late 1960s when the exploding popularity of aluminium beverage cans finally placed recycling into the public consciousness. Sources
for recycled aluminium include automobiles, windows and doors, appliances, containers and other products.
Aluminium is a reactive metal and cannot be extracted from its ore, bauxite (Al2O3),
through reduction with carbon. Instead it is extracted by electrolysis - the metal is
oxidized in solution and then reduced again to the pure metal. The ore must be in a
liquid state for this to occur. However, bauxite has a melting point of 2000C, which is
too high a temperature to achieve economically. Instead, the bauxite for many years
was dissolved in molten cryolite, which lowers the melting point to about 900C. But
now, cryolite has been replaced by an artificial mixture of aluminium, sodium, and
calcium fluorides. This process still requires a great deal of energy, and aluminium
plants usually have their own power stations nearby.
The electrodes used in the electrolysis of bauxite are both carbon. Once the ore is in
the molten state, its ions are free to move around. Here the aluminium ion is being
reduced (electrons are added). The aluminium metal then sinks to the bottom and is
tapped off. The positive anode oxidizes the oxygen of bauxite, to form oxygen gas.
This cathode must be replaced often because the oxygen gas formed is extremely hot,
and eats away the carbon electrode in the following reaction.Despite the cost of electrolysis, aluminium is a very widely used metal. Aluminium can now be extracted from
clay, but this process is not economical.
Electric power represents about a third of the cost of refining aluminium. For this
reason, refineries tend to be located where electric power is plentiful and inexpensive, such as the United States Pacific Northwest, the South Island of New Zealand, and
Quebec in Canada. China is currently (2004) the top world producer of aluminium.
Isotopes
Aluminium has nine isotopes, whose mass numbers range from 23 to 30. Only Al-27
(stable isotope) and Al-26 (radioactive isotope, t1/2 = 7.2 * 105 y) occur naturally. Al-26
is produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic-ray protons. Aluminium isotopes have found practical application in dating marine sediments, manganese nodules, glacial ice, quartz in rock exposures, and meteorites. The
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ratio of Al-26 to beryllium-10 has been used to study the role of transport, deposition,
sediment storage, burial times, and erosion on 105 to 106 year time scales. Cosmogenic
Al-26 was first applied in studies of the Moon and meteorites. Meteorite fragments,
after departure from their parent bodies, are exposed to intense cosmic-ray bombardment during their travel through space, causing substantial Al-26 production. After
falling to Earth, atmospheric shielding protects the meteorite fragments from further
Al-26 production, and its decay can then be used to determine the meteorite's terrestrial age. Meteorite research has also shown that Al-26 was relatively abundant at the
time of formation of our planetary system. Possibly, the energy released by the decay
of Al-26 was responsible for the remelting and differentiation of some asteroids after
their formation 4.6 billion years ago.
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Silicon
Silicon is the chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Si. atomic
number 14 and atomic weight of 28.0855. It is a Semi metallic element.
Name: Silicon
Symbol: Si
Atomic number: 14
Group name: (none)
Colour: dark grey with a bluish tinge
A tetravalent metalloid, silicon is less reactive than its chemical analog carbon. It
is the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust, making up 25.7% of it by
weight. It occurs in clay, feldspar, granite, quartz and sand, mainly in the form of silicon dioxide (also known as silica) and silicates (compounds containing silicon, oxygen
and metals). Silicon is the principal component of glass, cement, ceramics, most semiconductor devices, and silicones, the latter a plastic substance often confused with
silicon.
In its crystalline form, silicon has a metallic luster and a grayish color. Even though
it is a relatively inert element, silicon still reacts with halogens and dilute alkalis, but
most acids (except for a combination of nitric acid and hydrofluoric acid) do not affect
it. Elemental silicon transmits more than 95% of all wavelengths of infrared light. Pure
silicon crystals are rarely found in nature, as natural silicon is usually found as silica
(SiO2). Pure silicon crystals can be found as inclusions in gold, or in volcanic exhalations.
Applications
Silicon is a very useful element that is vital to many human industries. Silicon dioxide in the form of sand and clay is an important ingredient of concrete and brick and
is also used to produce Portland cement. Silicon is a very important element for plant
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and animal life. Diatoms extract silica from water to build their protective cell walls.
Other uses:
* Pottery/Enamel - It is a refractory material used in high-temperature material production and its silicates are used in making enamels and pottery. * Steel - Silicon is
an important constituent of some steels.
* Glass - Silica from sand is a principal component of glass. Glass can be made into a
great variety of shapes and is used to make window glass, containers, and insulators,
among many other uses.
* Abrasives - Silicon carbide is one of the most important abrasives. * Semiconductor - Ultrapure silicon can be doped with arsenic, boron, gallium, or phosphorus to
make silicon more conductive for use in transistors, solar cells and other semiconductor devices which are used in electronics and other high-tech applications.
* Photonics - Silicon can be used in lasers to produce coherent light with a wavelength of 456 nm.
* Medical materials - Silicones are flexible compounds containing silicon-oxygen
and silicon-carbon bonds; they are widely used in applications such as artificial breast
implants and contact lenses. * LCDs and solar cells - Hydrogenated amorphous silicon has shown promise in the production of low-cost, large-area electronics in applications such as LCDs. It has also shown promise for large-area, low-cost solar cells.
* Construction - Silica is a major ingredient in bricks because of its low chemical
activity.
History
Silicon (Latin silex, silicis meaning flint) was first identified by Antoine Lavoisier in
1787, and was later mistaken by Humphry Davy in 1800 for a compound. In 1811 Gay Lussac and Thnard probably prepared impure amorphous silicon through the heating
of potassium with silicon tetrafluoride. In 1824 Berzelius prepared amorphous silicon
using approximately the same method of Lussac. Berzelius also purified the product
by repeatedly washing it.
Because silicon is an important element in semiconductor and high-tech devices, the
high-tech region of Silicon Valley, California, is named after this element.
Occurrence
Silicon is a principal component of aerolites which are a class of meteoroids and also
of tektites which is a natural form of glass.
Measured by weight, silicon makes up 25.7% of the earth's crust and after oxygen is
also the second most abundant element. Elemental silicon is not found in nature. It
occurs most often as oxides and as silicates. Sand, amethyst, agate, quartz, rock crystal, flint, jasper, and opal are some of the forms in which the oxide appears. Granite,
asbestos, feldspar, clay, hornblende, and mica are a few of the many silicate minerals.
Production
Silicon is commercially prepared by the heating of high-purity silica in an electric arc
furnace using carbon electrodes. At temperatures over 1900C, the carbon reduces the
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silica to silicon according to the chemical equation SiO2 + C Si + CO2 Liquid silicon
collects in the bottom of the furnace, and is then drained and cooled. The silicon produced via this process is called metallurgical grade silicon and is at least 99% pure. In
1997, metallurgical grade silicon cost about $ 0.50 per gm in 2000, silicon metal (99%
pure silicon) averaged 56 cents per pound .
Purification
The use of silicon in semiconductor devices demands a much greater purity than
afforded by metallurgical grade silicon. Historically, a number of methods have been
used to produce high-purity silicon.
Physical methods
Early silicon purification techniques were based on the fact that if silicon is melted
and re-solidified, the last parts of the mass to solidify contain most of the impurities.
The earliest method of silicon purification, first described in 1919 and used on a limited basis to make radar components during World War II, involved crushing metallurgical grade silicon and then partially dissolving the silicon powder in an acid. When
crushed, the silicon cracked so that the weaker impurity-rich regions were on the
outside of the resulting grains of silicon. As a result, the impurity-rich silicon was the
first to be dissolved when treated with acid, leaving behind a more pure product.
In zone melting, the first silicon purification method to be widely used industrially,
rods of metallurgical grade silicon are heated to melt at one end. Then, the heater is
slowly moved down the length of the rod, keeping a small length of the rod molten as
the silicon cools and resolidifies behind it. Since most impurities tend to remain in the
molten region rather than resolidify, when the process is complete, most of the impurities in the rod will have been moved into the end that was the last to be melted. This
end is then cut off and discarded, and the process repeated if a still higher purity was
desired.
Chemical methods
Today, silicon is instead purified by converting it to a silicon compound that can be
more easily purified than silicon itself, and then converting that silicon compound
back into pure silicon. Trichlorosilane is the silicon compound most commonly used as
the intermediate, although silicon tetrachloride and silane are also used. When these
gases are blown over silicon at high temperature, they decompose to high-purity silicon.
In the Siemens process, high-purity silicon rods are exposed to trichlorosilane at
1150C. The trichlorosilane gas decomposes and deposits additional silicon onto the
rods, enlarging them according to chemical reactions like 2 HSiCl3 Si + 2 HCl + SiCl4
Silicon produced from this and similar processes is called polycrystalline silicon. Polycrystalline silicon typically has impurity levels of 1 part per billion or less. At one time,
DuPont produced ultrapure silicon by reacting silicon tetrachloride with high-purity
zinc vapors at 950C, producing silicon according to the chemical equation SiCl4 +
2 Zn Si + 2 ZnCl2 However, this technique was plagued with practical problems (such as
the zinc chloride byproduct solidifying and clogging lines) and was eventually abandoned in favor of the Siemens process.
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Crystallization
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The Czochralski process is often used to make high-purity single silicon crystals for
use in solid-state semiconductor devices.
Isotopes
Silicon has nine isotopes, with mass numbers from 25-33. Si-28 (the most abundant
isotope, at 92.23%), Si-29 (4.67%), and Si-30 (3.1%) are stable; Si-32 is a radioactive isotope produced by argon decay. Its half-life, after much argument, has been determined to be approximately 276 years, and it decays by beta emission to P-32 (which
has a 14.28 year half-life) and then to S-32.
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Phosphorus
Phosphorus is the chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol P, atomic number 15 and atomic weight of 30.973762. It is a Non-metallic Pnictogen.
Name: Phosphorus
Symbol: P
Atomic number: 15
Colour: colourless/red/silvery white
A multivalent, nonmetal of the nitrogen group, phosphorus is commonly found in

inorganic phosphate rocks and in all living cells but is never naturally found alone. It
is highly reactive, emits a faint glow upon uniting with oxygen (hence its name, Latin for 'morning star', from Greek words meaning 'light' and 'bring'), occurs in several
forms, and is an essential element for living organisms. The most important use of
phosphorus is in the production of fertilizers. It is also widely used in explosives, friction matches, fireworks, pesticides, toothpaste, and detergents.
Common phosphorus forms a waxy white solid that has a characteristic disagreeable
smell but when it is pure it is colorless and transparent. This non metal is not soluble
in water, but it is soluble in carbon disulfide. Pure phosphorus ignites spontaneously
in air and burns to phosphorus pentoxide.
Forms
Phosphorus exists in four or more allotropic forms: white (or yellow), red, and black
(or violet). The most common are red and white phosphorus, both of which are tetrahedral groups of four atoms. White phosphorus burns on contact with air and, on
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exposure to heat or light, it can transform into red phosphorus. It also exists in two
modifications: alpha and beta which are separated by a transition temperature of
-3.8C. Red phosphorus is comparatively stable and sublimes at a vapor pressure of
1 atm at 170 C but burns from impact or frictional heating. A black phosphorus allotrope exists which has a structure similar to graphite - the atoms are arranged in hexagonal sheet layers and will conduct electricity.
Applications
Concentrated phosphoric acids, which can consist of 70% to 75% P2O5 are very important to agriculture and farm production in the form of fertilizers. Global demand
for fertilizers has led to large increases in phosphate production in the second half of
the 20th century.
Other uses:
* Phosphates are utilized in the making of special glasses that are used for sodium
lamps.
* Bone-ash, calcium phosphate, is used in the production of fine china and to make
mono-calcium phosphate which is employed in baking powder.
* This element is also an important component in steel production, in the making of
phosphor bronze, and in many other related products.
* Trisodium phosphate is widely used in cleaning agents to soften water and for preventing pipe/boiler tube corrosion.
* White phosphorus is used in military applications as incendiary bombs, smoke
pots, smoke bombs and tracer bullets.
* Miscellaneous uses; used in the making of safety matches, pyrotechnics, pesticides,
toothpaste, detergents, etc.
Biological role
Phosphorus compounds perform vital functions in all known forms of life. Inorganic phosphorus plays a key role in biological molecules such as DNA and RNA where it
forms part of those molecules' molecular backbones. Living cells also utilize inorganic
phosphorus to store and transport cellular energy via adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Calcium phosphate salts are used by animals to stiffen bones and phosphorus is also
an important element in cell protoplasm and nervous tissue.
History
Phosphorus (Greek. phosphoros, meaning "light bearer" which was the ancient name
for the planet Venus) was discovered by German alchemist Hennig Brand in 1669
through a preparation from urine. Working in Hamburg, Brand attempted to distill
salts by evaporating urine, and in the process produced a white material that glowed
in the dark and burned brilliantly. Since that time, phosphorescence has been used to
describe substances that shine in the dark without burning.
Early matches used white phosphorus in their composition, which was dangerous
due to its toxicity. Murders, suicides and accidental poisonings resulted from its use
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(An apocryphal tale tells of a woman attempting to murder her husband with white
phosphorus in his food, which was detected by the stew giving off luminous steam).
In addition, exposure to the vapors gave match workers a necrosis of the bones of the
jaw, the infamous "phossy-jaw." When red phosphorus was discovered, with its far
lower flammability and toxicity, it was adopted as a safer alternative for match manufacture.
Occurrence
Due to its reactivity to air and many other oxygen containing substances, phosphorus is not found free in nature but it is widely distributed in many different minerals.
Phosphate rock, which is partially made of apatite (an impure tri-calcium phosphate
mineral) is an important commercial source of this element. Large deposits of apatite
are in Russia, Morocco, Florida, Idaho, Tennessee, Utah, and elsewhere.
The white allotrope can be produced using several different methods. In one process,
tri-calcium phosphate, which is derived from phosphate rock, is heated in an electric
or fuel-fired furnace in the presence of carbon and silica. Elemental phosphorus is
then liberated as a vapor and can be collected under phosphoric acid.
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Sulfur
Sulfur (or sulphur, see spelling) is the chemical element in the periodic table that
has the symbol S, atomic number 16 and atomic weight of 32.065. It is a Chalcogen a
Non-metallic element.
Name: Sulfur
Symbol: S
Atomic number: 16
Colour: lemon yellow
An abundant tasteless odorless multivalent non-metal, sulfur is best known as yellow

crystals and occurs in many sulfide and sulfate minerals and even in its native form
(especially in volcanic regions). It is an essential element in all living organisms and
is needed in several amino acids and hence in many proteins. It is primarily used in
fertilizers but is also widely used in gunpowder, laxatives, matches, insecticides and
fungicides.
This non-metal is pale yellow in appearance, soft, light, with a distinct odor when
allied with hydrogen (rotten egg smell, it should be noted that, contrary to popular
belief, the element itself does not have such an odor). It burns with a blue flame that
emits a peculiar suffocating odor (sulfur dioxide, SO2). Sulfur is insoluble in water but
soluble in carbon disulfide. Common oxidation states of sulfur include -2, +2, +4 and
+6. In all states, solid, liquid, and gaseous, sulfur has allotropic forms, whose relationships are not completely understood. Crystalline sulfur can be shown to form an 8
membered sulfur ring, S8.
Sulfur can be obtained in two crystalline modifications, in orthorhombic octahedra,
or in monoclinic prisms, the former of which is the more stable at ordinary temperatures.
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Applications
It is used for many industrial processes such as the production of sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) for batteries and detergents, the production of gunpowder, and the vulcanization of rubber. Sulfur is used as a fungicide, and in the manufacture of phosphate
fertilizers. Sulfites are used to bleach papers and dried fruits. Sulfur also finds use in
matches and fireworks. Sodium or ammonium thiosulfate are used as photographic
fixing agents. Epsom salts, magnesium sulfate, can be used as a laxative, as a bath additive, as an exfoliant, or a magnesium supplement in plant nutrition.
Biological role
The amino acids cysteine, methionine, homocysteine, and taurine contain sulfur, as
do some common enzymes, making sulfur a necessary component of all living cells.
Disulfide bonds between polypeptides are very important in protein assembly and
structure. Some forms of bacteria use hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in the place of water as
the electron donor in a primitive photosynthesis-like process. Sulfur is absorbed by
plants from soil as sulfate ion. Inorganic sulfur forms a part of iron-sulfur clusters,
and sulfur is the bridging ligand in the CuA site of cytochrome c oxidase.
The massive burning of coal by industry and power plants liberates huge amounts of
sulfur dioxide, which reacts with atmospheric water and oxygen to produce sulfuric
acid. By changing the pH of soil and freshwater bodies, the resulting acid rain has led
to substantial damage to the natural environment in some regions.
History
Sulfur (Sanskrit, sulvere; Latin sulpur) was known in ancient times, and is referred
to in the Biblical story of Pentateuch (Genesis). English translations of this commonly refer to sulfur as "brimstone", giving rise to the name of 'Fire and brimstone' sermons, which are sermons where hell and eternal damnation for sinners is stressed. It
is from this part of the bible that hell is thought to smell of sulfur. Homer mentioned
"pest-averting sulfur" in the 9th century BC and in 424 BC, the tribe of Bootier destroyed the walls of a city by burning a mixture of coal, sulfur, and tar under them.
Sometime in the 12th century, the Chinese invented gun powder which is a mixture of
potassium nitrate (KNO3), carbon, and sulfur.
Early alchemists gave sulfur its own alchemical symbol which was a triangle at the
top of a cross. Through experimentation, alchemists knew that the element mercury
can be combined with sulfur. In the late 1770s, Antoine Lavoisier helped convince the
scientific community that sulfur was an element and not a compound.
Occurrence
Sulfur occurs naturally in large quantities compounded to other elements in sulfides
(example: pyrite) and sulfates (example: gypsum). It is found in its free form near hot
springs and volcanic regions (hence the name brimstone, from being found at the
brim of craters) and in ores like cinnabar, galena, sphalerite and stibnite. This element
is also found in small amounts in coal and petroleum, which produce sulfur dioxide
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when burned. Fuel standards increasingly require sulfur to be extracted from fossil
fuels because sulfur dioxide combines with water droplets to produce acid rain. This
extracted sulfur is then refined and represents a large portion of sulfur production. It
is also mined along the US Gulf coast by the Frasch process, which involves pumping
a mixture of compressed air and superheated water into sulfur containing deposits
(such as salt domes). The hot water melts the sulfur, and the pressure of the air drives
the molten sulfur to the surface.
Through its major derivative, sulfuric acid, sulfur ranks as one of the more-important
elements used as an industrial raw material. It is of prime importance to every sector
of the world's industrial and fertilizer complexes. Sulfuric acid production is the major end use for sulfur, and consumption of sulfuric acid has been regarded as one of
the best indexes of a nation's industrial development. More sulfuric acid is produced
in the United States every year than any other chemical.
The distinctive colors of Jupiter's volcanic moon Io, are from various forms of molten,
solid and gaseous sulfur. There is also a dark area near the Lunar crater Aristarchus
that may be a sulfur deposit. Sulfur is also present in many types of meteorites.
Compounds
Many of the unpleasant odors of organic matter are based on sulfur-containing compounds such as hydrogen sulfide, which has the characteristic smell of rotten eggs.
Dissolved in water, hydrogen sulfide is acidic
(pKa1 = 7.00, pKa2 = 12.92) and will react with metals to form a series of metal sulfides.
Natural metal sulfides are found, especially those of iron. Iron sulfides are called iron
pyrite, the so called fool's gold. Interestingly, pyrite can show semiconductor properties. Galena, a naturally occurring lead sulfide, was the first semiconductor discovered, and found a use as a signal rectifier in the early cat's whisker crystal radios).
Polymeric sulfur nitride has metallic properties even though it doesn't contain any
metal atoms. This compound also has unusual electrical and optical properties. Amorphous or "plastic" sulfur can be produced through the rapid cooling of molten sulfur.
X-ray crystallography studies show that the amorphous form may have a helical structure with eight atoms per turn. This form is metastable at room temperature, however, and gradually reverts back to crystalline form.
Other important compounds of sulfur include:

* Sodium dithionite, Na2S2O4, a powerful reducing agent.
* Sulfurous acid, H2SO3, created by dissolving SO2 in water. Sulfurous acid and the
corresponding sulfites are fairly strong reducing agents. Other compounds derived
from SO2 include the pyrosulfite ion (S2O52-). * The thiosulfates (S2O32-). Thiosulfates are used in photographic fixing, are oxidizing agents, and ammonium thiosulfate is being investigated as a cyanide replacement in leaching gold.
* Compounds of dithionic acid (H2S2O6)
* The polythionic acids, (H2SnO6), where n can range from 3 to 80.
* The sulfates, the salts of sulfuric acid. Epsom salts are magnesium sulfate.
* Sulfides are simple ccompunds of sulfur with some other chemical element.
* Sulfuric acid reacting with SO3 in equimolar ratios forms pyrosulfuric acid.
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* Peroxymonosulfuric acid and peroxydisulfuric acids, made from the action of SO3
on concentrated H2O2, and H2SO4 on concentrated H2O2 respectively.
* Tetrasulfur tetranitride S4N4.
* Thiocyanates are compounds containing the thiocyanate ion, SCN* Thiocyanogen, (SCN)2.
* A thioether is a molecule with the form R-S-R', where R and R' are organic groups.
These are the sulfur equivalents of ethers.
* A thiol (also known as a mercaptan) is a molecule with an -SH functional group.
These are the sulfur equivalents of alcohols.
* A thiolate ion has an -S- functional group attached. These are the sulfur equivalent
of alkoxide ions.
Isotopes
Sulfur has 18 isotopes, of which four stable isotopes: S-32 (95.02%), S-33 (0.75%), S-34
(4.21%), and S-36 (0.02%). Other than 35S, the radioactive isotopes of sulfur are all short
lived. Sulfur-35 is formed from cosmic ray spallation of argon- 40 in the atmosphere. it
has a half-life of 87 days.
When sulfide minerals are precipitated, isotopic equilibration among solids and liquid may cause small differences in the dS-34 values of co-genetic minerals. The differences between minerals can be used to estimate the temperature of equilibration. The
dC-13 and dS-34 of co-existing carbonates and sulfides can be used to determine the
pH and oxygen fugacity of the ore-bearing fluid during ore formation.
In most forest ecosystems, sulfate is derived mostly from the atmosphere; weathering
of ore minerals and evaporites also contributes some sulfur. Sulfur with a distinctive
isotopic composition has been used to identify pollution sources, and enriched sulfur
has been added as a tracer in hydologic studies. Differences in the natural abundances can also be used in systems where there is sufficient variation in the S-34 of ecosystem components. Rocky Mountain lakes thought to be dominated by atmospheric
sources of sulfate have been found to have different dS-34 values from lakes believed
to be dominated by watershed sources of sulfate.
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Chlorine
Chlorine (from Gr. Chloros, meaning "pale green"), is the chemical element with symbol Cl, atomic number 17 and atomic weight of 35.453 . It is a Non-metallic Halogen.
Name: Chlorine
Symbol: Cl
Atomic number: 17
Group name: Halogen
Colour: yellowish green
Chlorine gas is greenish yellow, is two and one half times as heavy as air, has an intensely disagreeable suffocating odor, and is exceedingly poisonous. It is a powerful
oxidizing, bleaching, and disinfecting agent. As part of common salt and other compounds, it is abundant in nature and necessary to most forms of life, including the
human body.
The pure chemical element has the physical form of a diatomic green gas. The name
chlorine is derived from chloros, meaning green, referring to the color of the gas.
This element is a member of the salt-forming halogen series and is extracted from
chlorides through oxidation and more commonly, by electrolysis. Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas that combines readily with nearly all other elements. At 10C one liter
of water dissolves 3.10 liters of chlorine and at 30C only 1.77 liters.
Applications
Chlorine is an important chemical in water purification, in disinfectants in bleach
and in mustard gas. Chlorine is also used widely in the manufacture of many everyday
items.
* Used to kill bacteria and other microbes from drinking water supplies and swim-
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ming pools. Even small water supplies are now routinely chlorinated.
* Used widely in paper product production, antiseptic, dyestuffs, food, insecticides,
paints, petroleum products, plastics, medicines, textiles, solvents, and many other
consumer products. Organic chemistry uses this element extensively as an oxidizing
agent and in substitution because chlorine often imparts many desired properties in
an organic compound when it is substituted for hydrogen (synthetic rubber). Others
uses are in the production of chlorates, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and in the
bromine extraction..
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waters less than 50 years before the present. Cl-36 has seen use in other areas of the
geological sciences, including dating ice and sediments.
History
Chlorine (greenish yellow) was discovered in 1774 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, who mistakenly thought it contained oxygen. Chlorine was given its name in 1810 by Humphry
Davy, who insisted that it was in fact an element.
Occurrence
In nature chlorine is found only as the chloride ion. Chlorides make up much of the
salt dissolved in the Earth's oceans - about 1.9% of the mass of seawater is chloride
ions. Even higher concentrations of chloride are dissolved in the Dead Sea and in underground brine deposits. Most chlorides are soluble in water, so solid chlorides are
usually only found in abundance in dry climates, or deep underground. Common chloride minerals include halite (sodium chloride), sylvite (potassium chloride), and carnallite (potassium magnesium chloride hexahydrate). Industrially, elemental chlorine
is usually produced by the electrolysis of sodium chloride dissolved in water. Along
with chlorine, this chloralkali process yields hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide,
Compounds
Compounds of chlorine include chlorides, chlorites, chlorates, perchlorates, chloramines.
Isotopes
There are two principal stable isotopes of chlorine, of mass 35 and 37, found in the
relative proportions of 3:1 respectively, giving chlorine atoms in bulk an apparent
atomic weight of 35.5. Chlorine has 9 isotopes with mass numbers ranging from 32
to 40. Only three of these isotopes occur naturally: stable Cl-35 (75.77%) and Cl-37
(24.23%), and radioactive Cl-36. The ratio of Cl-36 to stable Cl in the environment is
about 700 E -151. Cl-36 is produced in the atmosphere by spallation of Ar-36 by interactions with cosmic ray protons. In the subsurface environment, Cl-36 is generated
primarily as a result of neutron capture by Cl-35 or muon capture by Ca-40. Cl-36
decays to S-36 and to Ar-36, with a combined half-life of 308,000 years. The half-life of
this hydrophilic nonreactive isotope makes it suitable for geologic dating in the range
of 60,000 to 1 million years. Additionally, large amounts of Cl-36 were produced by
irradiation of seawater during atmospheric detonations of nuclear weapons between
1952 and 1958. The residence time of Cl-36 in the atmosphere is about 1 week. Thus, as
an event marker of 1950s water in soil and ground water, Cl-36 is also useful for dating
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Argon
Argon is the chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Ar, atomic
number 18 and atomic weight of 39.948. It is a Nobel Gas.
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Name: Argon
Symbol: Ar
Atomic number: 18
Colour: colourless
The third noble gas, in group 18, argon makes up about 1% of the Earth's atmosphere.
Argon is 2.5 times as soluble in water as nitrogen which is approximately the same
solubility as oxygen. This chemically inert element is colorless and odorless in both its
liquid and gaseous forms. There are no known true chemical compounds that contain
argon. The creation of argon hydroflouride (HArF) was reported by researchers at the
University of Helsinki in 2000. A highly unstable compound with fluorine has been
reported but not yet proven. Although no chemical compounds of argon are presently confirmed, argon can form clathrates with water when atoms of it are trapped in a
lattice of the water molecules.
Applications
It is used in lighting since it will not react with the filament in a lightbulb even under
high temperatures and other cases where diatomic nitrogen is an unsuitable (semi-)
inert gas.
Other uses:
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Used as an inert gas shield in many forms of welding, including mig and tig (where
the "I" stands for inert). As a non-reactive blanket in the manufacture of titanium and
other reactive elements. As a protective atmosphere for growing silicon and germanium crystals. Argon-39 has been used for a number of applications, primarily ice coring. It has also been used for ground water dating. Cryosurgery procedures such as
cryoablation uses liquefied argon to destroy cancer cells. Argon is also used in technical SCUBA diving to inflate the dry suit, due to its nonreactive, heat isolating effect.
History
Argon (Greek argos meaning "inactive") was suspected to be present in air by Henry
Cavendish in 1785 but was not discovered until 1894 by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William
Ramsay.
Occurrence
This gas is isolated through liquid air fractionation since the atmosphere contains
only 0.94% volume of argon (1.29% mass). The Martian atmosphere in contrast contains
1.6% of Ar-40 and 5 ppm Ar-36.
Isotopes
The main isotopes of argon found on Earth are Ar-40, Ar-36, and Ar-38. Naturally occurring K-40 with a half-life of 1.250 x 109 years, decays to stable Ar-40 (11.2%) by electron capture and by positron emission, and also decays to stable Ca-40 (88.8%) by negatron emission. These properties and ratios are used to determine the age of rocks.
In the Earth's atmosphere, Ar-39 is made by cosmic ray activity, primarily with Ar-40.
In the subsurface environment, it is also produced through neutron-capture by K-39
or alpha emission by calcium. Argon-37 is created from the decay of calcium-40 as result of subsurface nuclear explosions. It has a half-life of 35 days.
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Potassium
Potassium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol K, (L. Kalium) atomic number 19 and Atomic weigh of: 39.0983. It is a Alkali metal.
Name: Potassium
Symbol: K
Atomic number: 19
This is a soft, silvery-white metallic alkali metal that occurs naturally bound to other elements in seawater and many minerals. It oxidizes rapidly in air, is very reactive,
especially in water, and resembles sodium chemically.
Potassium is the second lightest metal. It is a soft solid that easily is cut with a knife
and is silvery in color on fresh surfaces. It oxidizes in air rapidly and must be stored in
mineral oil for preservation. Similar to other alkali metals, potassium reacts violently
with water producing hydrogen. When in water it may catch fire spontaneously. Its
salts emit a violet color when exposed to a flame.
Applications
* Potassium oxide, best known as potash, is primarily used in fertilizer.
* Potassium nitrate is used in gunpowder.
* Potassium carbonate is used in glass manufacture.
* NaK an alloy of sodium and potassium is used as a heat-transfer medium.
* This element is an essential component needed in plant growth and is found in
most soil types.
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* In animal cells potassium ions are vital to keeping cells alive (see Na-K pump)
* Potassium chloride is used as a substitute for table salt and is also used to stop the
heart, e.g. in cardiac surgery and in executions by lethal injection.
Many potassium salts are very important, and include, potassium; bromide, carbonate, chlorate, chloride, chromate, cyanide, dichromate, hydroxide, iodide, nitrate,
sulfate.
History
Potassium ( English, potash L. kalium ) was discovered in 1807 by Sir Humphry Davy
who derived it from caustic potash (KOH). This alkali metal was the first metal that
was isolated by electrolysis.
Occurrence
This element makes up about 2.4% of the weight of the Earth's crust and is the seventh most abundant element in it. Due to its insolubility, it is very difficult to obtain
potassium from its minerals.
However, other minerals, such as carnallite, langbeinite, polyhalite, and sylvite are
found in ancient lake and sea beds. These minerals form extensive deposits in these
environments, making extracting potassium and its salts more economical. The principle source of potassium, potash is mined in California, Germany, New Mexico, Utah,
and in other places around the world. At 3000 ft below the surface of Saskatchewan
are large deposits of potash which may become important sources of this element and
its salts in the future.
The oceans are another source of potassium but the quantity present in a given volume of seawater is relatively low compared to sodium.
Potassium can be isolated through electrolysis of its hydroxide in a process that has
changed little since Davy. Thermal methods also are employed in potassium production. Potassium is almost never found unbound in nature. However, in living organisms K+ ions are important in the physiology of excitable cells.
Isotopes
There are seventeen isotopes of potassium known to exist. The non-synthetic form
of potassium are composed of three isotopes: K-39 (93.3%), K-40 (0.01%) and K-41 (6.7%).
Naturally occurring K-40 decays to stable Ar-40 (11.2%) by electron capture and by
positron emission, and decays to stable Ca-40 (88.8%) by negatron emission; K-40 has
a half-life of 1.250 * 109 years.
The decay of K-40 to Ar-40 is commonly used as a method for dating rocks. The conventional K-Ar dating method depends on the assumption that the rocks contained
no argon at the time of formation and that all the subsequent radiogenic argon (i.e.,
Ar-40) was quantitatively retained, i.e., closed system. Minerals are dated by measurement of the concentration of potassium, and the amount of radiogenic Ar-40 that has
accumulated. The minerals that are best suited for dating include biotite, muscovite,
and plutonic/high grade metamorphic hornblende, and volcanic feldspar; whole rock
samples from volcanic flows and shallow instrusives can also be dated if they are unaltered.
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Outside of dating, K isotopes have been used extensively in studies of weathering; K
isotopes have also be used for nutrient cycling studies because K is a macro-nutrient
required for life. K-40 occurs in natural potassium (and thus in some commercial salt
substitutes) in sufficient quantity that large bags of those substitutes can be used as a
radioactive source for classroom demonstrations.
Potassium in the body

Potassium in the body exists as a monovalent positive ion (a cation), K+, concentrated
by energy-requiring mechanisms primarily within cells (intracellular), where it comprises the cell's most abundant monovalent inorganic cation. The body regulates the
K+ concentration in blood moderately closely, as substantial fluctuations can affect
action potentials, causing heart and nervous problems. Many antibiotics, such as the
one produced by the bacterium Bacillus brevis, affect cells by setting up positive ion
gates, where the K+ and Na+ ions are permitted to cross the membrane, thus disrupting the action potential of the cell membrane.
The body maintains potassium ion concentration relatively low in blood plasma (usually 3.5 - 5.0 mmol/L), but much higher inside cells (about 100 mmol/L). Abnormally
low blood levels, hypokalemia, and abnormally high levels, hyperkalemia, both can
adversely affect the heart.
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Calcium
Calcium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Ca, atomic
number 20 and atomic weight of 40.078. It is a Alkaline Earth Metal.
Name: Calcium
Symbol: Ca
Atomic number: 20
Calcium is a soft grey alkaline earth metal that is used as a reducing agent in the extraction of thorium, zirconium and uranium. This element is also the fifth most abundant element in the earth's crust. It is essential for living organisms, particularly in
cell physiology.
Calcium is a rather hard element that is purified by electrolysis from calcium fluoride
that burns with a yellow-red flame and forms a white nitride coating when exposed to
air. It reacts with water displacing hydrogen and forming calcium hydroxide.
Applications
Calcium is an important component of a healthy diet. Its minor deficit can affect
bone and teeth formation. Its excess can lead to kidney stones. Vitamin D is needed to
absorb calcium. Dairy products are an excellent source of calcium. For more information about Ca in living nature, see calcium in biology.
Other uses include:
* Reducing agent in the extraction of other metals such as Uranium, Zirconium, and
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Thorium.
* Deoxidizer, desulfurizer, or decarburizer for various ferrous and nonferrous alloys.
* Alloying agent used in the production of aluminium, beryllium, copper, lead, and
magnesium alloys.
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History
(Latin calx, Lime) Lime was prepared and used by the Romans as early as the 1st century, but calcium was not discovered until 1808. After learning that Berzelius and Pontin prepared calcium amalgam by electrolyzing lime in mercury, Sir Humphry Davy
was able to isolate the impure metal.
Occurrence
Calcium is the fifth most abundant element in the earth's crust (forming more than
3%) and is an essential part of leaves, bones, teeth, and shells. Due to its chemical reactivity with air and water, calcium is never found in nature unbound to other elements,
except in living organisms where Ca2+ plays a key role in cell physiology. This metallic
element is found in quantity in limestone, gypsum, and fluorite. Apatite is the fluorophosphate or chlorophosphate of calcium. Electrolysis of molten calcium chloride
(CaCl2) can be used to isolate pure calcium.
Compounds
Quicklime (CaO) is used in many chemical refinery processes and is made by heating
and carefully adding water to limestone. When CaO is mixed with sand it hardens into
a mortar and is turned into plaster by carbon dioxide uptake. Mixed with other compounds, CaO forms an important part of Portland cement.
When water percolates through limestone or other soluble carbonate rocks, it partially disolves part of the rock and causes cave formation and characteristic stalactites
and stalagmites and also forms hard water. Other important calcium compounds are
nitrate, sulfide, chloride, carbide, cyanamide, and hypochlorite.
Isotopes
Calcium has six stable isotopes, two of which occur in nature: stable Ca-40 and radioactive Ca-41 with a half-life = 103,000 years. 97% of the element is in the form of Ca40. Ca-40 is one of the daughter products of K-40 decay, along with Ar-40. While K-Ar
dating has been used extensively in the geological sciences, the prevalence of Ca-40 in
nature has impeded its use in dating. Techniques using mass spectrometry and a double spike isotope dilution have been used for K-Ca age dating. Unlike cosmogenic isotopes that are produced in the atmosphere, Ca-41 is produced by neutron activation of
Ca-40. Most of its production is in the upper metre or so of the soil column where the
cosmogenic neutron flux is still sufficiently strong. Ca-41 has received much attention in stellar studies because Ca-41 decays to K-41, a critical indicator of solar-system
anomalies.
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Scandium
Scandium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Sc, atomic
number 21 and Atomic weight: 44.955912. It is a Transition Metal.
Name: Scandium
Symbol: Sc
Atomic number: 21
Group name: (none)
Block in periodic table: d-block
A soft, silvery, white transition element, scandium occurs in rare minerals from Scandinavia and it is sometimes classified along with yttrium and the lanthanides as a rare
earth.
Scandium is a rare, soft, silvery, trivalent, very light metallic element that develops a
slightly yellowish or pinkish cast when exposed to air. This element resembles yttrium
and rare earth metals more than it resembles aluminium or titanium (which are closer on the periodic table). The most common oxidation state of scandium is +3 and this
metal is not attacked by a 1:1 mixture of HNO3 and 48% HF.
Applications
Approximately 20 kg of scandium (as Sc2O3) are used annually in the United States to
make high-intensity lights. The radioactive isotope Sc-46 is used in oil refinery crackers as a tracing agent. When scandium iodide is added to mercury vapor lamps a highly efficient artificial sunlight-like light source is produced which is used in indoor or
night-time color televisions.
Approximately 80 kg of scandium is used in lightbulbs globally per year. The main
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usage by volume is in aluminium-scandium alloys for sporting goods (bikes, baseball
bats, etc.) When added to aluminium, it can produce improvements in strength, ductility, aging response and grain refinement through the formation of the Al3Sc phase.
Furthermore, it has been shown to reduce solidification cracking during the welding
of high strength Al alloys. Sc is thus finding applications in the aerospace and sports
equipment industries which rely of high performance Al alloys.
History
Scandium (Latin Scandia meaning "Scandinavia") was discovered by Lars Fredrick
Nilson in 1879 while he and his team were looking for rare earth metals. Nilson used
spectrum analysis to find the new element within the minerals euxenite and gadolinite. To isolate the element he processed 10 kilograms of euxenite with other rare-earth
residues to obtain about 2 grams of very pure scandium oxide (Sc2O3).
Dmitri Mendeleev, in 1869, predicted the existence and some properties of this element, which he called ekaboron, using his periodic law. Per Teodor Cleve discovered
scandium oxide at about the same time as Nilson but unlike Nilson, Cleve determined
that scandium was identical to ekaboron.
In 1937 metallic scandium was prepared for the first time by electrolysis of a eutectic
melt of potassium, lithium, and scandium chlorides at 700 to 800C. Tungsten wire in
a pool of liquid zinc were the electrodes in a graphite crucible. The first pound of 99%
pure scandium metal wasn't produced until 1960.
Occurrence
Rare minerals from Scandinavia and Malagasy such as thortveitite, euxenite and gadolinite are the only known concentrated sources of this element (which is never found
as a free metal).
Element 21 is the 23rd most abundant element in the sun and similar stars but on
earth it is only the 50th most abundant element. Scandium is distributed widely on
earth, occurring in trace quantities in over 800 minerals. The blue color of the aquamarine variety of beryl is thought to be caused by scandium. It is an important part
of the rare mineral thortveitite and is found in residues that remain after tungsten is
extracted from Zinnwald wolframite.
Thortveitite is the primary source of scandium with uranium mill tailings by-products also being an important source. Pure scandium is commercially produced by
reducing scandium fluoride with calcium metal.
The main source source of scandium is from military stockpiles from the former Soviet Union, which were themselves extracted from uranium tailings. There is no primary
production in the Americas or Europe.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring scandium is composed of 1 stable isotope Sc-45. 13 radioisotopes
have been characterized with the most stable being Sc-46 with a half-life of 83.79 days,
Sc-47 with a half-life of 3.3492 days, and Sc-48 with a half-life of 43.67 hours. All of the
remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 4 hours and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 2 minutes. This element also has 5 meta
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states with the most stable being Scm-44.
The isotopes of scandium range in atomic weight from 39.978 amu (Sc-40) to 53.963
amu (Sc-54). The primary decay mode before the only stable isotope, Sc-45, is electron
capture and the primary mode after is beta emission. The primary decay products
before Sc-45 are element 20 (calcium) isotopes and the primary products after are element 22 (titanium) isotopes.
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Titanium
Titanium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Ti, atomic
number 22 and atomic weight of 47.867. It is a Transition metal.
Name: Titanium
Symbol: Ti
Atomic number: 22
Group name: (none)
Colour: silvery metallic
A light, strong, white-metallic, lustrous, corrosion-resistant transition metal, titanium is used in strong light-weight alloys and in white pigments. This element occurs in
numerous minerals with the main sources being rutile and ilmenite.
Titanium is a metallic element which is well known for its excellent corrosion resistance (almost as resistant as platinum) and for its high strength-to-weight ratio. It is
a light, strong, easily fabricated metal with low density (40% as dense as steel) that,
when pure, is quite ductile, easy to work, lustrous, and metallic-white in color. The
relatively high melting point of this element makes it useful as a refractory metal.
Titanium is as strong as steel, but 45% lighter; it is 60% heavier than aluminium, but
twice as strong. These properties make titanium very resistant to the usual kinds of
metal fatigue.
This metal forms a passive oxide coating when exposed to air but when it is in an oxygen-free environment it is ductile. The metal, which burns when heated in air, is also
the only element that can burn in pure nitrogen gas. Titanium is resistant to dilute
sulfuric and hydrochloric acid, along with chlorine gas, chloride solutions, and most
organic acids.
Experiments have shown that natural titanium becomes very radioactive after it is
bombarded with deuterons, emitting mainly positrons and hard gamma rays. The
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metal is dimorphic with the hexagonal alpha form changing into the cubic beta form
very slowly at around 880C. When it is red hot the metal combines with oxygen, and
when it reaches 550C it combines with chlorine.
Applications
Approximately 95% of titanium is consumed in the form of titanium dioxide (TiO2), an
intensely white permanent pigment with good covering power in paints, paper, and
plastics. Paints made with titanium dioxide are excellent reflectors of infrared radiation and are therefore used extensively by astronomers.
Because of its strength, light weight, extraordinary corrosion resistance, and ability
to withstand extreme temperatures, titanium alloys are principally used in aircraft
and missiles, although applications in consumer products such as golf clubs, bicycles,
wedding bands, and laptop computers are becoming more common. Titanium is often
alloyed with aluminium, vanadium, iron, manganese, molybdenum and with other
metals.
Other Uses:
* Due to excellent resistance to sea water, it is used to make propeller shafts and
rigging.
* It is used to produce relatively soft artificial gemstones.
* Titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4), a colorless liquid, is used to iridize glass and because it fumes strongly in moist air it is also used to make smoke screens.
* In addition to being a very important pigment, titanium dioxide is also used in
sunscreens due to its ability to protect skin by itself.
* Because it is considered to be physiologically inert, the metal is used in joint replacement implants such as hip ball and sockets.
* Its inertness and ability to be attractively colored makes it a popular metal for use
in body piercing.
* Titanium has the unusual ability to osseointegrate, enabling use in dental implants.
A potential use of titanium is in desalination plants. Titanium has occasionally been
used in construction: the 150-foot memorial to Yuri Gagarin, the first man to travel in
space, in Moscow, is made of titanium for the metal's attractive color and association
with rocketry. The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao and the Cerritos Library were the first
buildings, respectively, in Europe and North America to be sheathed in titanium panels.
History
Titanium (Latin Titans, the first sons of Gaia) was discovered in England by Reverend
William Gregor in 1791 who recognized the presence of a new element in ilmenite. The
element was rediscovered several years later by German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth in rutile ore. In 1795 Klaproth named the new element after the Titans of Greek
mythology.
Pure metallic titanium (99.9%) was first prepared in 1910 by Matthew A. Hunter by
heating TiCl4 with sodium in a steel bomb at 700-800C.
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Titanium metal was not used outside the laboratory until 1946 when William Justin
Kroll proved that titanium could be commercially produced by reducing titanium tetrachloride with magnesium (which is the method still used today).
Occurrence
Titanium metal is not found unbound to other elements in nature but the element
is the ninth most abundant element in the Earth's crust (0.6% by mass) and is present
in most igneous rocks and in sediments derived from them. It occurs primarily in the
minerals anatase, brookite, ilmenite, leucoxene, perovskite, rutile, and sphene and is
found in titanates and in many iron ores. Of these minerals, only ilmenite, leucoxene,
and rutile have significant economic importance. Because it reacts easily with oxygen
and carbon at high temperatures it is difficult to prepare pure titanium metal. Significant titanium ore deposits are in Australia, Scandinavia, North America and Malaysia.
This metal is found in meteorites and has been detected in the sun and in M-type
stars. Rocks brought back from the moon during the Apollo 17 mission are composed
of 12.1% TiO2. Titanium is also found in coal ash, plants, and even the human body.
Production
Titanium metal is produced commercially by reducing TiCl4 with magnesium, a process developed in 1946 by William Justin Kroll. This is a complex, and expensive batch
process, but a newer process called the "FFC-Cambridge" method may displace this
older process. This method uses the feedstock titanium dioxide powder (which is a refined form of rutile) to make the end product which is a continuous stream of molten
titanium suitable for immediate use in the manufacture of commercial alloys.
It is hoped that the FFC-Cambridge method will render titanium a less rare and expensive material for the aerospace industry and the luxury goods market, and will be
seen in many products currently manufactured using aluminium and specialist grades
of steel.
Compounds
Although titanium metal is relatively uncommon, due to the cost of extraction, titanium dioxide is cheap, readily available in bulk, and very widely used as a white
pigment in paint, plastic and construction cement. TiO2 powder is chemically inert,
resists fading in sunlight, and is very opaque: this allows it to impart a pure and brilliant white color to the brown or gray chemicals that form the majority of household
plastics.
Pure titanium dioxide has a very high index of refraction and an optical dispersion
higher than diamond. Star sapphires and rubies get their asterism from the titanium
dioxide present in them.
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Vanadium
Vanadium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol V, atomic
number 23 and atomic weight of 50.9415. It is a Transition Metal.
Name: Vanadium
Symbol: V
Atomic number: 23
Group name: (none)
Colour: silvery grey metallic
A rare, soft and ductile element, vanadium is found combined in certain minerals and
is used mainly to produce certain alloys.
Vanadium is a soft and ductile, bright white metal. It has good resistance to corrosion
by alkalis, sulphuric and hydrochloric acid. It oxidizes readily at about 933 K. Vanadium has good structural strength and a low fission neutron cross section, making it
useful in nuclear applications. It is intermediate between the metals and the non-metals, having both basic and acid properties.
Common oxidation states of vanadium include +2, +3, +4 and +5. A popular experiment
with ammonium vanadate (NH4VO3), reducing the compound with zinc metal, can
demonstrate colorimetrically all four of these vanadium oxidation states. A +1 oxidation state is also rarely seen.
Applications
Approximately 80% of vanadium produced is used as ferrovanadium or as a steel additive.
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Other Uses:
* In such alloys as:
* Specialty stainless steel, e.g. for use in surgical instruments and tools.
* Rust resistant and high speed tool steels.
* Mixed with aluminium in titanium alloys used in jet engines and high-speed airframes
* Vanadium steel alloys are used in axles, crankshafts, gears, and other critical components.
* It is an important carbide stabilizer in making steels.
* Because of its low fission neutron cross section, vanadium has nuclear applications.
* Vanadium foil is used in cladding titanium to steel.
* Vanadium-gallium tape is in superconducting magnets (175,000 gauss).
* Vanadium compounds are used as catalysts in producing maleic anhydride and sulfuric acid.
* Vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) is used in ceramics and as a catalyst.
* Glass coated with vanadium dioxide (VO2) can block infrared radiation (and not
visible light) at some specific temperature.
History
Vanadium (Scandinavian goddess, Vanadis) was originally discovered by Andres Manuel del Rio (a Spanish mineralogist) at Mexico City in 1801, who called it "brown lead"
(now named vanadinite).
Through experimentation, he saw that the colors it exhibited were reminiscent of
chromium, so he named the element panchromium. He later renamed this compound
erythronium, since most of the salts turned red when heated. A French chemist incorrectly declared that del Rio's new element was only impure chromium. Del Rio
thought himself to be mistaken and accepted the statement of the French chemist.
In 1831, Sefstrm of Sweden rediscovered vanadium in a new oxide he found while
working with some iron ores and later that same year Friedrich Whler confirmed
del Rio's earlier work.
Metallic vanadium was isolated by Henry Enfield Roscoe in 1867, who reduced the
vanadium chloride (VCl3) with hydrogen. The name vanadium comes from Vanadis,
the goddess of beauty in Scandinavian mythology because the element has beautiful
multicolored chemical compounds.
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effect on sugar metabolism, the mechanism of this effect is unknown.
Occurrence
Vanadium is never found unbound in nature but it does occur in about 65 different
minerals among which are patronite (VS4), vanadinite [Pb5(VO4)3Cl], and carnotite
[K2(UO2)2(VO4)2.3H2O].
Vanadium is also present in bauxite, and in carbon containing deposits such as crude
oil, coal, oil shale and tar sands. The spectra of vanadium has also been detected in
light from the sun and some other stars.
Much of the vanadium metal being produced is now made by calcium reduction of
V2O5 in a pressure vessel. Vanadium is usually recovered as a by-product or co-product, and so world resources of the element are not really indicative of available supply.
Compounds
Vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) is used as a catalyst, dye and color-fixer.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring vanadium is composed of 1 stable isotope; V-51. 15 radioisotopes
have been characterized with the most stable being V-50 with a half-life of 1.4E17
years, V-49 with a half-life of 330 days, and V-48 with a half-life of 15.9735 days. All of
the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 1 hour and the
majority of these have half lifes that are less than 10 seconds. This element also has 1
meta state.
The isotopes of vanadium range in atomic weight from 43.981 amu (V-43) to 59.959
amu (V-59). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, V-51, is
electron capture and the primary mode after is beta decay. The primary decay products before V-51 are element 22 (titanium) isotopes and the primary products after are
element 24 (chromium) isotopes.
Biological Role
In biology, a vanadium atom is an essential component of some enzymes, particularly
the vanadium nitrogenase used by some nitrogen-fixing microorganisms. Vanadium
is essential for electron transfer chain of ascidians, or sea squirts. The concentration
of vanadium in their bodies is one million times higher than the concentration of vanadium in the water around them. Rats and chickens are also known to require vanadium in very small amounts and deficiencies result in reduced growth and impaired
reproduction.
Administration of oxovanadium compounds has been shown to alleviate diabetes
mellitus symptoms in certain animal models and humans. Much like the chromium
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Chromium
Chromium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Cr, atomic
number 24 and atomic weight of 51.9961. It is a Transition metal element.
Name: Chromium
Symbol: Cr
Atomic number: 24
Group name: (none)
Chromium is a steel-gray, lustrous, hard metal that takes a high polish, is fusible with
difficulty, and is resistant to corrosion and tarnishing. The most common oxidation
states of chromium are +2, +3, and +6, with +3 being the most stable. +4 and +5 are relatively rare. Chromium compounds of oxidation state 6 are powerful oxidants.
Applications
Uses of chromium:
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* In metallurgy, to impart corrosion resistance and a shiny finish:

* as an alloy constituent, e.g. in stainless steel.
* In chrome plating.
* In anodized aluminium (literally turning the surface of an aluminium part into
ruby).
* As a catalyst.
* Chromite is used to make molds for the firing of bricks.
* Chromium salts color glass an emerald green.
* Chromium salts are used in the tanning of leather.
* Chromium is what makes a ruby red, and therefore is used in producing synthetic
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rubies.
* The chromates and oxides are used in dyes and paints.
* Potassium dichromate is a chemical reagent, used in cleaning laboratory glassware
and as a titrating agent. It is also used as a mordant (i.e. a fixing agent) for dyes in
fabric.
* Chromium Dioxide (CrO2) is used to manufacture magnetic tape, where its higher
coercivity than iron oxide tapes gives better performance.
History
In 1761, Johann Gottlob Lehmann found an orange-red mineral in the Ural Mountains
which he named Siberian red lead. Though misidentified as a lead compound with selenium and iron components, the material was in fact a lead chromate (PbCrO4).
In 1770, Peter Simon Pallas visited the same site as Lehmann and found a red "lead"
mineral that had very useful properties as a pigment in paints. The use of Siberian red
lead as a paint pigment developed rapidly. A bright yellow made from crocoite became a very fashionable color.
In 1797, Nicolas-Louis Vauquelin received samples of crocoite ore. He was able to produce chromium oxide (CrO3) by mixing crocoite with hydrochloric acid. In 1798, Vauquelin discovered that he could isolate metallic chromium by heating the oxide in a
charcoal oven. He was also able to detect traces of chromium in precious gems, such
as ruby, or emerald.
During the 1800s chromium was primarily used as a component of paints but now the
primary use (85%) is for metal alloys, with the remainder used in the chemical industry and refractory and foundry industries. Chromium was named based on the Greek
word "chroma" meaning color, because of the many colorful compounds made from it.
Biological Role
Trivalent chromium is an essential trace metal and is required for the proper metabolism of sugar in humans. Chromium deficiencies can affect the potency of insulin in
regulating sugar balance. Unlike other essential trace metals, chromium has not been
found in a metalloprotein with biological activity. Therefore, the functional basis for
the chromium requirement in the diet remains unexplained.
Occurrence
Chromium is mined as chromite (FeCr2O4) ore. Chromium is obtained commercially
by heating the ore in the presence of aluminium or silicon. Roughly half the chromite
ore in the world is produced in South Africa. Kazakhstan, India and Turkey are also
substantial producers. Untapped chromite deposits are plentiful, but geographically concentrated in Kazakhstan and southern Africa. Approximately 15 million tons of
marketable chromite ore were produced in 2000, and converted into approximately 4
million tons of ferro-chrome with an approximate market value of 2.5 billion US dollars.
Though native chromium deposits are rare, some native chromium metal has been
discovered. The Udachnaya Mine in Russia produces samples of the native metal. This
mine is a kimberlite pipe rich in diamonds, and the reducing environment so provided
helped produce both elemental chromium and diamond.
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Compounds
Potassium dichromate is a powerful oxidizing agent and is the preferred compound
for cleaning laboratory glassware of any possible organics. Chrome green is the green
oxide of chromium, Cr2O3, used in enamel painting, and glass staining. Chrome yellow
is a brilliant yellow pigment, PbCrO4, used by painters.
Chromic acid has the hypothetical structure H2CrO4. Neither chromic nor dichromic
acid is found in nature, but their anions are found in a variety of compounds. Chromium trioxide, CrO3, the acid anhydride of chromic acid, is sold industrially as "chromic
acid".
Isotopes
Naturally occurring chromium is composed of 3 stable isotopes; 52-Cr, 53-Cr, and 54Cr with 52-Cr being the most abundant (83.789% natural abundance). 19 radioisotopes
have been characterized with the most stable being 50-Cr with a half-life of (more
than) 1.8E17 years, and 51-Cr with a half-life of 27.7025 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 24 hours and the majority of these
have half lifes that are less than 1 minute. This element also has 2 meta states.
Chromium-53 is the radiogenic decay product of 53Mn. Chromium isotopic contents
are typically combined with manganese isotopic contents and have found application
in isotope geology. Mn-Cr isotope ratios reinforce the evidence from 26Al and 107Pd
for the early history of the solar system. Variations in 53Cr/52Cr and Mn/Cr ratios
from several meteorites indicate an initial 53Mn/55Mn ratio that suggests Mn-Cr isotope systematics must result from in-situ decay of 53Mn in differentiated planetary
bodies. Hence 53Cr provides additional evidence for nucleosynthetic processes immediately before coalescence of the solar system.
The isotopes of chromium range in atomic weight from 43 amu (43-Cr) to 67 amu (67Cr). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 52-Cr, is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta decay.
Manganese
Manganese is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Mn, atomic number 25 and atomic weight of 54.938049. It is a Transition metal element.
Name: Manganese
Symbol: Mn
Atomic number: 25
Group name: (none)
Manganese is a gray-white metal, resembling iron. It is a hard metal and is very brittle, fusible with difficulty, but easily oxidized. Manganese metal is ferromagnetic only
after special treatment. The most common oxidation states of manganese are +2, +3,
+4, +6 and +7, though oxidation states from +1 to +7 are observed. Mn2+ often competes
with Mg2+ in biological systems, and manganese compounds where manganese is in
oxidation state +7 are powerful oxidizing agents.
Applications
Manganese is essential to iron and steel production by virtue of its sulfur-fixing, deoxidizing, and alloying properties. Steelmaking, including its ironmaking component,
has accounted for most manganese demand, presently in the range of 85% to 90% of
the total demand. Among a variety of other uses, manganese is a key component of
low-cost stainless steel formulations and certain widely used aluminium alloys.
Manganese (IV) oxide is used in the original type of dry cell battery
Manganese dioxide is also used as a catalyst. Manganese is used to decolorize glass
(removing the greenish tinge that presence of iron produces) and, in higher concentration, make violet-colored glass.
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Manganese oxide is a brown pigment that can be used to make paint and is a component of natural umber. Potassium permanganate is a potent oxidizer and used in
chemistry and in medicine as disinfectant agent.
The overall level and nature of manganese use in the United States is expected to
remain about the same in the near term. No practical technologies exist for replacing
manganese with other materials or for using domestic deposits or other accumulations to reduce the complete dependence of the United States on other countries for
manganese ore. Substitutes: Manganese has no satisfactory substitute in its major
applications.
History
Manganese was in use in prehistoric times. Paints that were pigmented with manganese dioxide can be traced back 17,000 years. The Egyptians and Romans used manganese compounds in glass-making, to either remove color from glass or add color to it.
Manganese can be found in the iron ores used by the Spartans. Some speculate that
the exceptional hardness of Spartan steels derives from the inadvertent production of
an iron-manganese alloy.
In the 17th century, the German chemist Johann Glauber first produced permanganate, a useful laboratory reagent. By the mid 18th century, manganese oxide was in
use in the manufacture of chlorine. The Swedish chemist Scheele was the first to recognize that manganese was an element, and his colleague, Johan Gottlieb Gahn, isolated the pure element in 1774 by reduction of the dioxide with carbon. Around the
beginning of the 19th century, scientists began exploring the use of manganese in
steelmaking, with patents being granted for its use at the time. In 1816, it was noted
that adding manganese to iron made it harder, without making it any more brittle.
Biological Role
Manganese is an essential trace nutrient in all forms of life. The classes of enzymes
that have manganese cofactors are very broad and include such classes as oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases, isomerases, ligases, lectins, and integrins.
The best known manganese containing polypeptides may be arginase, Mn containing
superoxide dismutase, and the diphtheria toxin.
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Compounds
Potassium permanganate, also called Condy's crystals, is a commonly used laboratory reagent because of its oxidizing properties and finds use as a topical medicine (for
example, in the treatment of fish diseases).
Manganese dioxide is used in dry cells, and can be used to decolorize glass that is
polluted by trace amounts of iron. Manganese compounds can color glass an amethyst
color, and is responsible for the color of true amethyst. Manganese dioxide is also
used in the manufacture of oxygen and chlorine, and in drying black paints.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring manganese is composed of 1 stable isotope; 55-Mn. 18 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 53-Mn with a half-life of
3.7 million years, 54-Mn with a half-life of 312.3 days, and 52-Mn with a half-life of
5.591 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half lives that are less than
3 hours and the majority of these have half lives that are less than 1 minute. This element also has 3 meta states.
Manganese is part of the iron group of elements which are thought to be synthesized
in large stars shortly before supernova explosion. Manganese-53 decays to 53Cr with
a half-life of 3.7 million years. Because of its relatively short half-life, 53Mn is an extinct radionuclide. Manganese isotopic contents are typically combined with chromium isotopic contents and have found application in isotope geology. Mn-Cr isotopic
ratios reinforce the evidence from 26Al and 107Pd for the early history of the solar
system. Variations in 53Cr/52Cr and Mn/Cr ratios from several meteorites indicate an
initial 53Mn/55Mn ratio that suggests Mn-Cr isotopic systematics must result from
in-situ decay of 53Mn in differentiated planetary bodies. Hence 53Mn provides additional evidence for nucleosynthetic processes immediately before coalescence of the
solar system.
The isotopes of manganese range in atomic weight from 46 amu (46-Mn) to 65 amu
(65-Mn). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 55-Mn, is
electron capture and the primary mode after is beta decay.
Occurrence
Land-based resources are large but irregularly distributed; those of the United
States are very low grade and have potentially high extraction costs. South Africa and
Ukraine account for more than 80% of the world's identified resources; South Africa
accounts for more than 80% of the total exclusive of China and Ukraine.
US Import Sources (1998-2001): Manganese ore: Gabon, 70%; South Africa, 10%; Australia, 9%; Mexico, 5%; and other, 6%. Ferromanganese: South Africa, 47%; France, 22%;
Mexico, 8%; Australia, 8%; and other, 15%. Manganese contained in all manganese imports: South Africa, 31%; Gabon, 21%; Australia, 13%; Mexico, 8%; and other, 27%. Manganese is mined in Burkina Faso.
Vast quantities of manganese exist in manganese nodules on the ocean floor. Attempts to find economically viable methods of harvesting manganese nodules were
abandoned in the 1970s.
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Applications
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Iron is the most used of all the metals, comprising 95 percent of all the metal tonnage produced worldwide. Its combination of low cost and high strength make it
indispensable, especially in applications like automobiles, the hulls of large ships,
and structural components for buildings.
Iron
Iron is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Fe, atomic number 26 and atomic weight of 55.845.. Iron is a group 8 and period 4 a Transition metal.
Name: Iron
Symbol: Fe
Atomic number: 26
Group name: (none)
Colour: lustrous, metallic, greyish tinge
A typical iron atom has 56 times the mass of a typical hydrogen atom. Iron is the most
abundant metal, and is believed to be the tenth most abundant element, in the universe. Iron is also the most abundant (by mass, 34.6%) element making up the Earth;
the concentration of iron in the various layers of the Earth ranges from high at the
inner core to about 5% in the outer crust; it is possible the Earth's inner core consists
of a single iron crystal although it is more likely to be a mixture of iron and nickel;
the large amount of iron in the Earth is thought to contribute to its magnetic field. Its
symbol Fe is an abbreviation of ferrum, the Latin word for iron.
Iron is a metal extracted from iron ore, and is hardly ever found in the free (elemental) state. In order to obtain elemental iron, the impurities must be removed by chemical reduction. Iron is used in the production of steel, which is not an element but an
alloy, a solution of different metals (and some non-metals, particularly carbon).
The nucleus of iron has the highest binding energy per nucleon, so it is the heaviest element that is produced exothermically through fusion and the lightest through
fission. When a star that has sufficient mass to produce iron does so, it can no longer
produce energy in its core and a supernova will ensue.
Cosmological models with an open universe predict that there will be a phase where
as a result of slow fusion and fission reactions, everything will become iron.
Steel is the best known alloy of iron, and some of the forms that iron
takes include:
* Pig iron has 4% - 5% carbon and contains varying amounts of contaminants such
as sulfur, silicon and phosphorus. Its only significance is that of an intermediate step
on the way from iron ore to cast iron and steel.
* Cast iron contains 2% - 3.5% carbon and small amounts of manganese. Contaminants present in pig iron that negatively affect the material properties, such as sulfur and phosphorus, have been reduced to an acceptable level. It has a melting point
in the range of 1420 - 1470 K, which is lower than either of its two main components,
and makes it the first product to be melted when carbon and iron are heated together. It is extremely strong, hard and brittle. Working cast iron, even white hot cast
iron, tends to break the object.
* Carbon steel contains between 0.5% and 1.5% carbon, with small amounts of manganese, sulfur, phosphorus, and silicon.
* Wrought iron contains less than 0.5% carbon. It is a tough, malleable product, not
as fusible as pig iron. It has a very small amount of carbon, a few tenths of a percent.
If honed to an edge, it loses it quickly.
* Alloy steels contain varying amounts of carbon as well as other metals, such as
chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, nickel, tungsten, etc.
* Iron (III) oxides are used in the production of magnetic storage in computers.
They are often mixed with other compounds, and retain their magnetic properties
in solution.
History
The first signs of use of iron come from the Sumerians and the Egyptians, where
around 4000 BC, small items, such as the tips of spears and ornaments, were being
fashioned from iron recovered from meteorites. Because meteorites fall from the
sky some linguists have conjectured that the English word iron, which has cognates
in many northern and western European languages, derives from the Etruscan aisar
which means "the gods".
By 3000 BC to 2000 BC, increasing numbers of smelted iron objects (distinguishable from meteoric iron by the lack of nickel in the product) appear in Mesopotamia,
Anatolia, and Egypt. However, their use appears to be ceremonial, and iron was an
expensive metal, more expensive than gold. In The Illiad, weaponry is mosty bronze,
but iron ingots are used for trade. Some resources suggest that iron was being created then as a by-product of copper refining, as sponge iron, and was not reproducible by the metallurgy of the time. By 1600 BC to 1200 BC, iron was used increasingly
in the Middle East, but did not supplant the dominant use of bronze.
In the period from the 12th to 10th century BC, there was a rapid transition in the
Middle East from bronze to iron tools and weapons. The critical factor in this tran-
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sition does not appear to be the sudden onset of a superior ironworking technology,
but instead the disruption of the supply of tin. This period of transition, which occurred at different times in different parts of the world, is the ushering in of an age of
civilization called the Iron Age.
Concurrent with the transition from bronze to iron was the discovery of carburization, which was the process of adding carbon to the irons of the time. Iron was recovered as sponge iron, a mix of iron and slag with some carbon and/or carbide, which
was then repeatedly hammered and folded over to free the mass of slag and oxidise
out carbon content, so creating the product wrought iron. Wrought iron was very low
in carbon content and was not easily hardened by quenching. The people of the Middle East found that a much harder product could be created by the long term heating
of a wrought iron object in a bed of charcoal, which was then quenched in water or
oil. The resulting product, which had a surface of steel, was harder and less brittle
than the bronze it began to replace.
In China the first irons used were also meteoric iron, with archeological evidence
for items made of wrought iron appearing in the northwest, near Xinjiang, in the 8th
century BC. These items were made of wrought iron, created by the same processes
used in the Middle East and Europe, and were thought to be imported by non-Chinese
people.
In the later years of the Zhou Dynasty (ca 550 BC), a new iron manufacturing capability began because of a highly developed kiln technology. Producing blast furnaces
capable of temperatures exceeding 1300 K, the Chinese developed the manufacture of
cast, or pig iron.
If iron ores are heated with carbon to 1420 - 1470 K, a molten liquid is formed, an alloy
of about 96.5% iron and 3.5% carbon. This product is strong, can be cast into intricate
shapes, but is too brittle to be worked, unless the product is decarburized to remove
most of the carbon. The vast majority of Chinese iron manufacture, from the Zhou dynasty onward, was of cast iron. Iron, however, remained a pedestrian product, used by
farmers for hundreds of years, and did not really affect the nobility of China until the
Qin dynasty (ca 221 BC).
Cast iron development lagged in Europe, as the smelters could only achieve temperatures of about 1000 K. Through a good portion of the Middle Ages, in Western Europe,
iron was still being made by the working of sponge iron into wrought iron. Some of
the earliest casting of iron in Europe occurred in Sweden, in two sites, Lapphyttan and
Vinarhyttan, between 1150 and 1350 AD. There are suggestions by scholars that the
practice may have followed the Mongols across Russia to these sites, but there is no
clear proof of this hypothesis. In any event, by the late fourteenth century, a market
for cast iron goods began to form, as a demand developed for cast iron cannonballs.
Early iron smelting (as the process is called) used charcoal as both the heat source
and the reducing agent. In 18th century England, wood supplies ran down and coke, a
fossil fuel, was used as an alternative. This innovation by Abraham Darby supplied the
energy for the Industrial Revolution.
Occurrence
Iron is one of the more common elements on Earth, making up about 5% of the Earth's
crust. Most of this iron is found in various iron oxides, such as the minerals hematite,
magnetite, and taconite. The earth's core is believed to consist largely of a metallic
iron-nickel alloy. About 5% of the meteorites similarly consist of iron-nickel alloy. Al-
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though rare, these are the major form of natural metallic iron on the earth's surface.
Industrially, iron is extracted from its ores, principally hematite (nominally Fe2O3)
and magnetite (Fe3O4) by reduction with carbon in a blast furnace at temperatures of
about 2000C. In a blast furnace, iron ore, carbon in the form of coke, and a flux such
as limestone are fed into the top of the furnace, while a blast of heated air is forced
into the funace at the bottom. In the furnace, the coke reacts with oxygen in the air
blast to produce carbon monoxide: 2 C + O2 ? 2 CO The carbon monoxide reduces the iron ore (in the chemical equation below, hematite) to molten iron, becoming
carbon dioxide in the process: 3 CO + Fe2O3 ? 2 Fe + 3 CO2 The flux is present to melt
impurities in the ore, principally silicon dioxide sand and other silicates. Common
fluxes include limestone (principally calcium carbonate) and dolomite (magnesium
carbonate). Other fluxes may be used depending on the impurities that need to be removed from the ore. In the heat of the furnace the limestone flux decomposes to calcium oxide (quicklime): CaCO3 ? CaO + CO2 Then calcium oxide combines then with
silicon dioxide to form a slag. CaO + SiO2 ? CaSiO3
The slag melts in the heat of the furnace, which silicon dioxide would not have. In
the bottom of the furnace, the molten slag floats on top of the more dense liquid iron,
and spouts in the side of the furnace may be opened to drain off either the iron or the
slag. The iron, once cooled, is called pig iron, while the slag can be used as a material
in road construction or to improve mineral-poor soils for agriculture.
Approximately 1100Mt (million tons) of iron ore was produced in the world in 2000,
with a gross market value of approximately 25 billion US dollars. While ore production
occurs in 48 countries, the five largest producers were China, Brazil, Australia, Russia and India, accounting for 70% of world iron ore production. The 1100Mt of iron ore
was used to produce approximately 572Mt of pig iron.
Compounds
Common oxidation states of iron include:
* The Iron (II) state, Fe2+, previously ferrous
* The Iron (III) state, Fe3+, previously ferric
* The Iron (IV) state, Fe4+, previously ferryl, stabilized in some enzymes (e.g. peroxidases)
* Iron (VI) is also known, if rare. In the form of potassium-ferrate (K2FeO4) it is a selective oxidizer for primary alcohols. The solid is only stable under vacuum and dark
purple in both (caustic) solution and as a solid.
* Iron carbide Fe3C is known as cementite.
* see also iron oxide
Biological Role
Iron is essential to all organisms, except for a few bacteria. Animals incorporate iron
into the heme complex, an essential component of proteins involved in redox reactions, including respiration. Inorganic iron is also found in the iron-sulfur clusters
of many enzymes, such as nitrogenase (Synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen) and hydogenase. A class of non-heme-iron enzymes is responsible for a wide
range of functions within several life forms, such as methane monooxygenase (oxidizes methane to methanol), ribonucleotide reductase (reduces ribose to desoxyribose;
DNA biosynthesis), hemerythrins (oxygen transport and fixation in marine inverte-
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brae) and purple acid phosphatase (hydrolysis of phosphate esters).
Good sources of dietary iron include meat, fish, poultry, lentils, beans, spinach, tofu,
chickpeas and black-eyed peas. Iron provided by dietary supplements is often found
as Iron (II) fumarate.
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Isotopes
Iron has four naturally-occurring stable isotopes, 54Fe, 56Fe, 57Fe and 58Fe. The relative abundances of the Fe isotopes in nature are approximately 54Fe (5.8%), 56Fe
(91.7%), 57Fe (2.2%) and 58Fe (0.3%). 60Fe is an extinct radionuclide which had a long
half-life (1.5 Myr). Much of the past work on measuring the isotopic composition of Fe
has centered on determining 60Fe variations due to processes accompanying nucleosynthesis (i.e., meteorite studies) and ore formation. The isotope 56Fe is of particular
interest to nuclear scientists as it represents the most stable nucleus possible. It is not
possible to perform fission or fusion on 56Fe and still liberate energy. This does not
hold true for any other element. In phases of the meteorites Semarkona und Chervony
Kut a correlation between the concentration of 60Ni, the daughter product of 60Fe,
and the abundance of the stable iron isotopes could be found which is evidence for
the existence of 60Fe at time formation of solar system. Possibly the energy released
by the decay of 60Fe contributed, together with the energy released by decay of the
radionuclide 26Al, to the remelting and differentiation of asteroids after their formation 4.6 billion years ago. The abundance of 60Ni present in extraterrestrial material
may also provide further insight into the origin of the solar system and its early history. Of the stable isotopes, only 57Fe has a nuclear spin. For this reason, 57Fe has application as a spin isotope in chemistry and biochemistry.
Cobalt
Cobalt is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Co and atomic
number 27 and atomic weight of 58.933195 It is a Metallic element.
Name: Cobalt
Symbol: Co
Atomic number: 27
Group name: (none)
Colour: lustrous, metallic, greyish tinge
Cobalt is a hard ferromagnetic silver-white element. The Curie temperature is of 1388

K with 1.6~1.7 Bohr magnetons per atom. It is frequently associated with nickel, and
both are characteristic ingredients of meteoric iron. Mammals require small amounts
of cobalt salts. Cobalt-60, an artificially produced radioactive isotope of cobalt, is an
important radioactive tracer and cancer-treatment agent. Cobalt has a relative permeability two thirds that of iron. Metallic cobalt commonly presents a mixture of two
crystallographic structures hcp and fcc with a transition temperature hcp->fcc of 722
K. Common oxidation states of cobalt include +2, and +3, though +1 is also seen
Applications
Alloys, such as:
* Superalloys, for parts in gas turbine aircraft engines.

* Corrosion- and wear-resistant alloys.
* High-speed steels.
* Cemented carbides (also called hard metals) and diamond tools. ;
* Magnets and magnetic recording media.
* Alnico magnets.
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* Catalysts for the petroleum and chemical industries.
* Electroplating because of its appearance, hardness, and resistance to oxidation.
* Drying agents for paints, varnishes, and inks.
* Ground coats for porcelain enamels.
* Pigments (cobalt blue and cobalt green).
* Battery electrodes.
* Steel-belted radial tires.
* Cobalt-60 has multiple uses as a gamma ray source:
* It is used in radiotherapy.
* It is used in radiation treatment of foods for sterilization (cold pasteurization).
* It is used in industrial radiography to detect structural flaws in metal parts.
Co-60 is useful as a gamma ray source partially because it can be produced in known
quantity, and very large amounts by simply exposing natural cobalt to neutrons in a
reactor for a given time.
Use in Medicine
Cobalt-60 (Co-60 or 60Co) is a radioactive metal that is used in radiotherapy. It produces two gamma rays with energies of 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV. The 60Co source is
about 2cm in diameter and as a result produces a geometric penumbra, making the
edge of the radiation field fuzzy. The metal has the unfortunate habit of producing a
fine dust, causing problems with radiation protection. The 60Co source is useful for
about 5 years but even after this point is still very radioactive, and so cobalt machines
have fallen from favor in the Western world where linacs are common. The first 60Co
therapy machine (the "cobalt bomb") was built and first used in Canada. In fact the
first machine is on display in the Saskatoon Cancer Centre look up when entering
the lobby. The second machine is out beside the walkway into the Centre.
History
Cobalt was known in ancient times through its compounds, which would color glass a
rich blue.
George Brandt (1694-1768) is credited with the discovery of cobalt. The date of discovery varies depending on the source, but is between 1730 and 1737. He was able to show
that cobalt was the source of the blue color in glasses, which previously had been
attributed to the bismuth found with cobalt. During the 19th century, cobalt blue was
produced at the Norwegian Blaafarvevrket (70-80 % of world production), led by the
Prussian industrialist Benjamin Wegner.
In 1938, John Livingood and Glenn Seaborg discovered cobalt-60. The word cobalt
comes from the German kobalt or kobold, meaning evil spirit, the metal being so
called by miners, because it was poisonous and troublesome (it polluted and degraded
the other mined elements, like nickel).
Biological Role
Cobalt in small amounts is essential to many living organisms, including humans.
Having 0.13 to 0.30 parts per million of cobalt in soils markedly improves the health of
grazing animals. Cobalt is a central component of the vitamin cobalamin, or vitamin
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B-12.
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Occurrence
Cobalt is not found as a free metal and is generally found in the form of ores. Cobalt
is usually not mined alone, and tends to be produced as a by-product of nickel and
copper mining activities. The main ores of cobalt are cobaltite, erythrite, glaucodot,
and skutterudite. The world's major producers of cobalt are DRC, mainland China,
Zambia, Russia and Australia
Compounds
Due to the various oxidation states, there is an abundant number of compounds.
Oxides are antiferromagnetic at low temperature CoO (Neel temperature: 291 K) and
Co3O4 (Neel temperature: 40 K).
Isotopes
Naturally occurring cobalt is composed of 1 stable isotope, 59-Co (59Co). 22 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 60Co with a half-life of
5.2714 years, 57-Co (57Co) with a half-life of 271.79 days, and 56-Co (56Co) with a half-life
of 77.27 days, and 58-Co (58Co) with a half life of 70.86 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 18 hours and the majority of these
have half lives that are less than 1 second. This element also has 4 meta states, all of
which have half lives less than 15 minutes.
The isotopes of cobalt range in atomic weight from 50 amu (50Co) to 73 amu (73Co).
The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 59Co, is electron
capture and the primary mode after is beta decay. The primary decay products before
59Co are element 26 (iron) isotopes and the primary products after are element 28
(nickel) isotopes.
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0.007 mg M-3.
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Physical Properties
Nickel
Nickel is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Ni, atomic number 28 and atomic weight of 58.6934. It is a Transition metal element.
Name: Nickel
Symbol: Ni
Atomic number: 28
Group name: (none)
Colour: lustrous, metallic, silvery tinge
Nickel is silvery white metal that takes on a high polish. It belongs to the iron group,
and is hard, malleable, and ductile. It occurs combined with sulfur in millerite, with
arsenic in the mineral niccolite, and with arsenic and sulfur in nickel glance.
On account of its permanence in air and inertness to oxidation, it is used in the smaller coins, for plating iron, brass, etc., for chemical apparatus, and in certain alloys, as
german silver. It is magnetic, and is very frequently accompanied by cobalt, both being found in meteoric iron. It is chiefly valuable for the alloys it forms.
Nickel is one of the five ferromagnetic elements. Because of the precise alloy used,
the US "nickel" coin is not ferromagnetic, while the Canadian coin of the same name
is.
The most common oxidation state of nickel is +2, though 0, +1 and +3 Ni complexes are
observed.
Nickel is found as a constituent in most meteorites and often serves as one of the criteria for distinguishing a meteorite from other minerals. Iron meteorites, or siderites,
may contain iron alloyed with from 5 to nearly 20% nickel. The USA 5-cent coin (whose
nickname is nickel) contains just 25% nickel. Nickel is a silvery white metal that takes
on a high polish. It is hard, malleable, ductile, somewhat ferromagnetic, and a fair
conductor of heat and electricity.
Nickel carbonyl, [Ni(CO)4], is an extremely toxic gas and exposure should not exceed
Melting points of the chemical elements displayed on a miniature periodic tableMelting point: 1728 [or 1455 C (2651 F)] K
Boiling points of the chemical elements displayed on a miniature periodic tableBoiling point: 3186 [or 2913 C (5275 F)] K
Density of the chemical elements displayed on a miniature periodic tableDensity of
solid: 8908 kg m-3
Applications
About 65% of the nickel consumed in the Western World is used to make austenitic
stainless steel. Another 12% goes into superalloys. The remaining 23% of consumption
is divided between alloy steels, rechargeable batteries, catalysts and other chemicals,
coinage, foundry products, and plating.
Applications include:
* Stainless steel and other corrosion-resistant alloys.

* Nickel steel is used for armor plates and burglar-proof vaults. * The alloy Alnico is
used in magnets.
* Mu-metal has an especially high magnetic permeability, and is used to screen magnetic fields.
* Monel metal is a steel alloy highly resistant to corrosion, used for ship propellors,
kitchen supplies, and chemical industry plumbing
* Smart wire, or shape memory alloys, are used in robotics.
* Rechargable batteries, such as nickel metal hydride batteries and nickel cadmium
batteries.
* Coinage. In the United States and Canada, nickel is used in five-cent coins called
nickels. See also clad.
* In electroplating.
* In crucibles for chemical laboratories.
* Finely divided nickel is a catalyst for hydrogenating vegetable oils.
History
Nickel use is ancient, and can be traced back as far as 3500 BC. Bronzes from what is
now Syria had a nickel content of up to two percent. Further, there are Chinese manuscripts suggesting that "white copper" (e.g. paitung) was used in the Orient between
1400 and 1700 BC. However, because the ores of nickel were easily mistaken for ores of
silver, any understanding of this metal and its use dates to more contemporary times.
Minerals containing nickel (e.g. kupfernickel, or false copper) were of value for coloring glass green. In 1751, Baron Axel Frederik Cronstedt was attempting to extract copper from kupfernickel (now called niccolite), and obtained instead a white metal that
he called nickel.
The first nickel coin of the pure metal was made in 1881.
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Biological Role
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Many but not all hydrogenases contain nickel in addition to iron-sulfur clusters.
Nickel centers are a common element in those hydrogenases whose function is to oxidize rather than evolve hydrogen. The nickel center appears to undergo changes in
oxidation state, and evidence has been presented that the nickel center might be the
active site of these enzymes.
A nickel-tetrapyrrole coenzyme, Co-F430, is present in the methyl CoM reductase and
in methanogenic bacteria. The tetrapyrrole is intermediate in structure between porphyrin and corrin. Changes in redox state, as well as changes in nickel coordination,
have recently been observed.
There is also a nickel-containing carbon monoxide dehydrogenase. Little is known
about the structure of the nickel site.
Occurrence
The bulk of the nickel mined comes from two types of ore deposits. The first are laterites where the principal ore minerals are nickeliferous limonite [(Fe,Ni)O(OH)] and
garnierite (a hydrous nickel silicate). The second are magmatic sulfide deposits where
the principal ore mineral is pentlandite [(Ni,Fe)9S8]. In terms of supply, the Sudbury
region of Ontario, Canada, produces about 30 percent of the world's supply of nickel.
Other deposits are found in Russia, New Caledonia, Australia, Cuba, and Indonesia.
However, most of the nickel on Earth is believed to be concentrated in the planet's
core.
Compounds
* Kamacite, a naturally occurring alloy of iron and nickel.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring nickel is composed of 5 stable isotopes; 58-Ni, 60-Ni, 61-Ni, 62-Ni
and 64-Ni with 58-Ni being the most abundant (68.077% natural abundance). 18 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 59-Ni with a half-life
of 76,000 years, 63-Ni with a half-life of 100.1 years, and 56-Ni with a half-life of 6.077
days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 60
hours and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 30 seconds. This element also has 1 meta state.
Nickel-56 is produced in large quantities in type II supernova and the shape of the
light curve of these supernova corresponds to the decay of nickel-56 to cobalt-56 and
then to iron-56.
Nickel-59 is a long-lived cosmogenic radionuclide with a half-life of 76,000 years.
59Ni has found many applications in isotope geology. 59Ni has been used to date the
terrestrial age of meteorites and to determine abundances of extraterrestrial dust in
ice and sediment. Nickel-60 is the daughter product of the extinct radionuclide 60Fe
(half-life = 1.5 Myr). Because the extinct radionuclide 60Fe had such a long half-life, its
persistence in solar_system materials at high enough concentrations may have generated observable variations in the isotopic composition of 60Ni. Therefore, the abun-
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dance of 60Ni present in extraterrestrial material may provide insight into the origin
of the solar system and its early history.The isotopes of nickel range in atomic weight
from 52 amu (52-Ni) to 74 amu (74-Ni).
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Copper
Copper is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Cu, atomic
Name: Copper
Symbol: Cu
Atomic number: 29
Group name: Coinage metal
Copper is a reddish-coloured metal, with a high electrical and thermal conductivity
(among pure metals at room temperature, only silver has a higher electrical conductivity). Copper may well be the oldest metal in use, as copper artifacts dating to 8700
BC have been found. Besides being part of various ores, copper can be found in the
metallic form ( i.e. native copper) in some locations.
In Greek times, the metal was known by the name Chalkos. In Roman times, it became
known as aes Cyprium, because so much of it was mined in Cyprus. From this, the
phrase was simplified to cuprum and then Anglicized into the English copper..
Applications
Copper is malleable and ductile, and is used extensively, in products such as:
*Copper wire.
* Copper plumbing.
* Doorknobs and other fixtures in houses.
* Statuary: The Statue of Liberty, for example, contains 179,000 pounds of copper.
* Electromagnets.
* Motors, esp electromagnetic motors.
* Watt's steam engine.
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* Electrical relays , electrical busbars and electrical switches.
* Vacuum tubes, cathode ray tubes, and the magnetrons in microwave ovens.
* Wave guides for microwave radiation.
* There is increasing use of copper in integrated circuits, replacing aluminium because of its superior conductivity.
* As a component of coins.
* In cookware, such as frying pans.
* Most flatware (knives, forks, spoons) contains some copper (nickel silver).
* Sterling silver, if it is to be used in dinnerware, must contain a few percent copper.
* As a component in ceramic glazes, and to color glass.
* Musical instruments, especially brass instruments.
* As a biostatic surface in hospitals, and to line parts of ships to protect against barnacles and mussels.
* Compounds, such as Fehling's solution, have applications in chemistry.
* Copper (II) sulfate is used as a poison and a water purifier.
History
Copper was known to some of the oldest civilizations on record, and has a history
of use that is at least 10,000 years old. A copper pendant was found in what is now
northern Iraq that dates to 8700 BC. By 5000 BC there are signs of copper smelting,
the refining of copper from simple copper oxides such as malachite or azurite. The
earliest signs of gold use, by contrast, appear around 4000 BC.
There are copper and bronze artifacts from Sumerian cities that date to 3000 BC, and
Egyptian artifacts in copper and copper alloyed with tin nearly as old. In one pyramid,
a copper plumbing system was found that is 5000 years old. The Egyptians found that
adding a small amount of tin made the metal easier to cast, so bronze alloys are found
in Egypt almost as soon as copper is found. Use of copper in ancient China dates to at
least 2000 BC. By 1200 BC excellent bronzes were being made in China. Note that these
dates are affected by wars and conquest, as copper is easily melted down and reused.
In Europe, Oetzi the Iceman, a well preserved male dated to 3200 BC, was found with a
copper tipped axe whose metal was 99.7% pure. High levels of arsenic in his hair suggests he was involved in copper smelting.
The use of bronze was so pervasive in a certain era of civilization that it has been
named the Bronze Age. The transitional period in certain regions between the preceding Neolithic period and the Bronze Age is termed the Chalcolithic, with some high
purity copper tools being used alongside stone tools. Brass, an alloy of zinc and copper, was known to the Greeks but first used extensively by the Romans.
Copper was associated with the goddess Aphrodite/Venus in mythology and alchemy,
owing to its lustrous beauty, its ancient use in producing mirrors, and its association
with Cyprus, which was sacred to the goddess. In alchemy, the symbol for copper was
also the symbol for the planet Venus.
Biological Role
Copper is essential in all higher plants and animals. Copper is found in a variety of
enzymes, including the copper centers of cytochrome c oxidase, the Cu-Zn containing
enzyme superoxide dismutase, and is the central metal in the oxygen carrying pigment hemocyanin. The blood of the horseshoe crab, Limulus polyphemus uses copper
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rather than iron for oxygen transport.
The RDA for copper in normal healthy adults is 0.9 mg/day. Copper is carried mostly
in the bloodstream on a plasma protein called ceruloplasmin. Though when copper is
first absorbed in the gut it is transported to the liver bound to albumin.
An inherited condition called Wilson's disease causes the body to retain copper, as it
is not excreted by the liver into the bile. This disease, if untreated, can lead to brain
and liver damage.
Occurrence
Copper is found as native copper in mineral form. Minerals such as the carbonates
azurite and malachite are sources of copper, as are sulfides such as chalcopyrite
(CuFeS2), bornite (Cu5FeS4), covellite (CuS), chalcocite (Cu2S) and oxides like cuprite
(Cu2O).
Compounds
There are numerous alloys of copper - speculum metal is a copper/tin alloy, Brass is a
copper/zinc alloy, and bronze is a copper/tin alloy. Common oxidation states of copper include the copper (I) state, Cu+1, and copper (II) state, Cu+2.
Copper carbonate is green from which arises the unique appearance of copper-clad
roofs or domes on some buildings.
Copper oxides (e.g. yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa2Cu3O7-?) or YBCO) form the basis of many unconventional superconductors Other compoundscopper (II) sulfide.
Isotopes
There are two stable isotopes, 63Cu and 65Cu, along with a couple dozen radioisotopes. The vast majority of radioisotopes have half lives on the order of minutes or
less, the longest lived, 64Cu, has a half life of 12.7 hours, with two decay modes, leading to two separate products.
Mining
Most copper currently is mined from large open pit mines in deposits that contain
less than one percent copper. Examples include: Chuquicamata, Chile and El Chino
mine in New Mexico.
Copper concentrate generally contains 25 to 30 percent copper. Copper concentrate
is the resulting product after mine ore (containing less than 1 percent copper) has
been crushed, milled and concentrated.
Copper cathode is 99.97% copper in sheets of dimensions: 96 cm x 95 cm x 1 cm, with
a mass of about 100 kg. It a true commodity and the product deliverable to the metal
exchanges in New York, London and Shanghai. A chemical specification for electrolytic grade copper is ASTM B 115-00.
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Zinc
Zinc is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Zn, atomic number 30 and atomic weight of 65.409. It is a Metallic element.
Name: Zinc
Symbol: Zn
Atomic number: 30
Group name: (none)
Colour: bluish pale grey
Zinc is a moderately reactive metal that will combine with oxygen and other
non-metals, and will react with dilute acids to release hydrogen. The one common oxidation state of zinc is +2.
Applications
Zinc is the fourth most common metal in use, trailing only iron, aluminium, and copper in tons of metal produced per year.
* Zinc is used to galvanize metals such as steel to prevent their corrosion.
* Zinc is used in alloys such as brass, nickel silver, typewriter metal, various solder
formulas, German silver, etc.
* Brass, in turn, has wide application because of its strength and corrosion resistance.
* Zinc is used in die castings, especially by the automobile industry.
* Rolled zinc is used as part of the containers of batteries.
* Zinc oxide is used as a white pigment in watercolors and paints, and as an activator
in the rubber industry. As an over-the-counter ointment, it is applied as a thin coating
on the exposed skin of the face and nose to prevent dehydration and thereby protect
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against sunburn in the summer and windburn in the winter. Applied thinly to a baby's
diaper area (perineum) with each diaper change, it protects against rash.
* Zinc chloride is used as a deodorant and as a wood preservative.
* Zinc sulfide is used in luminescent pigments, for making the hands of clocks and
other items that glow in the dark.
* Zinc methyl (Zn(CH3)2) is used in a number of organic syntheses.
* Lotions made of calamine, a mix of Zn-(hydroxy-)carbonates and silicates, are used
to treat skin rash.
* Zinc metal is included in most proprietary over-the-counter daily vitamin and
mineral preparations. Along with some other metals, it is commonly believed to possess anti-oxidant properties, which protect against premature aging of the skin and
muscles of the body. In larger amounts, taken as zinc alone in other proprietaries, it is
believed to speed up the healing process after an injury.
* Zinc gluconate glycine is taken in lozenge form as a remedy for the common cold.
History
Zinc alloys have been used for centuries, as brass goods dating to 1000-1400 BC have
been found in Palestine and zinc objects with 87% zinc have been found in prehistoric
Transylvania. Because of the low boiling point and chemical reactivity of this metal
(isolated zinc would tend to go up the chimney rather than be captured), the true nature of this metal was not understood in ancient times.
The manufacture of brass was known to the Romans by about 30 BC, using a technique where calamine and copper were heated together in a crucible. The zinc oxides
in calamine were reduced, and the free zinc metal was trapped by the copper, forming
an alloy. The resulting brass was either cast or hammered into shape.
Smelting and extraction of impure forms of zinc was being accomplished as early as
AD 1000 in India and China. By the end of the 14th century, the Hindus were aware
of the existence of zinc as a metal separate from the seven known to the ancients. In
the West, the discovery of pure metallic zinc is most often credited to the German
Andreas Marggraf, in the year 1746, though the whole story is considerably more involved.
Descriptions of brass manufacture are found in Western Europe in the writings of Albertus Magnus, c. 1248, and by the 16th century, the understanding and awareness of
the new metal broadened considerably. Agricola observed, in 1546, that a white metal
could be condensed and scraped off the walls of a furnace when zinc ores were smelted. He added in his notes that a similar metal called "zincum" was being produced in
Silesia. Paracelsus (died 1541) was the first in the West to say that that "zincum" was
a new metal and that it had a separate set of chemical properties from other known
metals.
The upshot is that zinc was known by the time Marggraf made his discoveries and
in fact zinc had been isolated two years earlier by another chemist, Anton von Swab.
However, Marggraf's reports were exhaustive and methodical and the quality of his
research cemented his reputation as the discoverer of zinc. Before the discovery of
the zinc sulfide flotation technique, calamine was the mineral source of zinc metal.
Biological Role
Zinc is an essential element in human beings, necessary for sustaining life. Deficien-
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cies of zinc have marked effects on weight gain in animals. Zinc is found in insulin,
zinc finger proteins, and such enzymes as superoxide dismutase.
According to some sources, taking zinc tablets may provide some immunity against
colds and flu, although this is disputed. Eyesight, taste, smell and memory are also
connected with zinc and a deficiency in zinc can cause malfunctions of these organs
and functions.
Natural food sources of zinc include oysters, red meat and poultry, beans, nuts, whole
grains, pumpkin seed or sunflower seeds. In males, zinc is important for the production of semen. Up to 5 mg of zinc is lost during ejaculation. Defiencies in zinc in males
can lead to reduced sperm count and sex drive. Frequent ejaculations can lead to zinc
defiency.
Abundance
Zinc is the 23rd most abundant element in the earth's crust. The most heavily mined
ores tend to contain roughly 10% iron as well as 40-50% zinc. Minerals from which zinc
is extracted include sphalerite, zinc blende, smithsonite, calamine, and franklinite.
There are zinc mines throughout the world, with the largest producers being Australia, Canada, China, Peru and the U.S.A. Mines in Europe include Vieille Montagne in
Belgium and Zinkgruvan in Sweden.
Compounds
Zinc oxide is perhaps the best known and most widely used zinc compound, as it
makes a good base for white pigments in paint. It also finds industrial use in the rubber industry, and is sold as opaque sunscreen. A variety of other zinc compounds find
use industrially, such as zinc chloride (in deodorants), zinc sulfide (in luminescent
paints), and zinc methyl in the organic laboratory. Roughly one quarter of all zinc output is consumed in the form of zinc compounds.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring zinc is composed of the 4 stable isotopes Zn-64, Zn-66, Zn-67, and
Zn-68 with 64 being the most abundant (48.6% natural abundance). 22 radioisotopes
have been characterized with the most (abundant and/or stable) being Zn-65 with a
half-life of 244.26 days, and Zn-72 with a half-life of 46.5 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 14 hours and the majority of these
have half lives that are less than 1 second. This element also has 4 meta states.
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Gallium
Gallium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Ga, atomic
number 31 and atomic weight of 69.723 It is a Metallic element.
Name: Gallium
Symbol: Ga
Atomic number: 31
Standard state: solid at 298 K (but melts only slightly above this temperature)
Group name: (none)
A rare, soft silvery metallic poor metal, gallium is brittle at low temperatures but is
liquid above room temperature and can indeed melt in the hand. It occurs in trace
amounts in bauxite and zinc ores. Gallium arsenide is used as a semiconductor, most
notably in light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
Very-pure gallium has a stunning silvery color and its solid metal fractures conchoidally like glass. Gallium metal expands by 3.1 percent when it solidifies, and therefore
should not be stored in either glass or metal containers. Gallium also corrodes most
other metals by diffusing into their metal lattice.
Gallium is one of four metals (with caesium, mercury, and rubidium) which are liquid
at near normal room temperature, and can therefore be used in high-temperature
thermometers. It is also notable for having one of the largest liquid ranges for a metal,
and for having a low vapor pressure at high temperatures.
This metal has a strong tendency to supercool below its melting point, thus necessitating seeding in order to solidify. High-purity gallium is attacked slowly by mineral
acids. The melting point temperature is very low, T=30C, and the density is higher
in the liquid state than in the crystalline state (like in the case of water; the opposite
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effect is normally found for metals).

Gallium does not crystallize in any of the simple crystal structures. The stable phase
under normal conditions is orthorhombic with 8 atoms in the conventional unit cell.
Each atom has only one nearest neighbor (at a distance of 2.44) and six other neighbors within additional 0.39 . Many stable and metastable phases are found as function of temperature and pressure.
The bonding between the nearest neighbors is found to be of covalent character,
hence Ga2 dimers is seen as the fundamental building block of the crystal. The compound, gallium arsenide is a semiconductor commonly used in light-emitting diodes).
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coal, diaspore, germanite, and sphalerite. The USGS estimates gallium reserves based
on 50 ppm concentration in known reserves of bauxite and zinc ores. Some flue dusts
from burning coal have been shown to contain as much 1.5 percent gallium.
Applications
Analog integrated circuits are the most common application for gallium, with optoelectronic devices (mostly laser diodes and light-emitting diodes) as the second largest end use.
Other uses include:
* Since it wets glass or porcelain, gallium is used to create brilliant mirrors.

* Used widely to dope semiconductors and produce solid-state devices like transistors.
* Gallium readily alloys with most metals, and has been used as a component in
low-melting alloys. The plutonium pits of nuclear weapons employ an alloy with gallium to stabilize of the allotropes of plutonium. Much research is being devoted to
gallium alloys as substitutes for mercury dental amalgams, but such compounds have
yet to see wide acceptance. Gallium added in quantities up to 2% in common solders
can aid wetting and flow characteristics.
* Gallium is used in some high temperature thermometers, and a eutectic alloy of
gallium, indium, and tin is widely available in fever thermometers, replacing mercury.
This alloy, with the trade name Galinstan, has a freezing point of -20C.
* Magnesium gallate containing impurities (such as Mn+2), is beginning to be used
in ultraviolet-activated phosphor powder.
History
Gallium (Latin Gallia meaning "France"; also gallus, meaning "cock") was discovered
spectroscopically by Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875 by its characteristic spectrum (two
violet lines) in an examination of a zinc blend from the Pyrenees. Before its discovery,
most of its properties had been predicted and described by Dmitri Mendeleev (who
called the hypothetical element eka-aluminium) on the basis of its position in his periodic table. Later in 1875, Boisbaudran obtained the free metal through the electrolysis
of its hydroxide in KOH solution. He named the element after his native land of France
and, in one of those multilingual puns so beloved of men of science of the early 19th
century, after himself, as 'Lecoq' = the rooster, and Latin for rooster is "gallus".
Occurrence
Gallium does not exist in pure form in nature, nor are gallium compounds a primary
source of extraction. It is rather found and extracted as a trace component in bauxite,
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Germanium
Germanium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Ge, atomic number 32 and atomic weight of 72.64. It is a Semi-metallic element.
Name: Germanium
Symbol: Ge
Atomic number: 32
Group name: (none)
Colour: greyish white
This is a lustrous, hard, silver-white, metalloid that is chemically similar to tin. Germanium forms a large number of organometallic compounds and is an important
semiconductor material used in transistors and photodetectors.
Germanium is a hard, grayish-white element that has a metallic luster and the same
crystal structure as diamond. In addition, it is important to note that germanium is
a semiconductor, with electrical properties between those of a metal and an insulator. In its pure state, this metalloid is crystalline, brittle and retains its luster in air at
room temperature. Zone refining techniques have led to the production of crystalline
germanium for semiconductors that have an impurity of only one part in 1010.
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an increasing market for germanium, but then high purity silicon began replacing
germanium in transistors, diodes, and rectifiers. Silicon has superior electrical properties, but requires much higher purity samples, a purity which could not be commercially achieved in the early days. Meanwhile, demand for germanium in fiber
optics communication networks, infrared night vision systems, and polymerization
catalysts increased dramatically. These end uses represented 85% of worldwide germanium consumption for 2000.
Applications
Unlike most semiconductors, germanium has a small band gap, allowing it to efficiently respond to infrared light. It is therefore used in infrared spectroscopes and
other optical equipment which require extremely sensitive infrared detectors. Its
oxide's index of refraction and dispersion properties make germanium useful in
wide-angle camera lenses and in microscope objective lenses.
Germanium transistors are still used in electric guitar amplifiers by musicians who
wish to reproduce the distinctive character of amplifiers from the early Rock and
roll era.
The alloy silicon germanide (SiGe) is rapidly becoming an important semiconductor
material, for use in high speed integrated circuits. Circuits utilising the properties of
Si-SiGe junctions can be much faster than those using silicon alone.
Other uses:
Alloying agent.
* Phosphor in fluorescent lamps.
* A catalyst. Certain compounds of germanium have low toxicity to mammals, but
have toxic effects against certain bacteria. This property makes these compounds
useful as chemotherapeutic agents.
Occurrence
This metal is found in argyrodite (sulfide of germanium and silver); coal; germanite;
zinc ores; and other minerals.
Germanium is obtained commercially from zinc ore processing smelter dust and
from the combustion by-products of certain coals. A large reserve of this element is
therefore in coal sources. This metaloid can be extracted from other metals by fractional distillation of its volatile tetrachloride. This technique permits the production
of ultra-high purity germanium.
In 1997 the cost of germanium was about US$3 per gram. The yearend price for germanium in 2000 was $1,150 per kilogram (or $1.15 per gram).
History
In 1871 germanium (Latin Germania for Germany) was one of the elements that Dmitri
Mendeleev predicted to exist as a missing analogue of the silicon group (Mendeleev
called it "ekasilicon"). The existence of this element was proven by Clemens Winkler
in 1886. This discovery was an important confirmation of Mendeleev's idea of element
periodicity.
The development of the germanium transistor opened the door to countless applications of solid-state electronics. From 1950 through the early 1970s, this area provided
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Arsenic
Arsenic is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol As, atomic
number 33 and atomic weight of 74.9216 It is a Semi-metallic element. In the Pnictogen
group.
Name: Arsenic
Symbol: As
Atomic number: 33
Colour: metallic grey
This is a notorious poisonous metalloid that has three allotropic forms; yellow, black
and grey. Arsenic and its compounds are used as pesticides, herbicides and insecticides and various alloys.
Arsenic is chemically very similar to its predecessor phosphorus, so much so that
it will partly substitute for it in biochemical reactions and is thus poisonous. When
heated it rapidly oxidizes to arsenous oxide, which has a garlic odor. Arsenic and some
arsenic compounds can also sublime upon heating, converting to gaseous form directly. Elemental arsenic is found in two solid forms: yellow and gray metallic, with specific gravities of 1.97 and 5.73, respectively.
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conductor material, used in integrated circuits. Circuits made using the compound
are much faster (but also much more expensive) than those made in silicon. Unlike
silicon it is direct bandgap, and so can be used in laser diodes and LEDs to directly
convert electricity into light.
Arsenic trioxide has been used in hematology to treat patients with acute promyelocytic leukemia that are resistant to ATRA treatment. Arsenic trioxide is used in
Australia for treating termite infestations in houses.. Also used in; bronzing, pyrotechny
History
The word Arsenic is borrowed from the Persian word Nil Zarnik meaning "yellow
orpiment". Zarnik was borrowed by Greek as arsenikon. Arsenic has been known and
used in Persia and elsewhere since ancient times. It was frequently used for murder,
the symptoms of arsenic poisoning being somewhat ill-defined, until the advent of
the Marsh test, a sensitive chemical test for its presence. During the Bronze Age, arsenic was often included in the bronze (mostly as an impurity), which made the alloy
harder. Albertus Magnus is believed to have been the first to isolate the element in
1250. In 1649 Johann Schroeder published two ways of preparing arsenic.
There is a massive epidemic of arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh. This is due to the
massive tube well drinking-water program instigated by western NGOs in the late
twentieth century, who failed to test for arsenic in the groundwater. Hundreds of
thousands of people are affected. It is thought to be the worst mass-poisoning in
history, and possibly the worst environmental disaster in history.
Occurrence
Arsenopyrite also called mispickel (FeSAs) is the most common mineral from which,
on heating, the arsenic sublimes leaving ferrous sulfide.
The most important compounds of arsenic are white arsenic, its sulfide, Paris green,
calcium arsenate, and lead arsenate. Paris green, calcium arsenate, and lead arsenate
have been used as agricultural insecticides and poisons. It is sometimes found native, but usually combined with silver, cobalt, nickel, iron, antimony, or sulfur.
In addition to the inorganic forms mentioned above, arsenic also occurs in various
organic forms in the environment. Inorganic arsenic and its compounds, upon entering the food chain, are progressively metabolised to a less toxic form of arsenic
through a process of methylation
Applications
Lead arsenate has been used, well into the 20th century, as a pesticide on fruit trees
(resulting in neurological damage to those working the sprayers), and copper arsenate
has even been recorded in the 19th century as a coloring agent in sweets. Other uses;
Various agricultural insecticides and poisons., Gallium arsenide is an important semi-
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Selenium
Selenium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Se, atomic
number 34 and atomic weight of 78.96. It is a Chalcogen a Non-metallic element.
Name: Selenium
Symbol: Se
Atomic number: 34
Colour: grey, metallic lustre
This is a toxic nonmetal that is chemically related to sulfur and tellurium. It occurs in
several different forms but one of these is a stable gray metallike form that conducts
electricity better in the light than in the dark and is used in photocells. This element
is found in sulfide ores such as pyrite.
Selenium exists in a number of allotropic forms. In the powdered form, amorphous
selenium is red, while the vitreous form is black. Crystalline hexagonal selenium is a
metallic gray, while the monoclinic crystal is a deep red color.
It also exhibits a photovoltaic effect, converting light to electricity, and a photoconductive effect, electrical conductance increasing as selenium is exposed to light. Below its melting point, selenium is a p type semiconductor.
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Selenium is used to remove color from glass, as it will counteract the green color
ferrous impurities impart. It also can be used to give a red color to glasses and enamels. Selenium is used to improve the abrasion resistance in vulcanized rubbers. It also
finds application in photocopying.
Another use for selenium is the toning of photographs, and is sold by numerous photographic manufacturers including Kodak and Fotospeed. Its artistic use is to intensify and extend the tonal range of black and white photographic images, and it can also
be used for increasing the permanence of images.
History
Selenium (Latin selene meaning "Moon") was discovered in 1817 by Jons Jacob Berzelius who found the element associated with tellurium.
Growth in selenium consumption was driven by the development of new uses, including applications in rubber compounding, steel alloying, and selenium rectifiers. By
1970, selenium in rectifiers had largely been replaced by silicon, but its use as a photoconductor in plain paper copiers had become its leading application. During the 1980s,
the photoconductor application declined (although it was still a large end-use) as
more and more copiers using organic photoconductors were produced. In 1996, continuing research showed a positive correlation between selenium supplementation
and cancer prevention in humans, but widespread direct application of this important
finding would not add significantly to demand owing to the small doses required. In
the late 1990s, the use of selenium (usually with bismuth) as an additive to plumbing
brasses to meet no-lead environmental standards became important.
Occurrence
Selenium occurs as selenide in many sulfide ores, such as those of copper, silver, or
lead. It is obtained as a byproduct of the processing of these ores, from the anode mud
of copper refineries and the mud from the lead chambers of sulfuric acid plants. These
muds can be processed by a number of means to obtain free selenium.
Isotopes
Selenium has 28 isotopes, of which 5 are stable.
Applications
Selenium is an essential micronutrient in all known forms of life; it is a component of
the unusual amino acid selenocysteine. Because of its photovoltaic and photoconductive properties, selenium is used extensively in electronics, such as photo cells, and
solar cells. Selenium is also extensively used in rectifiers.
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Bromine
Bromine (from Gr. Bromos, meaning "stench"), is a chemical element in the periodic
table that has the symbol Br, atomic number 35 and atomic weight of 79.904. It is a
Non-metallic Halogen.
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Name: Bromine
Symbol: Br
Atomic number: 35
Standard state: liquid at 298 K
Group name: Halogen
Colour: red-brown, metallic lustre when solid
Applications
Contents
Elemental bromine is used to manufacture a wide variety of bromine compounds

used in industry and agriculture. Traditionally the largest use of bromine was in the
production of 1, 2-Dibromoethane which in turn was used as a gasoline anti-knock
agent for leaded gasolines before they were largely phased out due to environmental
considerations.
Bromine is also used in making fumigants, flameproofing agents, water purification
compounds, dyes, medicinals, sanitizes, inorganic bromides for photography, etc.
Bromine is used to make brominated vegetable oil, which is used as an emulsifier in
many citrus-flavored soft drinks.
History
Bromine (Gr. bromos for stench) was discovered by Antoine Balard at salt marshes of
Montpellier in 1826 but was not produced in quantity until 1860.
Occurrence
Bromine occurs in nature as bromide salts in very diffuse amounts in crustal rock.
Due to leaching bromide salts have accumulated in sea water (85 ppm), and may be
economically recovered from brine wells and the Dead Sea (up to 5000 ppm). Approximately 500 million kilograms ($350 million USD) of bromine are produced per year
(2001) worldwide with the United States and Israel being the primary producers.
A halogen element, bromine is a red volatile liquid at room temperature which has a
reactivity between chlorine and iodine. This element is harmful to human tissue in a
liquid state and its vapour irritates eyes and throat.
Bromine is the only liquid non - metallic element at room temperature. It is a heavy,
mobile, reddish-brown liquid, that evaporates easily at standard temperature and
pressures in a red vapor (its color resembles nitrogen dioxide) that has a strong disagreeable odor. A halogen, bromine resembles chlorine chemically but is less active (it
is more active than iodine however). Bromine is very soluble in water or carbon disulfide (forming a red solution). It bonds easily with many elements and has a strong
bleaching action.
Bromine is highly reactive and is a powerful oxidizing agent in the presence of water.
It reacts vigorously with amines, alkenes and phenols as well as aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, ketones and acids (these are brominated by either addition or substitution). With many of the metals and elements, anhydrous bromine is less reactive
than wet bromine; however, dry bromine reacts vigorously with aluminium, titanium,
mercury as well as alkaline earth and alkaline metals.
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chemical analysis. When it is placed in various solids kryptonates are formed and their
activity is sensitive to surface chemical reactions. This noble gas is also used in photographic flash lamps needed for high-speed photography but this use is limited because of the high cost of krypton.
History
Krypton
Krypton is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Kr, atomic
number 36 and atomic weight of 83.798. It is a Noble gas.
Name: Krypton
Symbol: Kr
Atomic number: 36
Colour: colourless
A colorless noble gas, krypton occurs in trace amounts in the atmosphere, is isolated
by fractionating liquefied air, and is often used with other rare gases in fluorescent
lamps. Krypton is inert for most practical purposes but it is known to form compounds with fluorine. Krypton can also form clathrates with water when atoms of it
are trapped in a lattice of the water molecules.
Krypton, a so-called noble gas due to its very low chemical reactivity, is characterized
by a brilliant green and orange spectral signature. It is one of the products of uranium
fission. Solidified krypton is white and crystalline with a face-centered cubic crystal
structure which is a common property of all "rare gases."
Applications
The SI standard definition of the length of the meter was, from 1960 to 1983, based
on the light emitted by excited krypton atoms: specifically, the meter was defined as
1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the orange-red emission line emitted by krypton-86 atoms.
Krypton clathrates have been made with hydroquinone and phenol. Kr-85 is used in
Krypton (Greek kryptos meaning "hidden") was discovered in 1898 by William Ramsay
and Morris Travers in residue left from evaporating nearly all components of liquid
air. In 1960 an international agreement defined the meter in terms of light emitted
from a krypton isotope. This agreement replaced the longstanding standard meter
located in Paris which was a metal bar made of a platinum-iridium alloy (the bar was
originally estimated to be one ten millionth of a quadrant of the earth's polar circumference. In October 1983 the krypton standard was in turn replaced by the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (International Bureau of Weights and Measures). A meter is now defined as the distance that light travels in a vacuum during
1/299,792,458 s.
Occurrence
The concentration of this gas in earth's atmosphere is about 1 ppm. It can be extracted from liquid air by fractional distillation.
Compounds
Like the other rare gases krypton is widely considered to be chemically inert. However, studies conducted since the 1960s have uncovered some compounds of krypton.
Krypton difluoride has been made in gram quantities and can be produced in several
different ways. Other fluorides and a salt of a krypton called oxyacid have also been
found. ArKr+ and KrH+ molecule-ions have been investigated and there is evidence for
KrXe or KrXe+.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring krypton is composed of six stable isotopes. Krypton's spectral
signature is easily produced with some very sharp lines. Kr-81 is the product of atmospheric reactions with the other naturally occurring isotopes of krypton. It is radioactive with a half-life of 250,000 years. Like xenon, krypton is highly volatile when it is
near surface waters and Kr-81 has therefore been used for dating old (50,000 - 800,000
year) groundwater. Kr-85 is an inert radioactive noble gas with a half-life of 10.76
years, that is produced by fission of uranium and plutonium. Sources have included
nuclear bomb testing, nuclear reactors, and the release of Kr-85 during the reprocessing of fuel rods from nuclear reactors. A strong gradient exists between the northern
and southern hemispheres where concentrations at the North Pole are approximately
30% higher than the South Pole due to convective mixing.
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Rubidium
Rubidium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Rb, atomic
number 37 and atomic weight of 85.4678. It is a Alkali metal.
Name: Rubidium
Symbol: Rb
Atomic number: 37
Rubidium is a soft, silvery-white metallic element of the alkali metal group. Rb-87, a
naturally occurring isotope, is (slightly) radioactive. Rubidium is highly reactive, with
properties similar to other elements in group 1, like igniting spontaneously in air.
Rubidium is the second most electropositive of the alkaline elements and can be a liquid at room temperature. Like other group 1 elements this metal ignites spontaneously in air and reacts violently in water, liberating and sometimes igniting hydrogen.
Also like other alkali metals, it forms amalgams with mercury and it can form alloys
with gold, caesium, sodium, and potassium. The element gives a yellowish violet color
to a flame.
Applications
Rubidium can be easily ionized, and because of this has been considered for use in
ion engines for space vehicles (but caesium and xenon are more efficient for this purpose).
Other potential or current uses:
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* As a working fluid in vapor turbines.
* As a getter in vacuum tubes.
* As a photocell component.
* In the making of special glasses.
* RbAg4I5 has the highest room temperature conductivity of any known ionic crystal. This property could be useful in thin film batteries and in other applications.
* Also considered for use in a thermoelectric generator using the magnetohydrodynamic principle where rubidium ions are formed by heat at high temperature and
passed through a magnetic field. These conduct electricity and act like an armature of
a generator thereby generating an electric current.
* Rubidium compounds are sometimes used in fireworks to give them a purple color.
History
Rubidium (L rubidus, deepest red) was discovered in 1861 by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff in the mineral lepidolite through the use of a spectroscope. However
this element had minimal industrial use until the 1920s. Historically, the most important use for rubidium has been in research and development, primarily in chemical and
electronic applications.
Occurrence
This element is considered to be the 16th most abundant element in the earth's crust.
It occurs naturally in the minerals leucite, pollucite, and zinnwaldite, which contains
traces of up to 1% of its oxide. Lepidolite contains 1.5% rubidium and this is the commercial source of the element. Some potassium minerals and potassium chlorides also
contain the element in commercially significant amounts.
One notable source is also in the extensive deposits of pollucite at Bernic Lake, Manitoba. Rubidium metal can be produced by reducing rubidium chloride with calcium
among other methods. Rubidium forms at least four oxides: Rb2O, Rb2O2, Rb2O3,
RbO2. In 1997 the cost of this metal in small quantities was about US$ 25/gram.
Isotopes
There are 24 isotopes of rubidium known with naturally occurring rubidium being
composed of just two isotopes; Rb-85 (72.2%) and the radioactive Rb-87 (27.8%). Normal
mixes of rubidium are radioactive enough to expose photographic film in approximetely 30 to 60 days. Rb-87 has a half-life of 48.8 x 109 years. It readily substitutes for
potassium in minerals, and is therefore fairly widespread. Rb has been used extensively in dating rocks; Rb-87 decays to stable strontium-87 by emission of a negative beta
particle.
During fractional crystallization, Sr tends to become concentrated in plagioclase,
leaving Rb in the liquid phase. Hence, the Rb/Sr ratio in residual magma may increase
over time, resulting in rocks with increasing Rb/Sr ratios with increasing differentiation. Highest ratios (10 or higher) occur in pegmatites. If the initial amount of Sr is
known or can be extrapolated, the age can be determined by measurement of the Rb
and Sr concentrations and the Sr-87/Sr-86 ratio. The dates indicate the true age of the
minerals only if the rocks have not been subsequently altered. See Rubidium-Stron-
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tium dating for a more detailed discussion.
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Applications
At present the primary use for strontium is in glass for color television cathode ray
tubes.
Strontium
Strontium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Sr, the
atomic number 38 and atomic weight of 87.62. It is a Alkaline Earth Metal.
Name: Strontium
Symbol: Sr
Atomic number: 38
An alkaline earth metal, strontium is a soft silver-white or yellowish metallic element

that is highly reactive chemically. This metal turns yellow when exposed to air and
occurs in celestite and strontianite. Sr-90 is present in radioactive fallout and has a
half-life of 28 years.
Due to its extreme reactivity to air, this element always naturally occurs combined
with other elements and compounds, as in the minerals strontianite, celestite, etc. It
is isolated as a yellowish metal and is somewhat malleable. It is chiefly employed (as
in the nitrate) to color pyrotechnic flames red.
Strontium is a bright silvery metal that is softer than calcium and even more reactive
in water; strontium will decompose on contact to produce strontium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas. It burns in air to produce both a strontium oxide and strontium nitride,
but since it does not react with nitrogen below 380C it will only form the oxide spontaneously at room temperature. It should be kept under kerosene to prevent oxidation; freshly exposed strontium metal rapidly turns a yellowish color with the formation of the oxide. Finely powdered strontium metal will ignite spontaneously in air.
Volatile strontium salts impart a beautiful crimson color to flames, and these salts are
used in pyrotechnics and in the production of flares. Natural strontium is a mixture of
four stable isotopes.
Also:
* It is also used in producing ferrite magnets and in refining zinc.

* Strontium titanate has an extremely high refractive index and an optical dispersion greater than that of diamond, making it useful in a variety of interesting optics
applications.
* Strontium titanate has been used as a gemstone, but is very soft and so scratches
easily so it is not common in this role. It does not occur naturally.
* Strontium is also used in fireworks to provide a red color upon burning.
History
Adair Crawford recognized the mineral strontianite, named after the Scottish town
of Strontian, as differing from other barium minerals in 1790. However, Klaproth and
Hope discovered strontium itself in 1798 and metallic strontium was first isolated by
Sir Humphry Davy in 1808 using electrolysis.
Occurrence
Strontium commonly occurs in nature, averaging 0.034% of all igneous rock and is
found chiefly as the form of the sulfate mineral celestite (SrSO4) and the carbonate
strontianite (SrCO3). Of the two, celestite occurs much more frequently in sedimentary deposits of sufficient size to make development of mining facilities attractive.
Strontianite would be the more useful of the two common minerals because strontium is used most often in the carbonate form, but few deposits have been discovered
that are suitable for development. The metal can be prepared by electrolysis of the
melted chloride mixed with potassium chloride, or is made by reducing strontium
oxide with aluminium in a vacuum at a temperature at which strontium distills off.
Three allotropes of the metal exist, with transition points at 235 and 540C. Strontium
metal (98% pure) in January 1990 cost about $5/oz. The largest commercially exploited
deposits are found in England. Strontium can be isolated from strontium chloride.
Isotopes
The alkali earth metal strontium has four stable, naturally occurring isotopes: Sr-84
(0.56%), Sr-86 (9.86%), Sr-81 (7.0%) and Sr-88 (82.58%). Only Sr-87 is radiogenic; it is produced by decay from the radioactive alkali metal rubidium-87, which has a half-life
of 48,800,000 years. Thus, there are two sources of Sr-87 in any material: that formed
during primordial nucleo-synthesis along with Sr-84, Sr-86 and Sr-88, as well as that
formed by radioactive decay of Rb-87. The ratio Sr-87/Sr-86 is the parameter typically
reported in geologic investigations. Because strontium has an atomic radius similar to
that of calcium, it readily substitutes for Ca in minerals. Sr-87/Sr-86 ratios in minerals
and rocks have values ranging from about 0.7 to greater than 4.0.
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Sixteen unstable isotopes are known to exist. Of greatest importance is Sr-90 with a
half-life of 29 years. It is a by-product of nuclear fallout and presents a health problem since it substitutes for calcium in bone, preventing expulsion from the body. This
isotope is one of the best long-lived high-energy beta emitters known, and is used in
SNAP (Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power) devices. These devices hold promise for
use in spacecraft, remote weather stations, navigational buoys, etc, where a lightweight, long-lived, nuclear-electric power source is required.
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Yttrium
Yttrium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Y, atomic
number 39 and atomic weight of 88.90585. It is a Transition metal.
Name: Yttrium
Symbol: Y
Atomic number: 39
Group name: (none)
A silvery metallic transition metal, yttrium is common in rare-earth minerals and two
of its compounds are used to make the red color in color televisions.
Yttrium is a silver-metallic, lustrous rare earth metal that is relatively stable in air
and chemically resembles the lanthanides. Shavings or turnings of the metal can ignite in air when they exceed 400C. When yttrium is finely divided it is very unstable
in air. The metal has a low cross section for nuclear capture. The common oxidation
state of yttrium is +3.
Applications
Yttrium oxide is the most important yttrium compound and is widely used to make
YVO4 europium and Y2O3 europium phosphors that give the red color in color television picture tubes.
Other uses;
* Yttrium oxide is also used to make yttrium-iron-garnets which are very effective
microwave filters.
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* Yttrium iron, aluminium, and gadolinium garnets (e.g. Y3 Fe5 O12 and Y3 Al5 O12)
have interesting magnetic properties. Yttrium iron garnet is very efficient as an
acoustic energy transmitter and transducer. Yttrium aluminium garnet has a hardness
of 8.5 and is also used as a gemstone (simulated diamond).
* Small amounts of the element (0.1 to 0.2%) have been used to reduce grain size
of chromium, molybdenum, titanium, and zirconium. It is also used to increase the
strength of aluminium and magnesium alloys.
* Used as a catalyst for ethylene polymerization.
* Yttrium aluminium garnet, yttrium lithium fluoride, and yttrium vanadate are
used in combination with dopants such as neodymium or erbium in infrared lasers.
* This metal can be used to deoxidize vanadium and other nonferrous metals.
Yttrium has been studied for possible use as a nodulizer in the making of nodular cast
iron which has increased ductility (the graphite forms compact nodules instead of
flakes to form nodular cast iron). Potentially, yttrium can be used in ceramic and glass
formulas, since yttrium oxide has a high melting point and imparts shock resistance
and low expansion characteristics to glass.
History
Yttrium (Ytterby, a Swedish village near Vaxholm) was discovered by Johan Gadolin
in 1794 and isolated by Friedrich Wohler in 1828 as an impure extract of yttria through
the reduction of yttrium anhydrous chloride (YCl3) with potassium. Yttria (Y2O3) is the
oxide of yttrium and was discovered by Johan Gadolin in 1794 in a gadolinite mineral
from Ytterby.
In 1843 Carl Mosander was able to show that yttira could be divided into the oxides
(or earths) of three different elements. "Yttria" was the name used for the most basic
one and the others were named erbia and terbia.
A quarry is located near the village of Ytterby that yielded many unusual minerals
that contained rare earths and other elements. The elements erbium, terbium, and
ytterbium and yttrium have all been named after this same town.
Occurrence
This element is found in almost all rare earth minerals and in uranium ores but is
never found in nature as a free element. Yttrium is commercially recovered from
monazite sand (3% content, (Ce, La, etc.)PO4) and from bastnasite (0.2% content, (Ce,
La, etc.)(CO3)F. It is commercially produced by reducing yttrium fluoride with calcium
metal but it can also be produced using other techniques.
It is difficult to separate from other rare earths and when extracted, is a dark gray
powder. Lunar rock samples from the Apollo program have a relatively high yttrium
content.
Isotopes
Natural yttrium is composed of only one isotope (Y-89). The most stable radioisotopes
are Y-88 which has a half life of 106.65 days and Y-91 with a half life of 58.51 days. All
the other isotopes have half lifes of less than a day except Y-87 which has a half life of
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79.8 hours.
The dominant decay mode below the stable Y-89 is electron capture and the dominant mode after it is beta emission. Twenty six unstable isotopes have been characterized. Y-90 exists in equilibrium with its parent isotope strontium-90, which is a product of nuclear explosions.
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Zirconium
Zirconium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Zr, atomic
Name: Zirconium
Symbol: Zr
Atomic number: 40
Group name: (none)
A lustrous gray-white, strong transition metal that resembles titanium, zirconium is

obtained chiefly from zircon and is very corrosion resistant. Zirconium is primarily
used in nuclear reactors for a neutron absorber and to make corrosion-resistant alloys.
It is a grayish-white metal, lustrous and exceptionally corrosion resistant. Zirconium
is lighter than steel and its hardness is similar to copper. When it is finely divided, the
metal can spontaneously ignite in air, especially at high temperatures (it is much more
difficult to ignite the solid metal). Zirconium zinc alloy becomes magnetic at temperatures below 35K. Common oxidation states of zirconium include +2, +3 and +4.
Applications
The major end uses of zircon (ZrSiO4) are refractories, foundry sands (including investment casting), and ceramic opacification. Zircon is also marketed as a natural
gemstone used in jewelry, and its oxide is processed to produce the diamond simulant, cubic zirconia.
Other uses;
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* Zirconium has a low absorption cross section for neutrons, which makes it ideal for
nuclear energy uses, such as cladding fuel elements. More than 90% of zirconium metal production is consumed by commercial nuclear power generation. Modern commercial scale reactors can use as much as a 150,000 meters of zirconium alloy tubing.
* Extensively used by the chemical industry for piping in corrosive environments.
* Zirconium is pyrophoric (flammable) and has been used in military incendiaries.
* Its carbonate is used in poison ivy lotions.
* Impure zirconium oxide, zirconia, is used to make laboratory crucibles that can
withstand heat shock, for linings of metallurgical furnaces, and by the ceramic and
glass industries as a refractory material.
* Human tissues can easily tolerate this metal which makes it suitable for some artificial joints and limbs.
* Also used in heat exchangers, as a "getter" in vacuum tubes, in lamp filaments and
various specialty alloys. When alloyed with niobium, zirconium becomes superconductive at low temperatures and is used to make superconductive magnets with possible large-scale electrical power uses.
History
Zirconium (Arabic zarkn from Persian zargn meaning "gold like") was discovered in
1789 by Martin Heinrich Klaproth and isolated in 1824 by Jons Jakob Berzelius.
The zirconium containing mineral zircon, or its variations (jargon, hyacinth, jacinth,
or ligure), were mentioned in biblical writings. The mineral was not known to contain
a new element until Klaproth analyzed a jargon from Ceylon in the Indian Ocean. He
named the new element Zirkonertz (zirconia). The impure metal was isolated first by
Berzelius by heating a mixture of potassium and potassium zirconium fluoride in a
small decomposition process conducted in an iron tube. Pure zirconium wasn't prepared until 1914.
Occurrence
Zirconium is never found in nature as a free metal. The principal economic source of
zirconium is the zirconium silicate mineral, zircon (ZrSiO4) which is found in deposits located in Australia, Brazil, India, Russia, and the United States (it is extracted as a
dark sooty powder, or as a gray metallic crystalline substance). Zirconium and hafnium are contained in zircon at a ratio of about 50 to 1 and are difficult to separate.
Zircon is a coproduct or byproduct of the mining and processing of heavy-mineral
sands for the titanium minerals, ilmenite and rutile, or tin minerals. Zirconium is also
in 30 other recognized mineral species including baddeleyite. This metal is commercially produced by reduction of the chloride with magnesium in the Kroll Process, and
through other methods. Commercial-quality zirconium still has a content of 1 to 3%
hafnium.
This element is also abundant in S-type stars, and has been detected in the sun and
meteorites. Lunar rock samples brought back from several Apollo program missions to
the moon have a very high zirconium oxide content relative to terrestrial rocks.
Isotopes
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Naturally occurring zirconium is composed of four stable isotopes and one extremely long-lived radioisotope (Zr-96). The second most stable radioisotope is Zr-93 which
has a half life of 1.53 million years. Eighteen other radioisotopes have been characterized. Most of these have half lives that are less than a day except Zr-95 (64.02 days),
Zr-88 (63.4 days), and Zr-89 (78.41 hours). The primary decay mode is electron capture
before Zr-92 and the primary mode after is beta decay.
Niobium
Niobium (or columbium) is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Nb, atomic number 41 and atomic weight of 92.90638. It Is a Transition metal.
Name: Niobium
Symbol: Nb
Atomic number: 41
Group name: (none)
Colour: grey metallic
A rare, soft, gray, ductile transition metal, niobium is found in niobite and used in alloys. The most notable alloys are used to make special steels and strong welded joints.
Niobium was discovered in a variety of columbite (now called niobite) and was at first
named after this mineral.
Niobium is a shiny grey, ductile metal that takes on a bluish tinge when exposed to
air at room temperature for extended periods. Niobium's chemical properties are almost identical to the chemical properties of tantalum, which appears below niobium
in the periodic table.
When it is processed at even moderate temperatures niobium must be placed in a
protective atmosphere. The metal begins to oxidize in air at 200C and its oxidation
states are +2, +3, +5.
Applications
Niobium has a number of uses: it is a component of some stainless steels and an alloy of other nonferrous metals. These alloys are strong and are often used in pipeline
construction.
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Other uses:
* The metal has a low capture cross-section for thermal neutrons and so finds use in
the nuclear industries.
* It is also the metal used in arc welding rods for some stabilized grades of stainless
steel.
* Because of its bluish color, niobium is also used in body piercing jewelry (usually as
an alloy).
* Appreciable amounts of niobium in the form of high-purity ferroniobium and nickel niobium are used in nickel-, cobalt-, and iron-base superalloys for such applications
as jet engine components, rocket subassemblies, and heat-resisting and combustion
equipment. For example, advanced air frame systems such as those used in the Gemini
program used this metal.
* Niobium is being evaluated as an alternative to tantalum in capacitors.
Niobium becomes a superconductor when lowered to cryogenic temperatures. At atmospheric pressure, it has the highest critical temperature of the elemental superconductors, 9.3 K. In addition, it is one of the three elemental superconductors that are
Type II (the others being vanadium and technetium), meaning it remains a superconductor when subjected to high magnetic fields. Niobium-tin and niobium-titanium alloys are used as wires for superconducting magnets capable of producing exceedingly
strong magnetic fields.
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Isotopes
Naturally occurring niobium is composed of one stable isotope (Nb-93). The most stable radioisotopes are Nb-92 with a half life of 34.7 million years, Nb-94 (half life: 20300
years), and Nb-91 with a half life of 680 years. There is also a meta state at 0.031 mega
electron volts whose half life is 16.13 years. Twenty three other radioisotopes have
been characterized. Most of these have half lives that are less than two hours except
Nb-95 (35 days), Nb-96 (23.4 hours) and Nb-90 (14.6 hours). The primary decay mode before the stable Nb-93 is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta emission
with some neutron emission occurring in the first mode of the two mode decay of Nb104, 109 and 110.
History
Niobium (Greek mythology: Niobe, daughter of Tantalus) was discovered by Charles
Hatchett in 1801. Hatchett found niobium in columbite ore that was sent to England
in the 1750s by John Winthrop who was the first governor of Connecticut. There was
a considerable amount of confusion about the difference between the closely-related niobium and tantalum that wasn't resolved until 1846 by Heinrich Rose and Jean
Charles Galissard de Marignac who rediscovered the element. Since Rose was unaware
of Hatchett's work he gave the element a different name, niobium. In 1864 Christian
Blomstrand was the first to prepare the metal. He did this by reducing niobium chloride by heating it in a hydrogen atmosphere.
Columbium was the name originally given to this element by Hatchet but the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) officially adopted "niobium" as
the name for element 41 in 1950 after 100 years of controversy. Many leading chemical societies and government organizations refer to it by the official IUPAC name but
most leading metallurgists, metal societies, and most leading American commercial
producers still refer to the metal by the original "columbium."
Occurrence
The element is never found as a free element but does occur in niobite (Fe, Mn)(Nb,
Ta)2O6, niobite-tantalite [(Fe, Mn)(Ta, Nb)2O6], pyrochlore (NaCaNb2O6F), and euxenite
[(Y, Ca, Ce, U, Th)(Nb, Ta, Ti)2O6]. Minerals that contain niobium often also contain
tantalum. Large deposits of niobium have been found associated with carbonatites
(carbon-silicate rocks) and as a constituent of pyrochlore. Brazil and Canada are the
major producers of niobium mineral concentrates and extensive ore reserves are also
in Nigeria, Democratic Republic of Congo, and in Russia.
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a good lubricant, especially at high temperatures. Molybdenum is also used in some
electronic applications, as the conductive metal layers in thin-film transistors (TFTs).
History
Molybdenum
Molybdenum is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Mo,
atomic number 42 and atomic weight of 95.94. It is a Transition metal.
Name: Molybdenum
Symbol: Mo
Atomic number: 42
Group name: (none)
Colour: grey metallic
Molybdenum is a transition metal. The pure metal is silvery white in color and very
hard, and has one of the highest melting points of all pure elements. In small quantities, molybdenum is effective at hardening steel. Molybdenum is important in plant
nutrition, and is found in certain enzymes, including xanthine oxidase.
Applications
Over 2/3 of all molybdenum is used in alloys. Molybdenum use soared during World
War I, when demand for tungsten made tungsten scarce, and high strength steels
were at a premium.
Molybdenum is used to this day in high strength alloys, and high temperature steels.
Special molybdenum containing alloys, such as the Hastelloys , are notably heat resistant and corrosion resistant.
Molybdenum is used in aircraft and missile parts, and in filaments. Molybdenum
finds use as a catalyst in the petroleum industry, especially in catalysts for removing
organic sulfurs from petroleum products. Mo-99 is used in the nuclear isotope industry. Molybdenum oranges are pigments, ranging from red-yellow to a bright red orange, used in paints, inks, plastics, and rubber compounds. Molybdenum disulphide is
Molybdenum (from the Greek molybdos meaning "lead-like") is not found free in
nature, and the compounds that can be found were, until the late 18th century, confused with compounds of other elements, such as carbon or lead. In 1778 Carl Wilhelm
Scheele was able to determine that molybdenum was separate from graphite and lead,
and was able to isolate the oxide of the metal from molybdenite. In 1782 Hjelm was
able to isolate an impure extract of the metal by reducing the oxide with carbon.
Molybdenum was little used and remained in the laboratory until the late 19th century. Then a French company, Schneider and Co, tried molybdenum as an alloying agent
in armor plate and noted its useful properties.
Occurrence
Though molybdenum is found in such minerals as wulfenite (MoO4Pb) or powellite
(CaMnO4), the main commercial source of molybdenum is molybdenite (MoS2). Molybdenum is mined directly, and is also recovered as a byproduct of copper mining.
Molybdenum is present in ores from 0.01% to about 0.5%. About half of the world's
molybdenum is mined in the United States, with Phelps Dodge Corporation being a
primary provider.
The Russian Luna 24 mission discovered a single grain of pure Molybdenum in a pyroxene fragment taken from Mare Crisium on the Moon.
Biological Role
There is a trace requirement for molybdenum in plants, and soils can be barren due
to molybdenum deficiencies. Plants and animals generally have molybdenum, present in amounts of a few parts per million. In plants, molybdenum is involved in the
pathways of nitrogen fixation and nitrate reduction, and in animals, molybdenum is
involved in the pathways of purine degradation and formation of uric acid. In some
animals, adding a small amount of dietary molybdenum enhances growth.
Isotopes
Molybdenum has six stable isotopes and almost two dozen radioisotopes, the vast
majority of which have half lives measured in seconds. Mo-99 is used in sorpation
generators that are used to create Tc-99 for the nuclear isotope industry. The market
for Mo-99 products is estimated to be on the order of $100 million US dollars a year.
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Technetium
Technetium ( Gr. technetos meaning artificial ) is a chemical element in the periodic
table that has the symbol Tc, atomic number 43 and atomic weight of 98. It is a Transition metal.
Name: Technetium
Symbol: Tc
Atomic number: 43
Atomic weight: 98
Group name: (none)
A silvery gray, radioactive, crystalline transition metal that is very rarely found in nature, technetium occurs as one of the fission products of uranium and is used in bone
imaging and corrosion protection. Chemical properties of this element are intermediate between rhenium and manganese.
Technetium is a silvery-gray metal that slowly tarnishes in moist air. Under oxidizing
conditions technetium (VII) will exist as the pertechnetate ion, TcO4-. The chemistry
of technetium is intermediate between rhenium and manganese. Technetium dissolves in aqua regia, nitric acid, and concentrated sulfuric acid, but it is not soluble
in hydrochloric acid. This element is a very good corrosion inhibitor for steel and the
metal is an excellent superconductor at temperatures below 11 K.
This element is unusual because it has no stable isotopes and is therefore extremely
rare on earth. Common oxidation states of technetium include +2, +4, +5, +6 and +7.
Applications
Technetium is one of the most powerful known preventatives of rust, and is also a
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valuable source of beta rays. Ammonium pertechnate (NH4TcO4), is a specialized corrosion preventer for steel. Five parts per million of KTcO4 in aerated distilled water
protects mild carbon steel at temperatures up to 250C. This protection is limited to
closed systems due to the radioactive nature of technetium.
Other uses;
* Tc-95m ("m" stands for meta state) with a half-life of 61 days is used in radioactive
tracer studies.
* Tc-99m (half-life 6.01 hours) is used in many radioactive isotope medical tests due
to its short half-life, the gamma ray energy it emits, and its ability to chemically bind
to many active biomolecules.
* Organic technetium compounds are used in bone imaging.
* Technetium is an excellent superconductor at tempuratures of 11 kelvins and below.
* Technetium is commercially available to holders of O.R.N.L. permits at a price of
$60/g.
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Technetium is one of two elements in the first 83 that have no stable isotopes (the
other element is promethium). The most stable radioisotopes are Tc-98 with a half-life
of 4.2 million years, Tc-97 (half-life: 2.6 million years) and Tc-99 (half-life: 211,100 years).
Twenty-two other radioisotopes have been characterized with atomic weights ranging from 87.933 amu (Tc-88) to 112.931 amu (Tc-113). Most of these have half-lives that
are less than an hour except Tc-93 (2.75 hours), Tc-94 (293 minutes), Tc-95 (20 hours),
and Tc-96 (4.28 days). There are also numerous meta states with Tc-97m being the
most stable with a half-life of 90.1 days (0.097 MeV). This is followed by Tc-95m (half
life: 61 days, 0.038 MeV), and Tc-99m (half-life: 6.01 hours, 0.143 MeV).
The primary decay mode before the most stable isotope, Tc-98, is electron capture
and the primary mode after is beta emission with one instance of election capture
during the first mode of the two mode decay of Tc-100. The primary decay product
before Tc-98 is molybdenum and the primary product after is ruthenium (the product
of the first decay mode of Tc-100 is Mo, however).
History
Technetium (Greek technetos meaning "artificial") was discovered by Carlo Perrier
and Emilio Segr in Italy in 1937. The researchers found it in a sample of molybdenum
sent to them by Ernest Lawrence. The sample was bombarded by deuterium nuclei in
the University of California, Berkeley cyclotron which gave them the isotope Tc-97.
Technetium was the first element to be artificially produced.
For a number of years there was a gap in the periodic table at element 43. Dmitri
Mendeleev predicted that this missing element would be chemically similar to manganese and gave it the name ekamanganese. In 1925 Walter Noddack and Ida Tacke, the
discoverers of rhenium, reported the discovery of element 43 and named it masurium,
but their report was never confirmed and thus generally accepted as mistaken. (Some
chemists have challenged this view.) The development of nuclear energy in the mid
20th century generated the first known samples of element 43 by nuclear reactions.
Occurrence
Once it was available in macroscopic quantities i.e. enough to determine its chemical
and physical properties, it was discovered to exist naturally elsewhere in the universe.
Some red giant stars (S-, M-, and N-types) contain an emission line in their spectrum
corresponding to the presence of technetium. Its presence in red giants has led to the
establishment of new theories about the production of heavy elements in stars.
Since its discovery, there have been many searches in terrestrial materials for natural
sources. In 1962, technetium-99 was isolated and identified in pitchblende from Africa
in very small quantities as a spontaneous fission product of uranium-238. This discovery was made by B.T. Kenna and P.K. Kuroda.
Tc-99 is produced as a byproduct from the fission of uranium in nuclear reactors and
it is prepared by chemically separating it from reactor waste.
Isotopes
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Ruthenium
Ruthenium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Ru, atomic
number 44 and atomic weight of 101.07. It is a transition metal Precious metal element.
Name: Ruthenium
Symbol: Ru
Atomic number: 44
Group name: Precious metal or Platinum group metal
Colour: silvery white metallic
A rare transition metal of the platinum group, ruthenium is found associated with
platinum ores and used as a catalyst in some platinum alloys.
A polyvalent hard white metal, ruthenium is a member of the platinum group, has
four crystal modifications and does not tarnish at normal temperatures, but does
oxidize explosively. Ruthenium dissolves in fused alkalis, is not attacked by acids but
is attacked by halogens at high temperatures and by hydroxides. Small amounts of
ruthenium can increase the hardness of platinum and palladium. The corrosion resistance of titanium is increased markedly by the addition of a small amount of ruthenium.
This metal can be plated either through electrodeposition or by thermal decomposition methods. One ruthenium-molybdenum alloy has been found to be superconductive at 10.6 K. The oxidation states of ruthenium range from +1 to +8, and -2 is known,
though oxidation states of +2, +3, and +4 are most common.
Applications
Due to its highly effective ability to harden platinum and palladium, ruthenium is
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used in Pt and Pd alloys to make severe wear resistance electrical contacts. * 0.1%
ruthenium is added to titanium to improve its corrosion resistance a hundredfold.
Ruthenium is also a versatile catalyst: Hydrogen sulfide can be split by light by using
an aqueous suspension of CdS particles loaded with ruthenium dioxide. This may be
useful in the removal of H2S from oil refineries and from other industrial processes.
Organometallic ruthenium carbene and allenylidene complexes have recently been
found as highly efficient catalysts for olefin metathesis (= redistribution of olefinic
=CRR' groups) with important applications in organic and pharmaceutical chemistry.
Recently, large metallo-organic complexes of ruthenium have been found to exhibit
anti-tumor activity and the first of a new group of anti-cancer medicine are now in
the stage of clinical trials. Some ruthenium complexes absorb light throughout the
visible spectrum and are being actively researched in various, potential, solar energy
technologies.
History
Ruthenium (Latin Ruthenia meaning "Russia") was discovered and isolated by Karl
Klaus in 1844. Klaus showed that ruthenium oxide contained a new metal and obtained
6 grams of ruthenium from the part of crude platinum that is insoluble in aqua regia.
Jns Berzelius and Gottfried Osann nearly discovered ruthenium in 1827. The men
examined residues that were left after dissolving crude platinum from the Ural Mountains in aqua regia. Berzelius did not find any unusual metals, but Osann thought he
found three new metals and named one of them ruthenium.
It is also possible that Polish chemist Jedrzej Sniadecki isolated element 44 (which he
called vestium) from platinum ores in 1807. However his work was never confirmed
and he later withdrew his discovery claim.
Occurrence
This element is generally found in ores with the other platinum group metals in the
Ural Mountains and in North and South America. Small but commercially important
quantities are also found in pentlandite extracted from Sudbury, Ontario and in pyroxinite deposits in South Africa.
This metal is commercially isolated through a complex chemical process in which hydrogen is used to reduce ammonium ruthenium chloride yielding a powder. The powder is then consolidated by powder metallurgy techniques or by argon-arc welding.
Compounds
Ruthenium compounds are often similar in properties to those of cadmium and exhibit at least eight oxidation states, but +2, +3, and +4 states are the most common.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring ruthenium is composed of seven isotopes. The most stable radioisotopes are Ru-106 with a half-life of 373.59 days, Ru-103 with a half-life of 39.26 days
and Ru-97 with a half-life of 2.9 days.
Fifteen other radioisotopes have been characterized with atomic weights ranging
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from 89.93 amu (Ru-90) to 114.928 (Ru-115). Most of these have half-lifes that are less
than five minutes except Ru-95 (half-life: 1.643 hours) and Ru-105 (half-life: 4.44 h).
The primary decay mode before the most abundant isotope, Ru-102, is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta emission. The primary decay product before
Ru-102 is technetium and the primary mode after is rhodium.
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Rhodium
Rhodium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Rh, atomic
number 45 and atomic weight of 102.90550. It is a transition metal Precious metal element..
Name: Rhodium
Symbol: Rh
Atomic number: 45
A rare silvery-white hard transition metal, rhodium is a member of the platinum

group, is found in platinum ores and is used in alloys with platinum and as a catalyst.
Rhodium is a hard silvery white and durable metal that has a high reflectance. It
changes in air to the resquioxide while slowly cooling from a red hot state but at higher temperatures converts back to the metal. Rhodium has both a higher melting point
and lower density than platinum. It is not attacked by acids and only dissolves in aqua
regia.
Applications
The primary use of this element is as an alloying agent for hardening platinum and
palladium. These alloys are used in furnace windings, bushings for glass fiber production, thermocouple elements, electrodes for aircraft spark plugs, and laboratory crucibles.
Other uses:
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* It is used as an electrical contact material due to its low electrical resistance, low
and stable contact resistance, and its high corrosion resistance.
* Plated rhodium, made by electroplating or evaporation, is extremely hard and is
used for optical instruments.
* This metal finds use in jewelry and for decorations.
* It is also a highly useful catalyst in a number of industrial processes (notably it is
used in the catalytic system of automobile catalytic converters and for catalytic carbonylation of methanol to produce acetic acid).
History
Rhodium (Greek rhodon meaning "rose") was discovered in 1803 by William Hyde
Wollaston soon after his discovery of palladium. Wollaston made this discovery in England using crude platinum ore that he presumably obtained from South America.
His procedure involved dissolving the ore in aqua regia, neutralizing the acid with
sodium hydroxide (NaOH). He then precipitated the platinum metal by adding ammonium chloride, NH4Cl, as ammonium chloroplatinate. The element palladium was
removed as palladium cyanide after treating the solution with mercuric cyanide. The
material that remained was a red substance with rhodium chloride salts and rhodium
metal was isolated via reduction with hydrogen gas.
Occurrence
The industrial extraction of rhodium is complex as the metal occurs in ores mixed
with other metals such as palladium, silver, platinum, and gold. It is found in platinum
ores and obtained free as a white inert metal which it is very difficult to fuse.
Principal sources of this element are located in river sands of the Ural Mountains,
in North and South America and also in the copper-nickel sulfide mining area of the
Sudbury, Ontario region. Although the quantity at Sudbury is very small, the large
amount of nickel ore processed makes rhodium recovery cost effective. However, the
annual world production of this element is only 7 or 8 tons and there are very few
rhodium minerals.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring rhodium is composed of only one isotope (Rh-103). The most
stable radioisotopes are Rh-101 with a half-life of 3.3 years, Rh-102 with a half-life of
207 days, and Rh-99 with a half-life of 16.1 days. Twenty other radioisotopes have been
characterized with atomic weights ranging from 92.926 u (Rh-93) to 116.925 u (Rh-117).
Most of these have half-lifes that are less than an hour except Rh-100 (half-life: 20.8
hours) and Rh-105 (half-life: 35.36 hours). There are also numerous meta states with
the most stable being Rhm-102 (0.141 MeV) with a half-life of about 2.9 years and Rhm101 (0.157 MeV) with a half-life of 4.34 days.
The primary decay mode before the only stable isotope, Rh-103, is electron capture
and the primary mode after is beta emission. The primary decay product before Rh103 is ruthenium and the primary product after is palladium.
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When it is finely divided, palladium forms a good catalyst and is used to speed up
hydrogenation and dehydrogenation reactions, as well as in petroleum cracking. It is
also alloyed and used in jewelry.
Other uses:
Palladium
Palladium is a chemical element with symbol Pd, atomic number 46 and atomic
weight of 106.42 It is a transition metal Precious metal element.
Name: Palladium
Symbol: Pd
Atomic number: 46
A rare silver-white transition metal of the platinum group, palladium resembles platinum chemically and is extracted from some copper and nickel ores. It is primarily
used as an industrial catalyst and in jewelry.
Palladium is a soft steel-white metal that resembles platinum, does not tarnish in air,
and is the least dense and has the lowest melting point of the platinum group metals.
It is soft and ductile when annealed and greatly increases its strength and hardness
when it is cold-worked. Palladium is chemically attacked by sulfuric and nitric acid
but dissolves slowly in hydrochloric acid. This metal also does not react with oxygen
at normal temperatures.
This metal has the uncommon ability to absorb up to 900 times its own volume of hydrogen at room temperatures. It is thought that this possibly forms palladium hydride
- Pd2H - but it is not yet clear if this is a true chemical compound.
Common oxidation states of palladium are +2, +3 and +4. Recently, palladium compounds in which palladium has oxidation state +6 were synthesized.
Applications
* White gold is an alloy of gold that is decolorized by the addition of palladium.

* Similar to gold, palladium can be beaten into a thin leaf form as thin as 1/250,000
in.
* Hydrogen easily diffuses through heated palladium; thus, it provides a means of
purifying the gas.
* Telecommunications switching-system equipment uses palladium.
* Palladium is also used in dentistry, watchmaking, in aircraft spark plugs and in the
production of surgical instruments and electrical contacts.
History
Palladium was discovered by William Hyde Wollaston in 1803. This element was
named by Wollaston in 1804 after the asteroid Pallas, which was discovered two years
earlier.
Wollaston found element 46 in crude platinum ore from South America. He did this
by dissolving the ore in aqua regia, neutralizing the solution with sodium hydroxide,
NaOH, precipitating platinum as ammonium chloroplatinate through treatment with
ammonium chloride, NH4Cl, and then adding mercuric cyanide to form the compound
palladium cyanide. Finally, he heated the resulting compound in order to extract palladium metal.
The compound palladium chloride was at one time prescribed as a tuberculosis treatment at the rate of 0.065 g per day (approximately 1 mg per kg of body weight). This
treatment did not have too many ill side effects but was later replaced by more effective drugs. The element played an essential role in the Fleischmann-Pons experiment,
also known as cold fusion.
Occurrence
Palladium is found as a free metal and alloyed with platinum and gold with platinum
group metals in placer deposits of the Ural Mountains, Australia, Ethiopia, South and
North America. However it is commercially produced from nickel-copper deposits
found in South Africa and Ontario (the huge volume of ore processed makes this extraction profitable in spite of its low concentration in these ores).
Isotopes
Naturally-occurring palladium is composed of six isotopes. The most stable radioisotopes are Pd-107 with a half-life of 6.5 million years, Pd-103 with a half-life of 17 days,
and Pd-100 with a half-life of 3.63 days. Eighteen other radioisotopes have been characterized with atomic weights ranging from 92.936 u (Pd-93) to 119.924 u (Pd-120). Most
of these have half-lifes that are less than a half an hour except Pd-101 (half-life: 8.47
hours), Pd-109 (half-life: 13.7 hours), and Pd-112 (half-life: 21 hours).
The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, Pd-106, is electron
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capture and the primary mode after is beta decay. The primary decay product before
Pd-106 is rhodium and the primary product after is silver.
Radiogenic Ag-107 is a decay product of Pd-107 and was first discovered in the Santa
Clara, California meteorite of 1978. The discoverers suggest that the coalescence and
differentiation of iron-cored small planets may have occurred 10 million years after a
nucleosynthetic event. Pd-107 versus Ag correlations observed in bodies, which have
clearly been melted since accretion of the solar system, must reflect the presence of
short-lived nuclides in the early solar system.
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Silver
Silver is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Ag, (L. Argentum) atomic number 47 and atomic weight of 107.8682. It is a transition metal Precious
metal element.
Name: Silver
Symbol: Ag
Atomic number: 47
Colour: silver
A soft white lustrous transition metal, silver has the highest electrical and thermal
conductivity of any metal and occurs in minerals and in free form. This metal is used
in coins, jewelry, tableware and photography.
Silver is a very ductile and malleable (slightly harder than gold) univalent coinage
metal with a brilliant white metallic luster that can take a high degree of polish. It
has the highest electrical conductivity of all metals, even higher than copper, but its
greater cost has prevented it from being widely used in place of copper for electrical
purposes.
Pure silver also has the highest thermal conductivity, whitest color, the highest optical reflectivity (although it is a poor reflector of ultraviolet), and the lowest contact
resistance of any metal. Silver halides are photosensitive and are remarkable for the
effect of light upon them. This metal is stable in pure air and water, but does tarnish
when it is exposed to ozone, hydrogen sulfide, or air with sulfur in it. The most common oxidation states of silver are +1 and +2.
Applications
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The principal use of silver is as a precious metal and its halide salts, especially silver
nitrate, are also widely used in photography (which is the largest single end use of
silver).
Some other uses for silver are as follows:
* Electrical and electronic products, which need silver's superior conductivity, even
when tarnished. For example, printed circuits are made using silver paints, and computer keyboards use silver electrical contacts.
* Mirrors which need silver's superior reflectivity for visible light are made with silver as the reflecting material. Common mirrors are backed with aluminium.
* Silver has been coined to produce money since 700 BC by the Lydians, in the form
of electrum. Later, silver was refined and coined in its pure form. The words for "silver" and "money" are the same in at least 14 languages.
* The metal is chosen for its beauty in the manufacture of jewelry and silverware,
which are traditionally made from the silver alloy known as Sterling silver, which is
92.5% silver.
* The malleability, non-toxicity and beauty of silver make it useful in dental alloys
for fittings and fillings.
* Silver's catalytic properties make it ideal for use as a catalyst in oxidation reactions; for example, the production of formaldehyde from methanol and air by means
of silver screens or crystallites containing a minimum 99.95 weight-percent silver.
* Used to make solder and brazing alloys, electrical contacts, and high capacity silver-zinc and silver-cadmium batteries.
* Silver sulfide, also known as Silver Whiskers, is formed when silver electrical contacts are used in an atmosphere rich in hydrogen sulfide.
* Silver fulminate is a powerful explosive.
* Silver chloride can be made transparent and is used as a cement for glass.
* Silver iodide has been used in attempts to seed clouds to produce rain.
* In legend, silver is traditionally seen as harmful to supernatural creatures like
werewolves and vampires. The use of silver fashioned into bullets for firearms is a
popular application.
* Silver oxide is used as a positive electrode(cathode) in watch batteries.
History
Silver (Anglo-Saxon, Seolfor siolfur; Ag is from the Latin argentum) has been known
since ancient times. It is mentioned in the book of Genesis and slag heaps found in
Asia Minor and on the islands of the Aegean Sea indicate that silver was being separated from lead as early as the 4th millennium BC. Silver has been used for thousands
of years as ornaments and utensils, for trade, and as the basis for many monetary systems. It was long considered the second most precious metal, second only to gold.
Associated with the moon, as well as with the sea and various lunar goddesses, the
metal was referred to by alchemists by the name luna.
One of the alchemical symbols for silver is a crescent moon with the open part on the
left.
The metal mercury was thought of as a kind of silver, though the two elements are
chemically unrelated; its names hydrargyrum ("watery silver") and the English quicksilver attest to this.
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In heraldry, the argent, in addition to being shown as silver (this has been shown at
times with real silver in official representations), can also been shown as white. Occasionally, the word "silver" is used rather than argent; sometimes this is done acrossthe-board, sometimes to avoid repetition of the word "argent" in blazon. Europeans
found huge amount of silver in the New World in Zacatecas, Mexico and Potos, which
triggered a period of inflation in Europe.
The Rio de la Plata was named after silver (in Spanish, plata), and in turn lent the
meaning of its name to Argentina.
Occurrence
Silver is found in native form, combined with sulfur, arsenic, antimony, or chlorine
and in various ores such as argentite (Ag2S) and horn silver (AgCl). The principal
sources of silver are copper, copper-nickel, gold, lead and lead-zinc ores obtained
from Canada, Mexico, Peru, Australia and the United States.
This metal is also produced during the electrolytic refining of copper. Commercial
grade fine silver is at least 99.9% pure silver and purities greater than 99.999% are
available. Mexico is the largest silver producer. According to the Secretary of Economics of Mexico, it produced 2747 tons in 2000, about 15% of the annual production of the
world.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring silver is composed of the two stable isotopes Ag-107 and Ag-109
with Ag-107 being the most abundant (51.839% natural abundance). Twenty-eight radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being Ag-105 with a half-life
of 41.29 days, Ag-111 with a half-life of 7.45 days, and Ag-112 with a half-life of 3.13 hours.
All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than an hour and
the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 3 minutes. This element also has
numerous meta states with the most stable being Agm-128 (t* 418 years), Agm-110 (t*
249.79 days) and Agm-107 (t* 8.28 days).
Isotopes of silver range in atomic weight from 93.943 amu (Ag-94) to 123.929 amu
(Ag-124). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, Ag-107, is
electron capture and the primary mode after is beta decay. The primary decay products before Ag-107 are palladium (element 46) isotopes and the primary products after
are cadmium (element 48) isotopes.
The palladium isotope Pd-107 decays by beta emission to Ag-107 with a half-life of 6.5
million years. Iron meteorites are the only objects with a high enough Pd/Ag ratio to
yield measurable variations in Ag-107 abundance. Radiogenic Ag-107 was first discovered in the Santa Clara meteorite in 1978. The discoverers suggest that the coalescence
and differentiation of iron-cored small planets may have occurred 10 million years
after a nucleosynthetic event. Pd-107 versus Ag correlations observed in bodies, which
have clearly been melted since the accretion of the solar system, must reflect the
presence of live short-lived nuclides in the early solar system.
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Cadmium
Cadmium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Cd, atomic
number 48 and atomic weight 112.411. It is a Metallic element.
Name: Cadmium
Symbol: Cd
Atomic number: 48
Group name: (none)
A relatively rare, soft, bluish-white, toxic transition metal, cadmium occurs with zinc
ores and is used largely in batteries.
Cadmium is a soft, malleable, ductile, bluish-white bivalent metal which can be easily
cut with a knife. It is similar in many respects to zinc but lends itself to more complex
compounds. The most common oxidation state of cadmium is +2, though rare examples of +1 can be found.
Applications
About three-fourths of cadmium is used in batteries (especially Ni-Cd batteries) and
most of the remaining one-fourth is used mainly for pigments, coatings and plating,
and as stabilizers for plastics. Other uses; Used in some of the lowest melting alloys.
Due to a low coefficient of friction and very good fatigue resistance, it is used in bearing alloys. 6% of cadmium finds use in electroplating. Many kinds of solder contain
this metal. As a barrier to control nuclear fission. Compounds containing cadmium
are used in black and white television phosphors and also in the blue and green phosphors for color television picture tubes.
Cadmium forms various salts, with cadmium sulfide being the most common. This
sulfide is used as a yellow pigment. Used in some semiconductors Some cadmium
compounds are employed in PVC as stabilizers. Used in the first neutrino dector. Used
in batteries, namely Nickel Cadmium. (NiCd).
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History
Cadmium (Latin cadmia, Greek kadmeia meaning "calamine") was discovered in Germany in 1817 by Friedrich Strohmeyer. Strohmeyer found the new element within an
impurity in zinc carbonate (calamine) and for 100 years Germany remained the only
important producer of the metal. The metal was named after the Latin word for calamine since the metal was found in this zinc compound. Strohmeyer noted that some
impure samples of calamine changed color when heated but pure calamine did not.
Even though cadmium and its compounds are highly toxic, the British Pharmaceutical Codex from 1907 states that cadmium iodide was used as a medicine to treat "enlarged joints, scrofulous glands, and chilblains". In 1927, the International Conference
on Weights and Measures redefined the meter in terms of a red cadmium spectral line
(1m = 1,553,164.13 wavelengths). This definition has since been changed (see krypton).
Occurrence
Cadmium-containing ores are rare and when found they occur in small quantities.
Greenockite (CdS), the only cadmium mineral of importance, is nearly always associated with sphalerite (ZnS). Consequently, cadmium is produced mainly as a byproduct
from mining, smelting, and refining sulfide ores of zinc, and to a lesser degree, lead
and copper. Small amounts of cadmium, about 10% of consumption, are produced
from secondary sources, mainly from dust generated by recycling iron and steel scrap.
Production in the United States began in 1907 but it was not until after World War I
that cadmium came into wide use.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring cadmium is composed of 6 stable isotopes. 27 radioisotopes have
been characterized with the most stable being Cd-113 with a half-life of 7.7 quadrillion
years, Cd-109 with a half-life of 462.6 days, and Cd-115 with a half-life of 53.46 hours.
All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 2.5 hours
and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 5 minutes. This element also
has 8 meta states with the most stable being Cdm-113 (t1/2 14.1 years), Cdm-115 (t1/2 44.6
days) and Cdm-117 (t1/2 3.36 hours).
The isotopes of cadmium range in atomic weight from 96.935 amu (Cd-97) to 129.934
amu (Cd-138). The primary decay mode before the second most abundant stable-isotope, Cd-112, is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta emission. The primary decay product before Cd-112 is element 47 (silver) and the primary product after
is element 49 (indium)
Indium
Indium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol In, atomic
number 49 and atomic weight of 114.818. It is a Metallic element.
Name: Indium
Symbol: In
Atomic number: 49
Group name: (none)
Colour: silvery lustrous grey
This rare, soft, malleable and easily fusible poor metal, is chemically similar to aluminium or gallium but looks more like zinc (zinc ores are also the primary source of
this metal). Its current primary application is to form thin-films for use as lubricated
layers (during World War II it was widely used to coat bearings in high-performance
aircraft).
Indium is a very soft, silvery-white true metal that has a bright luster. As a pure metal
indium emits a high-pitched "cry" when it is bent. Both gallium and indium are able to
wet glass.
Applications
The first large-scale application for indium was as a coating for bearings in high-performance aircraft engines during World War II. Afterwards, production gradually
increased as new uses were found in fusible alloys, solders, and electronics. In the
middle and late 1980s, the development of indium phosphide semiconductors and
indium-tin-oxide thin films for liquid crystal displays (LCD) aroused much interest. By
1992, the thin-film application had become the largest end use.
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Other uses:
* Used in the manufacture of low-melting alloys. An alloy consisting of 24% indium

and 76% gallium is liquid at room temperature.
* Used to make photoconductors, germanium transistors, rectifiers, and thermistors.
* Can also be plated onto metals and evaporated onto glass which forms a mirror
which is as good as those made with silver but has higher corrosion resistance.
* Its oxide is used in the making of electroluminescent panels.
History
Indium (named after the indigo line in its atomic spectrum) was discovered by Ferdinand Reich and Theodor Richter in 1863 while they were testing zinc ores with a spectrograph in search of thallium. Richter went on to isolate the metal in 1867.
Occurrence
Indium is produced mainly from residues generated during zinc ore processing but is
also found in iron, lead, and copper ores. The amount of indium consumed is largely a
function of worldwide LCD production. Increased manufacturing efficiency and recycling (especially in Japan) maintain a balance between demand and supply. The average indium price for 2000 was US$188 per kilogram.
Up until 1924, there was only about a gram of isolated indium on the planet. The Earth
is estimated to contain about 0.1 ppm of indium which means it is about as abundant
as silver. Canada is a leading producer of indium, producing more than 1,000,000 troy
ounces (31,100 kg) in 1997.
Tin
Tin is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Sn (L. Stannum),
atomic number 50 and atomic weight of 118.710. It is a Metallic element.
Name: Tin
Symbol: Sn
Atomic number: 50
Group name: (none)
This silvery, malleable poor metal that is not easily oxidized in air and resists corrosion is found in many alloys and is used to coat other metals to prevent corrosion. Tin
is obtained chiefly from the mineral cassiterite where it occurs as an oxide.
Tin is a malleable, ductile, highly crystalline, silvery-white metal whose crystal structure causes a "tin cry" when a bar of tin is bent (caused by crystals breaking). This
metal resists corrosion from distilled sea and soft tap water, but can be attacked by
strong acids, alkalis, and by acid salts. Tin acts as a catalyst when oxygen is in solution
and helps accelerate chemical attack.
Tin forms Sn2 is when it is heated in the presence of air. Sn2, in turn, is feebly acidic
and forms stannate (tin) salts with basic oxides. Tin can be highly polished and is used
as a protective coat for other metals in order to prevent corrosion or other chemical
action. This metal combines directly with chlorine and oxygen and displaces hydrogen from dilute acids. Tin is malleable at ordinary temperatures but is brittle when it
is heated.
Allotropes
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Solid tin has two allotropes at normal pressure. At low temperatures it exists as gray
or alpha tin, which has a cubic crystal structure similar to silicon and germanium.
When warmed above that 13.2C it changes into white or beta tin, which is metallic
and has a tetragonal structure. It slowly changes back to the gray form when cooled,
which is called the tin pest or tin disease. However, this transformation is affected by
impurities such as aluminium and zinc and can be prevented from occurring through
the addition of antimony or bismuth.
Applications
Tin bonds readily to iron, and has been used for coating lead or zinc and steel to prevent corrosion. Tin-plated steel containers are widely used for food preservation, and
this forms a large part of the market for metallic tin. British English calls them "tins";
Americans call them "cans". One thus-derived use of the slang term "tinnie" or "tinny"
means "can of beer".
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Likewise, so-called "tin toys" are usually made of steel, and may or may not have a
small coating of tin to inhibit rust.
Occurrence
About 35 countries mine tin throughout the world. Nearly every continent has an important tin-mining country. Tin is produced by reducing the ore with coal in a reverberatory furnace. This metal is a relatively scarce element with an abundance in the
earth's crust of about 2 ppm, compared with 94 ppm for zinc, 63 ppm for copper, and
12 ppm for lead.
Isotopes
Tin is the element with the greatest number of stable isotopes (ten). 18 additional unstable isotopes are known.
Other uses:
* Some important tin alloys are: bronze, bell metal, Babbitt metal, die casting alloy,
pewter, phosphor bronze, soft solder, and White metal.
* The most important salt formed is tin chloride, which has found use as a reducing
agent and as a mordant in the calico printing process. Electrically conductive coatings
are produced when tin salts are sprayed onto glass. These coatings have been used in
panel lighting and in the production of frost-free windshields.
* Window glass is most often made via floating molten glass on top of molten tin
(float glass) in order to make a flat surface (this is called the Pilkington process).
* Tin is also used in solders for joining pipes or electrical/electronic circuits, in bearing alloys, in glass-making, and in a wide range of tin chemical applications.
* Tin foil is a common wrapping material for foods and drugs; hence one use of the
slang term "tinnie" or "tinny" for a small retail package of a drug such as cannabis.
Tin becomes a superconductor below 3.72 K. In fact, tin was one of the first superconductors to be studied; the Meissner effect, one of the characteristic features of superconductors, was first discovered in superconducting tin crystals. The niobium-tin
compound Nb3Sn is commercially used as wires for superconducting magnets, due to
the material's high critical temperature (18K) and critical magnetic field (25 T). A superconducting magnet weighing only a couple of kilograms is capable of producing
magnetic fields comparable to a conventional electromagnet weighing tons.
History
Tin (anglo-Saxon, tin, Latin stannum) is one of the earliest metals known and was
used as a component of bronze from antiquity. Because of its hardening effect on
copper, tin was used in bronze implements as early as 3,500 BC. Tin mining is believed
to have started in Cornwall and Devon ( esp Dartmoor) in Classical times, and a thriving tin trade developed with the civilizations of the Mediterranean. However the pure
metal was not used until about 600 BC.
In modern times, the word "tin" is often (improperly) used as a generic phrase for
any silvery metal that comes in thin sheets. Most everyday objects that are commonly called tin, such as aluminium foil, beverage cans, and tin cans, are actually made of
steel or aluminium, although tin cans do contain a small coating of tin to inhibit rust.
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Antimony
Antimony is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Sb, (L. Stibium) atomic number 51 and atomic weight of 121.760. It is a Semi-metallic element. In
the Pnictogen group.
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Name: Antimony
Symbol: Sb
Atomic number: 51
A metalloid, antimony has four allotropic forms. The stable form of antimony is
a blue-white metal. Yellow and black antimony are unstable non-metals. Used in
flame-proofing, paints, ceramics, enamels, a wide variety of alloys, and rubber.
Antimony in its elemental form is a silvery white, brittle, fusible, crystalline solid
that exhibits poor electrical and heat conductivity properties and vaporizes at low
temperatures. A metalloid, antimony, resembles metal in its appearance and physical
properties, but does not chemically react as a metal. It is also attacked by oxidizing
acids and halogens. Antimony and some of its alloys expand on cooling.
Estimates of the abundance of antimony in the Earth's crust range from 0.2 to 0.5
ppm. Antimony is chalcophile, occurring with sulfur and the heavy metals lead, copper, and silver.
Contents
* Batteries
*
Antifriction alloys
*
Type metal
*
Small arms and tracer bullets
*
Cable sheathing
* Matches
Antimony compounds in the form of oxides, sulfides, sodium antimonate, and antimony trichloride are used in the making of flame-proofing compounds, ceramic
enamels, glass, paints, and pottery. Antimony trioxide is the most important of the
antimony compounds and is primarily used in flame-retardant formulations. These
flame-retardant applications include such markets as children's clothing, toys, aircraft and automobile seat covers. Also, antimony sulfide is one of the ingredients to
the modern match.
History
Antimony was recognized in antiquity (3000 BC or earlier) in various compounds,
and it was prized for its fine casting qualities. It was first reported scientifically by
Tholden in 1450, and was known to be a metal by the beginning of the 17th century.
The origin of the name "antimony" is not clear; the term may come from the Greek
words "anti" and "monos", which approximately means "opposed to solitude" as it was
thought never to exist in its pure form, or from the Arabian expression "Antos Ammon", which could be translated as "bloom of the god Ammon".
The natural sulfide of antimony, stibnite, was known and used in Biblical times as
medicine and as a cosmetic. The relationship between antimony's modern name and
its symbol is complex; the Coptic name for the cosmetic powder antimony sulfide was
borrowed by the Greeks, which was in turn borrowed by Latin, resulting in stibium.
The chemical pioneer Jacob Berzelius used an abbreviation of this name for antimony in his writings, and his usage became the standard symbol. Antimony was until
recently used for the treatment of schistosomiasis. Antimony attaches itself to sulfur
atoms in certain enzymes which are used both by the parasite and human host. Small
doses can kill the parasite without causing damage to the patient.
Sources
Even though this element is not abundant, it is found in over 100 mineral species.
Antimony is sometimes found native, but more frequently it is found in the sulfide
stibnite (Sb2S3) which is the predominant ore mineral. Commercial forms of antimony
are generally ingots, broken pieces, granules, and cast cake. Other forms are powder,
shot, and single crystals.
Applications
Antimony is increasingly being used in the semiconductor industry in the production of diodes, infrared detectors, and Hall-effect devices. As an alloy, this semi-metal
greatly increases lead's hardness and mechanical strength. The most important use of
antimony metal is as a hardener in lead for storage batteries.
Other uses:
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It is mostly used in alloys with other metals. It is added to lead to improve its
strength, durability and to decreases the corrosive action of sulfuric acid. When added to stainless steel and copper it makes these metals more workable.
Other uses:
Tellurium
Tellurium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Te, atomic
number 52 and atomic weight of 127.60. It is a Semi-metallic element.in the Chalcogen
group.
Name: Tellurium
Symbol: Te
Atomic number: 52
A brittle silver-white metalloid which looks like tin, tellurium is chemically related to
selenium and sulfur. This element is primarily used in alloys and as a semiconductor.
Tellurium is a relatively rare element, in the same chemical family as oxygen, sulfur,
selenium, and polonium (the chalcogens). When crystalline, tellurium is silvery-white
and when it is in its pure state it has a metallic luster. This is a brittle and easily pulverized metalloid. Amorphous tellurium is found by precipitating it from a solution
of tellurous or telluric acid. However, there is some debate whether this form is really
amorphous or made of minute crystals.
Tellurium is a p-type semiconductor that shows a greater conductivity in certain directions which depends on atomic alignment.
Chemically related to selenium and sulfur, the conductivity of this element increases
slightly when exposed to light. It can be doped with copper, gold, silver, tin, or other
metals. Tellurium has a greenish-blue flame when burned in normal air and forms tellurium dioxide as a result. When in its molten state, tellurium is corrosive to copper,
iron, and stainless steel.
Applications
* It is alloyed into cast iron for chill control.

* Used in ceramics.
* Bismuth telluride has found use in thermoelectric devices.
Tellurium is also used in blasting caps, and has potential applications in cadmium
telluride solar panels. Some of the highest efficiencies for solar cell electric power
generation have been obtained by using this material, but this application has not yet
caused demand to increase significantly.
History
Tellurium (Latin tellus meaning "earth") was discovered in 1782 by Franz Joseph Muller
von Reichstein in Romania. In 1798 it was named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth who earlier isolated it.
The 1960s brought growth in thermoelectric applications for tellurium, as well as its
use in free-machining steel, which became the dominant use.
Occurrence
Tellurium is sometimes found in its native form, but is more often found as the telluride of gold (calaverite), and combined with other metals. The principal source of
tellurium is from anode muds produced during the electrolytic refining of blister
copper. Commercial-grade tellurium, which is not toxic, is usually marketed as minus
200-mesh powder but is also available as slabs, ingots, sticks, or lumps. The yearend
price for tellurium in 2000 was US$ 14 per pound.
Compounds
Tellurium is in the same series as sulfur and selenium and forms similar compounds.
A compound with metal or hydrogen and similar ions is called a telluride. Gold and
silver tellurides are considered good ore.
Isotopes
There are 30 known isotopes of tellurium with atomic masses that range from 108
to 137. Naturally found tellurium consists of eight isotopes (listed in the table to the
right).
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Iodine
Iodine (from the Gr. Iodes, meaning "violet"), is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol I, atomic number 53 and atomic weight 126.90447. It is a
Non-metallic Halogen element.
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Name: Iodine
Symbol: I
Atomic number: 53
Group name: Halogen
Colour: violet-dark grey, lustrous
This is an insoluble element that is required as a trace element for living organisms.
Chemically, iodine is the least reactive of the halogens, and the most electropositive
metallic halogen. Iodine is primarily used in medicine, photography and in dyes.
Iodine is a bluish-black, lustrous solid that sublimes at standard temperatures into a
blue-violet gas that has an irritating odor. This halogen also forms compounds with
many elements, but is less active than the other member of its series and has some
metallic-like properties. Iodine dissolves easily in chloroform, carbon tetrachloride,
or carbon disulfide to form purple solutions (It is only slightly soluble in water). The
deep blue color with starch solution is characteristic of the free element.
Applications
In areas where there is little iodine in the diet - typically remote inland areas where
no marine foods are eaten - iodine deficiency gives rise to goitre, so called endemic
goitre. In many (but not all) such areas, this is now prevented by the addition of small
amounts of iodine to table salt in form of sodium iodide, potassium iodide, potassium
iodate - this product is known as iodised salt.
Other uses:
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* One of the halogens, it is an essential trace element; the thyroid hormones, thyroxine and triiodotyronine contain iodine.
* Tincture of iodine (3% elemental iodine in water/ethanol base) is an essential component of any emergency survival kit, used both to disinfect wounds and to sanitize
surface water for drinking (3 drops/L, let stand for 30 minutes)
* Iodine compounds are important in the field of organic chemistry and are very
useful in medicine.
* Iodides and thyroxine which contains iodine, are both used in internal medicine
and, in combination with alcohol (as tincture of iodine) are used externally to disinfect wounds
* Potassium iodide is used in photography
* Tungsten iodide is used to stabilise the filaments in light bulbs.
* Nitrogen triiodide is an explosive, too unstable to be used commercially, but is
commonly used in college pranks.
* Iodine-131 is used as a tracer in medicine
* Potassium iodide (KI) tablets can be given to people in a nuclear disaster area. KI
prevents the body from absorbing the radioactive iodine produced at the disaster
area.
History
Iodine (Gr. iodes meaning violet) was discovered by Barnard Courtois in 1811. He was
the son of a manufacturer of Saltpeter (potassium nitrate, a vital part of gunpowder).
At the time France was at war and gunpowder was in great demand. Saltpeter was
isolated from seaweed washed up on the coasts of Normandy and Brittany. To isolate
the potassium nitrate, seaweed was burned and the ash then washed with water. The
remaining waste was destroyed by adding hydrochloric acid. One day Curtois added
too much sulfuric acid and cloud of purple vapor rose. Curtois noted that the vapor
crystallised on cold surfaces making dark crystals. Curtois suspected that this was a
new element but lacked the money to pursue his observations.
However he gave samples to his friends, Charles Bernard Desormes (1777 - 1862) and
Nicolas Clment (1779 - 1841) to continue research. He also gave some of the substance
to Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778 - 1850), a well-known chemist at that time, and to
Andr-Marie Ampre (1775-1836). On November 29, 1813 Dersormes and Clment made
public, Curtois's discovery. They described the substance to a meeting of the Imperial
Institute of France. On December 6 Gay-Lussac announced that the new substance was
either an element or a compound of oxygen. Ampre had given some of his sample to
Humphrey Davy (1778 - 1829). Davy did some experiments on the substance and noted
its similarity to chlorine. Davy sent a letter dated December 10 to the Royal Society of
London stating that he had identified a new element. A large argument erupted between Davy and Gay-Lussac over who identified iodine first but both scientists acknowledged Bernard Curtois as the first to isolate the element.
Occurrence
Iodine can be prepared in an ultrapure form through the reaction of potassium iodide with copper (II) sulfate. There are also several other methods of isolating this
element.
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Isotopes
There are thirty isotopes of iodine and only one, I-127, is stable. The artificial radioisotope I-131 (a beta emitter) which has a half-life of 8 days, has been used in treating
cancer and other pathologies of the thyroid glands. The most common compounds
of iodine are the iodides of sodium and potassium (KI) and the iodates (KIO3). I-129
(half-life 15.7 million years) is a product of Xe-129 spallation in the atmosphere, but is
also the result of uranium and plutonium fission. I-129 was used in rainwater studies
following the Chernobyl accident. It also has been used as a ground-water tracer and
as an indicator of waste dispersion into the natural environment. Other applications
may be hampered by the production of I-129 in the lithosphere through a number of
decay mechanisms.
In many ways, I-129 is similar to Cl-36. It is a soluble halogen, fairly non-reactive, exists mainly as a non-sorbing anion, and is produced by cosmogenic, thermonuclear,
and in-situ reactions. In hydrologic studies, I-129 concentrations are usually reported as the ratio of I-129 to total I (which is virtually all I-127). As is the case with Cl-36/
Cl, I-129/I ratios in nature are quite small, 10-14 to 10-10 (peak thermonuclear I-129/I
during the 1960s and 1970s reached about 10-7). I-129 differs from Cl-36 in that its halflife is longer (1.6 vs 0.3 million years), it is highly biophilic, and occurs in multiple ionic
forms (commonly, I - and iodate) which have different chemical behaviors.
Xenon
Xenon is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Xe, atomic
number 54 and atomic weight of 131.293. It is a Noble gas.
Name: Xenon
Symbol: Xe
Atomic number: 54
Colour: colourless
A colorless, very heavy, odorless noble gas, xenon occurs in the earth's atmosphere in
trace amounts and was part of the first noble gas compound synthesized.
Xenon is a member of the zero-valence elements that are called noble or inert gases.
The word "inert" is no longer used to describe this chemical series since some zero
valence elements do form compounds. In a gas filled tube, xenon emits a blue glow
when the gas is excited by electrical discharge. Using several hundred kilobars of
pressure, metallic xenon has been made. Xenon can also form clathrates with water
when atoms of it are trapped in a lattice of the water molecules.
Applications
This gas is most widely and most famously used in light-emitting devices called Xenon flash lamps, which are used in photographic flashes, stroboscopic lamps, to excite
the active medium in lasers which then generate coherent light, in bactericidal lamps
(rarely), and in certain dermatological uses. Continuous, short-arc, high pressure Xenon arc lamps have a color temperature closely approximating noon sunlight and are
used in solar simulators, some projection systems, and other specialized uses. They
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are an excellent source of short wave ultaviolet light and they have intense emissions
in the near infrared, which are used in some night vision systems.
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Other uses:
* Used as a general anaesthetic.

* In nuclear energy applications it is used in bubble chambers, probes, and in other
areas where a high molecular weight is a desirable quality.
* Its perxenates are used as oxidizing agents in analytical chemistry.
* The isotope Xe-133 is useful as a radioisotope.
* Hyperpolarized MRI of the lungs and other tissues using 129Xe.
History
Xenon (Greek xenon meaning "stranger") was discovered in England by William Ramsay and Morris Travers in 1898 in the residue left over from evaporating components
of liquid air.
Occurrence
It is a trace gas in Earth's atmosphere, occurring in one part in twenty million. The element is obtained commercially through extraction from the residues of liquefied air.
This noble gas is naturally found in gases emitted from some mineral springs. Xe-133
and Xe-135 are synthesized by neutron irradiation within air-cooled nuclear reactors.
Compounds
Before 1962, xenon and the other noble gases were generally considered to be chemically inert and not able to form compounds. Evidence since this time has been mounting that xenon, along with other noble gases, do in fact form compounds. Some of
the xenon compounds are xenon difluoride, tetrafluoride, hexafluoride, hydrate, and
deuterate, as well as sodium perxenate.
The highly explosive compound xenon trioxide has also been made. There are at least
80 xenon compounds in which fluorine or oxygen is bonded to xenon. Some compounds of xenon are colored but most are colorless.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring xenon is made of eight stable and one slightly radioactive isotopes. Beyond these stable forms, there are 20 unstable isotopes that have been studied. Xe-129 is produced by beta decay of I-129 (half-life: 16 million years); Xe-131m, Xe133, Xe-133m, and Xe-135 are fission products of both U-235 and Pu-239, and therefore
used as indicators of nuclear explosions. Radioactive xenon isotopes are also found
emanating from nuclear reactors.
Because Xe is a tracer for two parent isotopes, Xe isotope ratios in meteorites are a
powerful tool for studying the formation of the solar system. The I-Xe method of dating gives the time elapsed between nucleosynthesis and the condensation of a solid
object from the solar nebula.
Xenon isotopes are also a powerful tool for understanding terrestrial differentiation.
Excess Xe-129 found in carbon dioxide well gases from New Mexico was believed to be
from the decay of mantle-derived gases soon after Earth's formation.
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with ice at temperatures above -116C. Caesium hydroxide (CsOH) is the strongest base
known to exist and attacks glass.
Applications
Caesium
Caesium (also spelled cesium, though it goes against Latin phonetics) is a chemical
element in the periodic table that has the symbol Cs, atomic number 55 .and atomic
weight of 132.9054519. It is a Alkaline metal.
Name: Caesium
Symbol: Cs
Atomic number: 55
Standard state: solid at 298 K , but melts only slightly above this temperature
Colour: silvery gold
Caesium is a soft silvery-gold Alkali metal which is one of at least three metals that
are liquid at room temperature. This element is most notably used in atomic clocks.
Caesium is sometimes spelt cesium, especially in North American English, but caesium is the official name preferred by IUPAC, although since 1993 it has recognized
cesium as a variant.
The electromagnetic spectrum of caesium has two bright lines in the blue part of the
spectrum along with several other lines in the red, yellow, and green. This metal is
silvery gold in color and is both soft and ductile. Caesium is also the most electropositive and most alkaline chemical element and also has the least ionization potential
of all the elements, except for francium. Caesium is the least abundant of the five
non-radioactive alkali metals. (Technically, francium is the least common alkali metal, but since it is highly radioactive with less than an ounce in the entire earth at one
time, its abundance can be considered zero in practical terms).
Along with gallium and mercury, caesium is among the only metals that are liquid at
or near room temperature. Caesium reacts explosively in cold water and also reacts
Caesium is most notably used in atomic clocks, which are accurate to seconds in
many thousands of years.
Other Uses:
* Cs-134 has been used in hydrology as a measure of caesium output by the nuclear
power industry. This isotope is used because, while it is less prevalent than either Cs133 or Cs-137, Cs-134 can be produced solely by nuclear reactions. Cs-135 has also been
used in this function.
* Like other group 1 elements, caesium has a great affinity for oxygen and is used as
a "getter" in vacuum tubes.
* This metal is also used in photoelectric cells.
* In addition, caesium is used as a catalyst in the hydrogenation of certain organic
compounds.
* Isotopes (radioactive) of Caesium are used in the medical field to treat certain
types of cancer. More recently this metal has been used in ion propulsion systems
History
Caesium (Latin caesius meaning "sky blue") was spectroscopically discovered by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff in 1860 in mineral water from Drkheim, Germany.
Its identification was based upon the bright blue lines in its spectrum and it was the
first element discovered by spectrum analysis. The first caesium metal was produced
in 1881. Since 1967, the International System of Units (SI) has defined the second as
9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation which corresponds to the transition between two
energy levels of the ground state of the Caesium-133 atom. Historically, the most important use for caesium has been in research and development, primarily in chemical
and electrical applications.
Occurrence
An alkali metal, caesium occurs in lepidolite, pollucite (hydrated silicate of aluminium
and caesium) and within other sources. One of the world's most significant and rich
sources of this metal is located at Bernic Lake in Manitoba. The deposits there are estimated to contain 300,000 tons of pollucite at an average of 20% caesium.
It can be isolated by electrolysis of fused cyanide and in a number of other ways. Exceptionally pure and gas-free caesium can be made by the thermal decomposition of
caesium azide. The primary compounds of caesium are its chloride and its nitrate. The
price of caesium in 1997 was about $US 30 per gram.
Isotopes
Caesium has 32 known isotopes which is more than any other element, except francium. The atomic masses of these isotopes range from 114 to 145. Even though this
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element has the largest number of isotopes, it only has one naturally occurring stable
isotope, Cs-133. The radiogenic isotope Cs-137 has been used in hydrologic studies,
analogous to the use of H-3. Cs-137 is produced from detonation of nuclear weapons
and emissions from nuclear power plants, and notably from the 1986 Chernobyl explosion. Beginning in 1954 with the commencement of nuclear testing, Cs-137 was
released into the atmosphere where it is absorbed readily into solution. Once Cs-137
enters the ground water, it is deposited on soil surfaces and removed from the landscape primarily by particle transport. As a result, the input function of these isotopes
can be estimated as a function of time.
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Barium
Barium is a toxic chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Ba,
atomic number 56 and atomic weight of 137.327 It is a Alkaline Earth Metal.
Name: Barium
Symbol: Ba
Atomic number: 56
A soft silvery metallic element, barium is an alkaline earth metal and melts at a very
high temperature. Its oxide is called baryta and it is primarily found in the mineral
barite but is never found in its pure form due to its reactivity with air. Compounds of
this metal are used in small quantities in paints and in glassmaking.
Barium is a metallic element that is chemically similar to calcium, yet is soft and in its
pure form is silvery white resembling lead. This metal oxidizes very easily and when
exposed to air and is highly reactive with water or alcohol. Barium is decomposed
by water or alcohol. Some of the compounds of this element are remarkable for their
high specific gravity, as is its sulfate: barite Ba(SO4) also called heavy spar.
Applications
Barium is primarily used in sparkplugs, vacuum tubes, fireworks, and in fluorescent
lamps. Also a "getter" in vacuum tubes. Barium sulfate is permanent white and is used
in paint, in X-ray diagnostic work, and in glassmaking. Barite is used extensively as a
weighing agent in oil well drilling fluids and in rubber production. Barium carbonate
is a useful rat poison and can also be used in making glass and bricks, while barium
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nitrate and chlorate give colors in fireworks. Impure barium sulfide phosphoresces after exposure to the light. Barium salts, especially barium sulfate, are sometimes given
orally (a barium meal) or as an enema, to increase the contrast of medical X-rays of the
digestive system. Lithopone, a pigment that contains barium sulfate and zinc sulfide,
has good covering power, and does not darken in when exposed to sulfides.
History
Barium (Greek "barys" meaning "heavy") was first identified in 1774 by Carl Scheele
and extracted in 1808 by Sir Humphry Davy in England. The oxide was at first called
barote, by Guyton de Morveau, which was changed by Antoine Lavoisier to baryta,
which soon was modified to "barium" to describe the metal.
Occurrence
Because barium quickly becomes oxidized in air, it is difficult to obtain this metal in
its pure form. It is primarily found in and extracted from the mineral barite which is
crystalized barium sulfate. Barium is commercially produced through the electrolysis
of molten barium chloride (BaCl2)
Compounds
The most important compounds are barium peroxide, chloride, sulfate, carbonate,
nitrate, and chlorate. When burned, barium salts glows green.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring barium is a mix of seven stable isotopes. There are twenty-two
isotopes known, but most of these are highly radioactive and have half-lifes in the
several millisecond to several minute range. The only notable exception is barium-133
which has a half-life of 10.51 years.
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Lanthanum
Lanthanum is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol La, atomic
number 57 and atomic weight of 138.90547. It is a Lanthanoid.
Name: Lanthanum
Symbol: La
Atomic number: 57
Group in periodic table:
Group name: Lanthanoid
Period in periodic table: 6 (lanthanoid)
Block in periodic table: f-block
Lanthanum is a silvery white metallic element belonging to group 3 of the periodic table and often considered to be one of the lanthanides. Found in some rare-earth
minerals, usually in combination with cerium and other rare earth elements. Lanthanum is malleable, ductile, and soft enough to be cut with a knife. It is one of the most
reactive of the rare-earth metals. The metal reacts directly with elemental carbon,
nitrogen, boron, selenium, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, and with halogens. It oxidizes
rapidly when exposed to air. Cold water attacks lanthanum slowly, while hot water
attacks it much more rapidly.
Applications
Uses of lanthanum:
* Carbon lighting applications, especially by the motion picture industry for studio
lighting and projection.
* La2O3 improves the alkali resistance of glass, and is used in making special optical
glasses, such as:
* Infrared absorbing glass.
* Camera and telescope lenses, because of the high refractive index and low dispersion of rare-earth glasses.
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* Small amounts of lanthanum added to steel improves its malleability, resistance to
impact and ductility.
* Small amounts of lanthanum added to iron helps to produce nodular cast iron.
* Small amounts of lanthanum added to molybdenum decreases the hardness of this
metal and its sensitivity to temperature variations.
* Mischmetal, a pyrophoric alloy used e.g. in lighter flints, contains 25% to 45% lanthanum.
* The oxide and the boride are used in electronic vacuum tubes.
* Hydrogen sponge alloys can contain lanthanum. These alloys are capable of storing
up to 400 times their own volume of hydrogen gas in a reversible adsorption process.
* Petroleum cracking catalysts.
* Gas lantern mantles.
* Glass and lapidary polishing compound.
* La-Ba age dating of rocks and ores.
* Lanthanum Nitrate is mainly applied in specialty glass, water treatment and catalyst.
History
Lanthanum was discovered in 1839 by C. G. Mosander, when he partially decomposed
a sample of cerium nitrate by heating and treating the resulting salt with dilute nitric
acid. From the resulting solution, he isolated a new rare earth he called lantana.
Lanthanum was isolated in relatively pure form in 1923. The word lanthanum comes
from the Greek lanthanein, to lie hidden.
Biological Role
Lanthanum has no known biological role. The element is not absorbed orally, and
when injected its elimination is very slow. Lanthanum carbonate is being studied as a
compound to absorb excess phosphate in cases of end-stage renal failure. Some rare-earth chlorides, such as lanthanum chloride (LaCl3), are known to have anticoagulant properties.
Occurrence
Monazite (Ce, La, Th, Nd, Y) (PO4), and bastnasite (Ce, La, Y) (CO3 F), are principal ores
in which lanthanum occurs in percentages up to 25 percent and 38 percent respectively.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring lanthanum is composed of one stable and one radioactive isotope; 139-La, and 138-La with the stable isotope, 139-La, being the most abundant
(99.91% natural abundance). 31 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most
stable being 138-La with a half-life of 1.05E 11 years, and 137-La with a half-life of 60,000
years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 24
hours and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 1 minute. This element also has 3 meta states.The isotopes of lanthanum range in atomic weight from
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(120 u) (120-La) to (152 u) (152-La).
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Cerium
Cerium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Ce, atomic
Name: Cerium
Symbol: Ce
Atomic number: 58
Cerium is a silvery metallic element, belonging to the lanthanide group. It is used in

some rare-earth alloys. The oxidized form is used in the glass industry. It resembles
iron in color and luster, but is soft, and both malleable and ductile. It tarnishes readily
in the air.
Only europium is more reactive than cerium among rare earth elements. Alkali solutions and dilute and concentrated acids attack the metal rapidly. The pure metal is
likely to ignite if scratched with a knife. Cerium decomposes slowly in cold water and
rapidly in hot water.
Because of the relative closeness of the 4f and outer shell orbitals in cerium, it exhibits an interestingly variable chemistry. For example, compression or cooling of the
metal can change its oxidation state from about 3 to 4
Cerium in the +3 oxidation state is referred to as cerous, while the metal in the +4 oxidation state is called Cerium (IV) salts are orange red or yellowish, whereas cerium (III)
salts are usually white.
Applications
Uses of Cerium:
*
In metallurgy:
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* Cerium is used in making aluminium alloys and some steels and irons.
* Adding cerium to cast irons opposes graphitisation and produces a malleable iron.
* In steels cerium can help reduce sulfides and oxides and degasifies.
* Cerium is used in stainless steel as a precipitation-hardening agent.
* 3 to 4% cerium added to magnesium alloys, along with 0.2 to 0.6% zirconium, helps
refine the grain and give sound casting of complex shapes. It also adds heat resistance
to magnesium castings.
* Cerium is used in alloys that are used to make permanent magnets.
* Cerium is used in carbon-arc lighting, especially in the motion picture industry.
* Cerium is a component of Mischmetal, which is extensively used in the manufacture of pyrophoric alloys for cigarette lighters.
* The oxide is used in incandescent gas mantles.
* The oxide is emerging as a hydrocarbon catalyst in self cleaning ovens, incorporated into oven walls.
* Ceric sulfate is used extensively as a volumetric oxidizing agent in quantitative
analysis.
* Cerium compounds are used in the manufacture of glass, both as a component and
as a decolorizer.
* Cerium compounds are used for the coloring of enamel.
* The oxide is finding increased use as a glass polishing agent.
* In glass, cerium oxide allows for selective absorption of ultraviolet light.
* Cerium oxide is finding use as a petroleum cracking catalyst in petroleum refining.
* Cerium(III) and Cerium(IV) compounds have uses as catalysts in organic synthesis
History
Cerium was discovered in Sweden by Jns Jacob Berzelius and Wilhelm von Hisinger,
and independently in Germany by Martin Heinrich Klaproth, both in 1803. Cerium was
so named by Berzelius after the asteroid Ceres, discovered two years earlier (1801).
Occurrence
Cerium is the most abundant of the rare earth elements, making up about 0.0046%
of the Earth's crust. It is found in a number of minerals including allanite (also known
as orthite) - (Ca, Ce, La, Y)2(Al, Fe)3(SiO4)3(OH), monazite (Ce, La, Th, Nd, Y)PO4, bastnasite(Ce, La, Y)CO3F, hydroxylbastnasite (Ce, La, Nd)CO3(OH, F), rhabdophane (Ce, La, Nd)
PO4-H2O, and synchysite Ca(Ce, La, Nd, Y)(CO3)2F. Monazite and bastnasite are presently the two most important sources of cerium.
Cerium is most often prepared via an ion exchange process that uses monazite sands
as its cerium source
Large deposits of monazite, allanite, and bastnasite will supply cerium, thorium, and
other rare-earth metals for many years to come
Compounds
Common oxidation states of cerium include: Ce4+, Ce(IV)
Isotopes
Naturally occurring cerium is composed of 3 stable isotopes and 1 radioactive isotope;
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136-Ce, 138-Ce, 140-Ce, and 142-Ce with 140-Ce being the most abundant (88.48% natural abundance). 27 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most {abundant
and/or stable} being 142-Ce with a half-life of 5*10 to the sixteenth - years, 144-Ce with
a half-life of 284.893 days, 139-Ce with a half-life of 137.640, and 141-Ce with a half-life
of 32.501 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less
than 4 days and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 10 minutes. This
element also has 2 meta states. The isotopes of cerium range in atomic weight from
123 u (123-Ce) to 152 u (152-Ce)
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Praseodymium
Praseodymium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Pr,
atomic number 59 and atomic weight of 140.90765. It is a Lanthanoid.
Name: Praseodymium
Symbol: Pr
Atomic number: 59
Colour: silvery white, yellowish tinge
Praseodymium is a soft silvery metallic element, and belongs to the lanthanide
group. It is somewhat more resistant to corrosion in air than europium, lanthanum,
cerium, or neodymium, but it does develop a green oxide coating that spalls off when
exposed to air, exposing more metal to oxidation. For this reason, praseodymium
should be stored under a light mineral oil or sealed in plastic or glass.
Applications
Uses of praseodymium:
* As an alloying agent with magnesium to create high-strength metals that are used
in aircraft engines.
* Praseodymium forms the core of carbon arc lights which are used in the motion
picture industry for studio lighting and projector lights.
* Praseodymium compounds are used to give glasses and enamels a yellow color.
* Praseodymium is a component of didymium glass, which is used to make certain
types of welder's and glass blower's goggles.
History
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The name Praseodymium comes from the Greek prasios, meaning green, and didymos, or twin.
In 1841, Mosander extracted the rare earth didymium from lanthana. In 1874, Per Teodor Cleve concluded that didymium was in fact two elements, and in 1879, Lecoq de
Boisbaudran isolated a new earth, Samarium, from didymium obtained from the mineral samarskite. In 1885, the Austrian chemist baron C. F. Auer von Welsbach separated didymium into two elements, Praseodymium and Neodymium, which gave salts of
different colors.
Occurrence
Praseodymium is found in the rare earth minerals monazite and bastnasite, and can
be recovered from bastnasite or monazite by an ion-exchange process. Praseodymium
also makes up about 5% of Misch metal.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring praseodymium is composed of one stable isotope, 141-Pr. 38 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 143-Pr with a half-life
of 13.57 days and 142-Pr with a half-life of 19.12 hours. All of the remaining radioactive
isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 5.985 hours and the majority of these have
half lifes that are less than 33 seconds. This element also has 6 meta states with the
most stable being 138m-Pr (t1/2 2.12 hours), 142m-Pr (t1/2 14.6 minutes) and 134m-Pr (t1/2
11 minutes).
The isotopes of praseodymium range in atomic weight from 120.955 u (121-Pr) to
158.955 u (159-Pr). The primary decay mode before the stable isotope, 141-Pr, is electron
capture and the primary mode after is beta minus decay. The primary decay products
before 141-Pr are element 58 (Cerium) isotopes and the primary products after are element 60 (Neodymium) isotopes.
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Neodymium
Neodymium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Nd, atomic number 60 and atomic weight of 144.242. It is a Lanthanoid
Name: Neodymium
Symbol: Nd
Atomic number: 60
Colour: silvery white, yellowish tinge
Neodymium, a rare earth metal, is present in misch metal to the extent of about 18%.
The metal has a bright silvery metallic luster; however, being one of the more reactive
rare-earth metals, Neodymium quickly tarnishes in air, forming an oxide that spalls
off and exposes the metal to further oxidation.
Applications
Uses of Neodymium include:
* Neodymium is a component of didymium used for colouring glass to make welder's

goggles
* Neodymium colours glass in delicate shades ranging from pure violet through
wine-red and warm gray. Light transmitted through such glass shows unusually sharp
absorption bands; the glass is used in astronomical work to produce sharp bands by
which spectral lines may be calibrated. Neodymium is also used to remove the green
colour caused by iron contaminants from glass.
* Certain transparent materials with a small concentration of neodymium ions can
be used in lasers for infrared wavelengths (1054-1064 nm), e.g. Nd:YAG (yttrium aluminium garnet), Nd:YLF (yttrium lithium fluoride), Nd:YVO (yttrium vanadate), Nd:-
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glass.
* Neodymium salts are used as a colourant for enamels.
* Neodymium is used in very powerful permanent magnets - Nd2Fe14B. These magnets are cheaper than Samarium-Cobalt magnets and appear in products such as iPod
in-ear headphones.
* Neodymium ions are used in active laser media.
History
Neodymium was discovered by Baron Carl F. Auer von Welsbach, an austrian chemist,
in Vienna in 1885. He separated neodymium, as well as the element Praseodymium,
from a material known as didymium; however, it was not isolated in relatively pure
form until 1925. The name Neodymium is derived from the greek words neos, new, and
didymos, twin.
Today, Neodymium is primarily obtained through an ion exchange process of
monazite sand ((Ce,La,Th,Nd,Y)PO4), a material rich in rare earth elements, and
through electrolysis of its halide salts.
Occurrence
Neodymium is never found in nature as the free element; rather, it occurs in ores
such as monazite sand ((Ce,La,Th,Nd,Y)PO4) and bastnosite ((Ce,La,Th,Nd,Y)(CO3)F) that
contain small amounts of all the rare earth metals. Neodymium can also be found in
Misch metal; it is difficult to separate from other rare earth elements.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring Neodymium is composed of 5 stable isotopes, 142-Nd, 143-Nd,
145-Nd, 146-Nd and 148-Nd, with 142-Nd being the most abundant (27.2% natural abundance), and 2 radioisotopes, 144-Nd and 150-Nd. 31 radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being 150-Nd with a half-life of 1.1E19 years, 144-Nd with a
half-life of 2.29E15 years, and 147-Nd with a half-life of 10.98 days. All of the remaining
radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 3.38 days, and the majority of
these have half lifes that are less than 71 seconds. This element also has 4 meta states
with the most stable being 139m-Nd (t 5.5 hours), 135m-Nd (t 5.5 minutes) and
141m-Nd (t 62.0 seconds).
The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 142-Nd, is electron
before 142-Nd are element Pr (Praseodymium) isotopes and the primary products after
are element Pm (Lead) isotopes.
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Promethium
Promethium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Pm,
atomic number 61 and atomic weight of 145. It is a Lanthanoid.
Name: Promethium
Symbol: Pm
Atomic number: 61
Atomic weight: 145
Colour: metallic
Promethium is a soft beta emitter; it does not emit gamma rays, but beta particles
impinging on elements of high atomic numbers can generate X-rays. Little is known
as of today about the properties of metallic promethium; two allotropic modifications
exist, and promethium salts luminesce in the dark with a pale blue or greenish glow
due to their high radioactivity.
Applications
Uses for Promethium include:
* Beta radiation source for thickness gages.
* Light source for signals that require dependable operation (using phosphor to absorb the beta radiation and produce light).
* In a nuclear battery in which photocells convert the light into electric current,
yielding a useful life of about 5 years using 147-Pm.
* Possibly in the future as a portable X-ray source, as an auxiliary heat / power
source for space probes and satellites, and to make lasers that can be used to communicate with submerged submarines.
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The existence of promethium was first predicted by Branner in 1902, this prediction
was confirmed by Moseley in 1914. Several groups claimed to have produced the element, but they could not confirm their discoveries because of the difficulty of separating Promethium from other elements. Proof of the existence of Promethium was
obtained in 1944 only by Jacob A. Marinsky, Lawrence E. Glendenin and Charles D.
Coryell during the analysis of byproducts of uranium fission; however, being too busy
with defense-related research during World War II, they did not claim their discovery
until 1946. The name Promethium is derived from Prometheus from Greek mythology,
who stole the fire of the sky and gave it to mankind.
In 1963, ion-exchange methods were used to prepare about 10 g of Promethium from
atomic reactor fuel processing wastes. Today, Promethium is still recovered from the
byproducts of uranium fission; it can also be produced by bombarding 146-Nd with
neutrons, turning it into 147-Nd which decays into 147-Pm through beta decay with a
half-life of 11 days.
Occurrence
Promethium does not naturally occur on earth, but has been identified in the spectrum of the star HR465 in Andromeda.
Isotopes
36 radioisotopes of Promethium have been characterized, with the most stable being
145-Pm with a half-life of 17.7 years, 146-Pm with a half-life of 5.53 years, and 147-Pm
with a half-life of 2.6234 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes
that are less than 364 days, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than
27 seconds. This element also has 11 meta states with the most stable being 148m-Pm
(t1/2 41.29 days), 152m2-Pm (t1/2 13.8 minutes) and 152m-Pm (t1/2 7.52 minutes).
The isotopes of Promethium range in atomic weight from 127.9482600 u (128-Pm) to
162.9535200 u (163-Pm). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 145-Pm, is electron capture, and the primary mode after is beta minus decay. The
primary decay products before 145-Pm are element Nd (Neodymium) isotopes and the
primary products after are element Sm (Samarium) isotopes.
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Samarium
Samarium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Sm, atomic
Name: Samarium
Symbol: Sm
Atomic number: 62
Samarium is a rare earth metal, with a bright silver lustre, that is reasonably stable in
air; it ignites in air at 150C. Three crystal modifications of the metal also exist, with
transformations at 734 and 922C, respectively.
Applications
Uses of Samarium include:
* Carbon-arc lighting for the motion picture industry (together with other rare
earth metals).
* Doping CaF2 crystals for use in optical masers or lasers.
* As a neutron absorber in nuclear reactors.
* For alloys and headphones.
* Samarium-Cobalt magnets; SmCo5 is used in making a new permanent magnet material with the highest resistance to demagnetization of any known material, and an
intrinsic coercive force as high as 2200 kA/m.
* Samarium oxide is used in optical glass to absorb infrared light.
* Samarium compounds act as sensitizers for phosphors excited in the infrared.
* Samarium oxide is catalytic for the dehydration and dehydrogenation of ethanol.
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Samarium was first discovered spectroscopically in 1853 by swiss chemist Jean Charles
Galissard de Marignac by its sharp absorption lines in didymium, and isolated in Paris
in 1879 by french chemist Paul mile Lecoq de Boisbaudran from the mineral samarskite ((Y,Ce,U,Fe)3(Nb,Ta,Ti)5O16). Like the mineral, it was named after a Russian mine
official, Colonel Samarski.
Biological Role
Samarium has no known biological role, but is said to stimulate the metabolism.
Occurrence
Samarium is never found free in nature, but, like other rare earth elements, is contained in many minerals, including monazite, bastnasite and samarskite; monazite
(in which it occurs up to an extent of 2.8%) and bastnasite are also used as commercial sources. Misch metal containing about 1% of Samarium has long been used, but it
was not until recent years that relatively pure Samarium has been isolated through
ion-exchange processes, solvent extraction techniques, and electrochemical deposition. Samarium can also be obtained by reducing its oxide with Lanthanum.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring Samarium is composed of 4 stable isotopes, 144-Sm, 150-Sm, 152Sm and 154-Sm, and 3 radioisotopes, 147-Sm, 148-Sm and 149-Sm, with 152-Sm being the
most abundant (26.75% natural abundance). 32 radioisotopes have been characterized,
with the most stable being 148-Sm with a half-life of 7E+15 years, 149-Sm with a halflife of more than 2E+15 years, and 147-Sm with a half-life of 1.06E+11 years.
All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 1.04E+8
years, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 48 seconds. This element also has 5 meta states with the most stable being 141m-Sm (t1/2 22.6 minutes),
143m1-Sm (t1/2 66 seconds) and 139m-Sm (t1/2 10.7 seconds).
The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 152-Sm, is electron
capture, and the primary mode after is beta minus decay. The primary decay products
before 152-Sm are element Pm (Promethium) isotopes, and the primary products after
are element Eu (Europium) isotopes.
Europium
Europium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Eu, atomic
Name: Europium
Symbol: Eu
Atomic number: 63
Europium is the most reactive of the rare earth elements; it quickly oxidizes in air,
and resembles Calcium in its reaction with water. Like other rare earths (with the
exception of Lanthanum, Europium ignites in air at about 150 to 180. It is about as
hard as lead and quite ductile.
Applications
There are no commercial applications for Europium metal, although it has been used
to dope some types of plastics to make lasers. Due to its ability to absorb neutrons,
it is also being studied for use in nuclear reactors. Europium Oxide (Eu2O3) is widely
used as a red phosphor in television sets, and as an activator for Yttrium-based phosphors.
History
Europium was first found by Paul mile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1890, who obtained
basic fraction from Samarium-Gadolinium concentrates which had spectral lines not
accounted for by Samarium or Gadolinium; however, the discovery of Europium is
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generally credited to french chemist Eugne-Antole Demarcay, who suspected samples of the recently discovered element Samarium were contaminated with an unknown element in 1896 and who was able to isolate Europium in 1901. Pure Europium
metal was not isolated until recent years.
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Occurrence
Europium is never found in nature as the free element; however, there are many
minerals containing Europium, with the most important sources being bastnasite
and monazite. Europium has also been identified in the spectra of the sun and certain
stars.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring Europium is composed of 2 stable isotopes, 151-Eu and 153-Eu,
with 153-Eu being the most abundant (52.2% natural abundance). 35 radioisotopes
have been characterized, with the most stable being 150-Eu with a half-life of 36.9
years, 152-Eu with a half-life of 13.516 years, and 154-Eu with a half-life of 8.593 years.
All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 4.7612 years,
and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 12.2 seconds. This element
also has 8 meta states, with the most stable being 150m-Eu (t1/2 12.8 hours), 152m1-Eu
(t1/2 9.3116 hours) and 152m2-Eu (t1/2 96 minutes).
The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 153-Eu, is electron
before 153-Eu are element Sm (Samarium) isotopes and the primary products after are
element Gd (Gadolinium) isotopes.
Gadolinium
Gadolinium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Gd, atomic number 64 and atomic weight of 157.25. It is a Lanthanoid.
Name: Gadolinium
Symbol: Gd
Atomic number: 64
Gadolinium is a silvery white, malleable and ductile rare earth metal with a metallic luster. It crystalizes in hexagonal, close-packed alpha form at room temperature;
when heated to 1508 K, it transforms into its beta form, which has a body-centered
cubic structure.
Unlike other rare earth elements, Gadolinium is relatively stable in dry air; however,
it tarnishes quickly in moist air and forms a losely adhering oxide that spalls off and
exposes more surface to oxidation. Gadolinium reacts slowly with water and is soluble
in dilute acid.
Gadolinium also has the highest thermal neutron capture cross-section of any
(known) element, 49,000 barns, but it also has a fast burn-out rate, limiting its usefulness as a nuclear control rod material.
Gadolinium becomes superconductive below a critical temperature of 1.083 K it is
strongly magnetic at room temperature, and is in fact the only metal to exhibit ferromagnetic properties except for fourth period transition metals.
Applications
Gadolinium is used for making gadolinium yttrium garnets, which have microwave
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applications; gadolinium compounds also are used for making phosphors for colour
TV tubes, and solutions of compounds are used as intravenous contrasts to enhance
images in patients undergoing magnetic resonance imaging. Gadolinium is also used
for manufacturing compact discs and computer memory.
Gadolinium also possesses unusual superconductive properties, with as little as 1% of
Gadolinium improving the workability and resistance of Iron, Chromium and related
alloys to high temperatures and oxidation.
In the future, Gadolinium ethyl sulfate, which has extremely low noise characteristics, may be used in masers; furthermore, Gadolinium's high magnetic movement and
its Curie temperature which lies just at room temperature suggest applications as a
magnetic component for sensing hot and cold.
History
In 1880, Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac observed spectroscopic
lines due to Gadolinium in samples of didymium and gadolinite; French chemist Paul
mile Lecoq de Boisbaudran separated gadolinia, the oxide of Gadolinium, from Mosander's yttria in 1886. The element itself was isolated only recently for the first time.
Gadolinium, like the mineral gadolinite, is named after Finnish chemist and geologist
Johan Gadolin.
Biological Role
Gadolinium has no known biological role, but is said to stimulate the metabolism.
Occurrence
Gadolinium is never found in nature as the free element, but is contained in many
minerals such as gadolinite, monazite and bastnasite. Today, it is prepared by ion
exchange and solvent extraction technique, or by the reduction of its anhydrous fluoride with metallic Calcium.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring Gadolinium is composed of 5 stable isotopes, 154-Md, 155-Md,
156-Md, 157-Md and 158-Md, and 2 radioisotopes, 152-Md and 160-Md, with 158-Md
being the most abundant (24.84% natural abundance). 30 radioisotopes have been
characterized with the most stable being 160-Md with a half-life of 1.3E+21 years, 152Md with a half-life of 1.08E+14 years, and 150-Md with a half-life of 1.79E+6 years. All of
the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 74.7 years, and the
majority of these have half lifes that are less than 24.6 seconds. This element also has
4 meta states with the most stable being 143m-Gd (t1/2 110 seconds), 145m-Gd (t1/2 85
seconds) and 141m-Gd (t1/2 24.5).
The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 158-Gd, is electron
before 158-Gd are element Eu (Europium) isotopes and the primary products after are
element Tb (Terbium) isotopes.
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niques.
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Occurrence
Terbium
Terbium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Tb, atomic
Name: Terbium
Symbol: Tb
Atomic number: 65
Terbium is never found in nature as the free element, but it is contained in many
minerals, including cerite, gadolinite, monazite (Ce,LaTh,Nd,Y)PO4, which contains up
to 0.03% of Terbium), xenotime (YPO4) and euxenite (Y,Ca,Er,La,Ce,U,Th)(Nb,Ta,Ti)2O6,
which contains 1% or more of Terbium).
Isotopes
Naturally occurring Terbium is composed of 1 stable isotope, 159-Tb. 33 radioisotopes
have been characterized, with the most stable being 158-Tb with a half-life of 180
years, 157-Tb with a half-life of 71 years, and 160-Tb with a half-life of 72.3 days.
All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 6.907 days,
and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 24 seconds. This element
also has 18 meta states, with the most stable being 156m1-Tb (t1/2 24.4 hours), 154m2-Tb
(t1/2 22.7 hours) and 154m1-Tb (t1/2 9.4 hours).
The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 159-Tb, is electron
before 159-Tb are element Gd (Gadolinium) isotopes, and the primary products after
are element Dy (Dysprosium) isotopes.
Terbium is a silvery-gray rare earth metal that is malleable, ductile and soft enough
to be cut with a knife. It is reasonably stable in air, and two crystal modifications exist, with a transformation temperature of 1289C.
Applications
Terbium is used to dope Calcium fluoride, calcium tungstate and Strontium molybdate, materials that are used in solid-state devices, and as a crystal stabilizer of fuel
cells which operate at elevated temperatures, together with ZrO2. Terbium is also
used in alloys and in the production of electronic devices, its oxide is used in green
phosphors in fluorescent lamps and color TV tubes. Sodium Terbium borate is used as
a laser material that emits coherent light at 5460 .
History
Terbium was discovered by Swedish chemist Carl Gustaf Mosander in 1843 and named
after the village Ytterby in Sweden, who detected it as an impurity in Yttrium-oxide,
Y2O3. It was not isolated in pure form until the recent advent of ion-exchange tech-
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Dysprosium was first identified in Paris in 1886 by French chemist Paul mile Lecoq
de Boisbaudran; however, the element itself was not isolated in relatively pure form
until after the development of ion exchange and metallographic reduction techniques
in the 1950s. The name dysprosium is derived from Greek dysprositos, "hard to get at".
Dysprosium
Dysprosium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Dy, atomic number 66 and atomic weight of 162.5. It is a Lanthanoid.
Name: Dysprosium
Symbol: Dy
Atomic number: 66
Occurrence
Dysprosium is never encountered as the free element, but is found in many minerals, including xenotime, fergusonite, gadolinite, euxenite, polycrase, blomstrandine,
monazite and bastnasite, often with erbium and holmium or other rare earth elements.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of 7 stable isotopes, 156-Dy, 158-Dy, 160Dy, 161-Dy, 162-Dy, 163-Dy and 164-Dy, with 164-Dy being the most abundant (28.18%
natural abundance). 28 radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable
being 154-Dy with a half-life of 3.0E+6 years, 159-Dy with a half-life of 144.4 days, and
166-Dy with a half-life of 81.6 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have
half-lifes that are less than 10 hours, and the majority of these have half lifes that are
less than 30 seconds. This element also has 5 meta states, with the most stable being
165m-Dy (t1/2 1.257minutes), 147m-Dy (t1/2 55.7 seconds) and 145m-Dy (t1/2 13.6 seconds).
The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 164-Dy, is electron
before 164-Dy are terbium isotopes, and the primary products after are holmium isotopes.
Dysprosium is a rare earth element that has a metallic, bright silver luster, relatively stable in air at room temperature, but dissolving readily in dilute or concentrated
mineral acids with the emission of hydrogen. It is soft enough to be cut with a knife,
and can be machined without sparking if overheating is avoided. Dysprosium's characteristics can be greatly affected even by small amounts of impurities.
Applications
Dysprosium is used, in conjunction with vanadium and other elements, for making
laser materials; its high thermal neutron absorption cross-section and melting point
also suggest using it for nuclear control rods, dysprosium oxide (also known as dysprosia) with nickel cement compounds which absorb neutrons readily without swelling or contracting under prolonged neutron bombardment, is being used for cooling
rods in nuclear reactors. Dysprosium-cadmium chalcogenides are sources of infrared
radiation for studying chemical reactions; furthermore, dysprosium is used for manufacturing compact discs.
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Other commercial applications of the element include:

* High magnetic moment is suitable for use in yttrium-iron-garnet (YIG) and yttrium-lanthanum-fluoride (YLF) solid state lasers found in microwave equipment (which
are in turn found in a variety of medical and dental settings).
* Holmium oxide is used as a yellow glass coloring. Few other uses have been identified for this element.
Holmium
Holmium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Ho, atomic
Name: Holmium
Symbol: Ho
Atomic number: 67
Part of the lanthanide series, holmium is a relatively soft and malleable silvery-white
metallic element, which is stable in dry air at room temperature. A rare earth metal, it
is found in the minerals monazite and gadolinite.
History
Holmium (Holmia, Latin name for Stockholm) was discovered by Marc Delafontaine
and Jacques Louis Soret in 1878 who noticed the aberrant spectrographic absorption
bands of the then-unknown element (they called it "Element X"). Later in 1878, Per
Teodor Cleve independently discovered the element while he was working on erbia
earth (erbium oxide).
Using the method developed by Carl Gustaf Mosander, Cleve first removed all of the
known contaminants from erbia. The result of that effort was two new materials, one
brown and one green. He named the brown substance holmia (after the Latin name for
Cleve's home town, Stockholm) and the green one thulia. Holmia was later found to be
the holmium oxide and thulia was thulium oxide.
Occurrence
Like all other rare earths, holmium is not naturally found as a free element. It does
occur combined with other elements in the minerals gadolinite, monazite, and in other rare-earth minerals. It is commercially extracted via ion-exchange from monazite
sand (0.05% holmium) but is still difficult to separate from other rare earths.
The element has been isolated through the reduction of its anhydrous chloride or
fluoride with metallic calcium. Its estimated abundance in the Earth's crust is 1.3 milligrams per kilogram.
A trivalent metallic rare earth element, holmium has the highest magnetic moment
(10.6B) of any naturally-occurring element and possesses other unusual magnetic
properties. When combined with yttrium, it forms highly magnetic compounds.
Holmium is a relatively soft and malleable element that is fairly corrosion-resistant
and stable in dry air at standard temperature and pressure. In moist air and at higher
temperatures, however, it quickly oxidizes, forming a yellowish oxide). In pure form,
holmium possesses a metallic, bright silvery luster.
Applications
Because of its magnetic properties, holmium has been used to create the strongest
artificially-generated magnetic fields when placed within high-strength magnets as
a magnetic pole piece (also called a magnetic flux concentrator). Since it can absorb
nuclear fission-bred neutrons, the element is also used in nuclear control rods.
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ability.
* Erbium oxide has a pink color and is therefore sometimes used as a glass and porcelain enamel glaze colorant. The glass is then often used in sunglasses and cheap
jewelry.
History
Erbium
Erbium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Er, atomic
Name: Erbium
Symbol: Er
Atomic number: 68
A rare silvery metallic lanthanide rare earth element, erbium is associated with several other rare elements in the mineral gadolinite from Ytterby in Sweden.
A trivalent element, pure erbium metal is malleable, soft, somewhat stable in air and
does not oxidize as quickly as some other rare-earth metals. Its salts are rose-colored
and the element gives a characteristic sharp absorption spectra in visible light, ultraviolet, and near infrared. Otherwise it looks pretty much like the other rare earths. Its
sesquioxide is called erbia. Erbium's properties are a to a degree dictated by the kind
and amount of impurities present. Erbium does not play any known biological role
but is thought by some to be able to stimulate metabolism.
Applications
Erbium's everyday uses are varied; commonly it is used as a photographic filter and
because of its resilience it is useful as an metallurgical additive.
Other uses:
* Used in nuclear technology as a neutron absorber.
* Used as a dopant in Fiber amplifiers.
* When added to vanadium as an alloy erbium lowers hardness and improves work-
Erbium (for Ytterby, a town in Sweden) was discovered by Carl Gustaf Mosander in
1843. Mosander separated "yttria" from the mineral gadolinite into three fractions
which he called yttria, erbia, and terbia. He named the new element after the town of
Ytterby where large concentrations of yttria and erbium are located. Erbia and terbia,
however, were confused in at this time. After 1860, what had been known as terbia
was renamed erbia and after 1877 what had been known as erbia was renamed terbia.
Fairly pure Er2O3 was independently isolated in 1905 by Georges Urbain and Charles
James. Reasonably pure metal wasn't produced until 1934 when workers reduced the
anhydrous chloride with potassium vapor.
Occurrence
Like other rare earths, this element is never found as a free element in nature but is
found bound monazite sand ores. It has historically been very difficult and expensive
to separate rare earths from each other in their ores but ion-exchange production
techniques developed in the late 20th century have greatly brought down the cost
of production of all rare-earth metals and their chemical compounds. The principle
commercial sources of erbium are from the minerals xenotime and euxenite. Metallic
erbium in dust form presents a fire and explosion hazard.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring erbium is composed of 6 stable isotopes, Er-162, Er-164, Er-166, Er167, Er-168, and Er-170 with Er-166 being the most abundant (33.6% natural abundance).
23 radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being Er-169 with a
half life of 9.4 days, Er-172 with a half-life of 49.3 hours, Er-160 with a half-life of 28.58
hours, Er-165 with a half-life of 10.36 hours, and Er-171 with a half life of 7.516 hours. All
of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 3.5 hours, and
the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 4 minutes. This element also has
6 meta states, with the most stable being Er-167m (t1/2 2.269 seconds).
The isotopes of erbium range in atomic weight from 144.957 amu (Er-145) to 173.944
amu (Er-174). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, Er166, is electron capture, and the primary mode after is beta decay. The primary decay
products before Er-166 are element 67 (holmium) isotopes, and the primary products
after are element 69 (thulium) isotopes.
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Thulium
Thulium is a chemical element, in the periodic table that has the symbol Tm, atomic
Name: Thulium
Symbol: Tm
Atomic number: 69
A lanthanide element, thulium is the least abundant of the rare earths and its metal
is easy to work, has a bright silvery-gray luster and can be cut by a knife. It also has
some corrosion resistance in dry air and good ductility. Naturally occurring thulium is
made entirely of the stable isotope Tm-169.
Applications
Thulium has been used to create lasers but high production costs have prevented
other commercial uses from being developed.
Other uses/potential uses:
* When stable thulium (Tm-169) is bombarded in a nuclear reactor it can later serve
as a radiation source in portable X-ray devices.
* The unstable Tm-171 could possibly be used as an energy source.
* Tm-169 has potential use in ceramic magnetic materials called ferrites, which are
used in microwave equipment.
History
Thulium was discovered by Swedish chemist Per Teodor Cleve in 1879 by looking for
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impurities in the oxides of other rare earth elements (this was the same method Carl
Gustaf Mosander earlier used to discover some other rare earths elements). Cleve
started by removing all of the known contaminants of erbia (Er2O3) and upon additional processing, obtained two new substances; one brown and one green. The brown
substance turned out to be the oxide of the element holmium and was named holmia
by Cleve and the green substance was the oxide of an unknown element. Cleve named
the oxide thulia and its element thulium after Thule, an ancient Roman name for a
mythical country in the far north, perhaps Scandinavia.
Occurrence
The element is never found in found in nature in pure form but it is found in small
quantities in minerals with other rare earths. It is principally extracted from monazite
(~0.007% thulium) ores found in river sands through ion-exchange. Newer ion-exchange and solvent extraction techniques have led to easier separation of the rare
earths, which has yielded much lower costs for thulium production. The metal can be
isolated through reduction of its oxide with lanthanum metal or by calcium reduction
in a closed container. None of thulium's compounds are commercially important.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring thulium is composed of 1 stable isotope, Tm-169 (100% natural
abundance). 31 radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being Tm171 with a half-life of 1.92 years, Tm-170 with a half-life of 128.6 days, Tm-168 with a halflife of 93.1 days, and Tm-167 with a half-life of 9.25 days.
All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 64 hours,
and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 2 minutes. This element also
has 14 meta states, with the most stable being Tm-164m (t1/2 5.1 minutes), Tm-160m
(t1/2 74.5 seconds) and Tm-155m (t 45 seconds).
The isotopes of thulium range in atomic weight from 145.966 u (Tm-146) to 176.949 u
(Tm-177). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, Tm-169,
is electron capture, and the primary mode after is beta emission. The primary decay
products before Tm-169 are element 68 (erbium) isotopes, and the primary products
after are element 70 (ytterbium) isotopes.
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Ytterbium
Ytterbium is a soft, malleable and rather ductile element in the periodic table that
has the symbol Yb, atomic number 70 and atomic weight of 173.054. It is a Lanthanoid.
Name: Ytterbium
Symbol: Yb
Atomic number: 70
It exhibits a bright silvery luster. A rare earth element, it is easily attacked and dissolved by mineral acids, slowly reacts with water, and oxidizes in air.
Ytterbium has three allotropes which are called alpha, beta and gamma and whose
transformation points are at -13C and 795 C. The beta form exists at room temperature and has a face-centered crystal structure while the high-temperature gamma
form has a body-centered crystal structure.
Normally, the beta form has a metallic-like electrical conductivity, but becomes a
semiconductor when exposed to around 16,000 atm. Its electrical resistance is tenfold
larger at about 39,000 atm but then dramatically drops to around 10% of its room temperature resistivity value at 40,000 atm.
Applications
One ytterbium isotope has been used as a radiation source substitute for a portable
X-ray machine when electricity was not available. Its metal could also be used to help
improve the grain refinement, strength, and other mechanical properties of stainless
steel. Some ytterbium alloys have been used in dentistry. There are few other uses of
this element, e.g. in the form of ions in active laser media.
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History
Ytterbium was discovered by the Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac in
1878. Marignac found a new component in the earth then known as erbia and named it
ytterbia (after Ytterby, the Swedish town where he found the new erbia component).
He suspected that ytterbia was a compound of a new element he called ytterbium
(which was in fact the first rare earth to be discovered).
In 1907, the French chemist Georges Urbain separated Marignac's ytterbia into two
components, neoytterbia and lutecia. Neoytterbia would later become known as the
element ytterbium and lutecia would later be known as the element lutetium. Auer
von Welsbach independently isolated these elements from ytterbia at about the same
time but called them aldebaranium and cassiopeium.
The chemical and physical properties of ytterbium could not be determined until 1953
when the first nearly pure ytterbium was produced.
Occurrence
Ytterbium is found with other rare earth elements in several rare minerals. It is most
often recovered commercially from monazite sand (~0.03% ytterbium). The element is
also found in euxenite and xenotime. Ytterbium is normally difficult to separate from
other rare earths but ion-exchange and solvent extraction techniques developed in
the late 20th century have simplified separation. Compounds of ytterbium are rare.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring ytterbium is composed of 7 stable isotopes, Yb-168, Yb-170, Yb-171,
Yb-172, Yb-173, Yb-174, and Yb-176, with Yb-174 being the most abundant (31.8% natural
abundance). 22 radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being Yb169 with a half-life of 32.026 days, Yb-175 with a half-life of 4.185 days, and Yb-166 with
a half life of 56.7 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that
are less than 2 hours, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 20
minutes. This element also has 6 meta states, with the most stable being Yb-169m (t1/2
46 seconds).
The isotopes of ytterbium range in atomic weight from 150.955 u (Yb-151) to 179.952
u (Yb-180). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, Yb-174
is electron capture, and the primary mode after is beta emission. The primary decay
products before Yb-174 are element 69 (thulium) isotopes, and the primary products
after are element 71 (lutetium) isotopes.
Lutetium
Lutetium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Lu, atomic
Name: Lutetium
Symbol: Lu
Atomic number: 71
Group name: (none)
A metallic element of the rare earth group, lutetium usually occurs in association
with yttrium and is sometimes used in metal alloys and as a catalyst in various processes.
Lutetium is a silvery white corrosion-resistant trivalent metal that is relatively stable
in air and is the heaviest and hardest of the rare earth elements.
This element is very expensive to obtain in useful quantities and therefore it has very
few commercial uses. However, stable lutetium can be used as catalysts in petroleum
cracking in refineries and can also be used in alkylation, hydrogenation, and polymerization applications.
History
Lutetium (Latin Lutetia meaning Paris) was independently discovered in 1907 by

French scientist Georges Urbain and Austrian mineralogist Baron Carol Auer von
Welsbach. Both men found lutetium as an impurity in the mineral ytterbia which was
thought by Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac (and most others) to
consist entirely of the element ytterbium.
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The separation of lutetium from Marignac's ytterbium was first described by Urbain
and the naming honor therefore went to him. He chose the names neoytterbium (new
ytterbium) and lutecium for the new element but neoytterbium was eventually reverted back to ytterbium and in 1949 the spelling of element 71 was changed to lutetium.
Welsbach proposed the names cassiopium for element 71 (after the constellation Cassiopeia) and albebaranium for the new name of ytterbium but these naming proposals
where rejected (although many German scientists still call element 71 cassiopium).
Occurrence
Found with almost all other rare-earth metals but never by itself, lutetium is very
difficult to separate from other elements and is the least abundant of all naturally-occurring elements.
The principal commercially viable ore of lutetium is the mineral monzonite [(Ce, La,
etc.)PO4] which contains 0.003% of the element. Pure lutetium metal has only relatively recently been isolated and is very difficult to prepare (thus it is one of the most rare
and expensive of the rare earth metals). It is separated from other rare earth elements
by ion exchange (reduction of anhydrous LuCl3 or LuF3 by either an alkali metal or
alkaline earth metal)
Isotopes
Naturally occurring lutetium is composed of 1 stable isotope Lu-175 (97.41% natural
abundance). 33 radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being
Lu-176 with a half-life of 3.78 1010 years (2.59% natural abundance), Lu-174 with a
half-life of 3.31 years, and Lu-173 with a half-life of 1.37 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 9 days, and the majority of these
have half lifes that are less than a half an hour. This element also has 18 meta states,
with the most stable being Lum-177 (t1/2 160.4 days), Lum-174 (t1/2 142 days) and Lum178 (t1/2 23.1 minutes).
The isotopes of lutetium range in atomic weight from 149.973 u (Lu-150) to 183.961 u
(Lu-184). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, Lu-175, is
electron capture (with some alpha and positron emission), and the primary mode after
is beta emission. The primary decay products before Lu-175 are element 70 (ytterbium)
isotopes and the primary products after are element 72 (hafnium) isotopes.
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Hafnium
Hafnium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Hf, atomic
Name: Hafnium
Symbol: Hf
Atomic number: 72
Group name: (none)
Colour: grey steel
A lustrous, silvery gray tetravalent transition metal, hafnium resembles zirconium

chemically and is found in zirconium minerals. Hafnium is used in tungsten alloys in
filaments and electrodes and also acts as a neutron absorber in nuclear control rods.
This is a shiny silvery, ductile metal that is corrosion resistant and chemically similar to zirconium. The properties of hafnium are markedly affected by zirconium impurities and these two elements are amongst the most difficult to separate. The only
notable difference between them is their density (zirconium is about half as dense as
hafnium).
Hafnium carbide is the most refractory binary compound known and hafnium nitride
is the most refractory of all known metal nitrides with a melting point of 3310C). This
metal is resistant to concentrated alkalis, but halogens react with it to form hafnium
tetrahalides. At higher temperatures hafnium reacts with oxygen, nitrogen, carbon,
boron, sulfur, and silicon. The nuclear isomer Hf-178-2m is also a source of energetic
gamma rays, and is being studied as a possible power source for gamma ray lasers
Applications
Hafnium is used to make nuclear control rods, such as those found in nuclear submarines because of its ability to absorb neutrons (its thermal neutron absorption cross
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section is nearly 600 times that of zirconium), excellent mechanical properties and
exceptional corrosion-resistance properties.
Other uses:
* Used in gas-filled and incandescent lamps.
* For scavenging oxygen and nitrogen.
* As the electrode in plasma cutting because of its ability to shed electrons into air.
* Iron, titanium, niobium, tantalum, and other metal alloys.
* Hafnium Oxide is a candidate for High-K gate insulators in future generations of
integrated circuits.
* Recently, hafnium has been put into development of newer nuclear weapons by
the U.S. government.
* DARPA has been intermittently funding programs to determine the possibility
of using a nuclear isomer of hafnium (the above mentioned Hf-178-2m) to construct
small, high yield weapons with simple x-ray triggering mechanisms - the hafnium
bomb. There is considerable scientific opposition to this program, both on technical
and moral grounds (the argument is that though a hafnium bomb might be infeasable,
other countries will use an imagined "isomer weapon gap" to justify nuclear weapons
development stockpiling).
History
Hafnium (Latin Hafnia for "Copenhagen") was discovered by Dirk Coster and Georg
von Hevesy in 1923 in Copenhagen, Denmark. Soon after, the new element was predicted to be associated with zirconium by using the Bohr theory and was finally found
in zircon through X-ray spectroscope analysis in Norway.
It was separated from zirconium through repeated recrystallization of double ammonium or potassium fluorides by Jantzen and von Hevesey. Metallic hafnium was first
prepared by Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik deBoer by passing tetraiodide
vapor over a heated tungsten filament.
Occurrence
Hafnium is found combined in natural zirconium compounds but does not exist as a
free element in nature. Minerals that contain zirconium, such as alvite [(Hf, Th, Zr)SiO4
H2O], thortveitite and zircon (ZrSiO4), usually contain between 1 and 5 percent hafnium. Hafnium and zirconium have nearly identical chemistry, which makes the two
difficult to separate.
About half of all hafnium metal manufactured is produced by a by-product of zirconium refinement. This is done through reducing hafnium tetrachloride with magnesium
or sodium in the Kroll Process.
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Tantalum
Tantalum (formerly tantalium) is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the
symbol Ta, atomic number 73 and atomic weight of 180.94788. It is a Transition metal.
Name: Tantalum
Symbol: Ta
Atomic number: 73
Group name: (none)
Colour: grey blue
A rare, hard, blue-gray, lustrous, transition metal, tantalum is highly corrosion-resistant and occurs in the mineral tantalite. Tantalum is used in surgical instruments and
implants because it does not react with body fluids.
Tantalum is gray, heavy, ductile, very hard, easily fabricated, highly resistant to corrosion by acids, and is a good conductor of heat and electricity. In fact, at temperatures below 150C tantalum is almost completely immune to chemical attack, even by
the very agressive aqua regia, and can only be attacked by hydrofluoric acid, acidic
solutions containing the fluoride ion, and free sulfur trioxide. The element has a melting point exceeded only by tungsten and rhenium (melting point 3290 K, boiling point
5731 K). Tantalum has the most capacitance per volume of any substance.
Applications
The major use for tantalum, as tantalum metal powder, is in the production of elec-
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tronic components, mainly tantalum capacitors, which are very small relative to their
capacity. Because of this size and weight advantage, major end uses for tantalum
capacitors include portable telephones, pagers, personal computers, and automotive
electronics.
Tantalum is also used to produce a variety of alloys that have high melting points, are
strong and have good ductility. Alloyed with other metals, it is also used in making
carbide tools for metalworking equipment and in the production of superalloys for jet
engine components, chemical process equipment, nuclear reactors, and missile parts.
It is ductile and can be drawn into fine wire, which is used as a filament for evaporating metals such as aluminium. Because it is totally immune to the action of body
liquids and is nonirritating it is widely used in making surgical appliances. Tantalum
oxide is used to make special high refractive index glass for camera lenses. The metal
is also used to make vacuum furnace parts.
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Isotopes
Natural tantalum consists of two isotopes. Ta-181 is a stable isotope, and Ta-180 is a radioactive isotope that quickly transforms into a nuclear isomer with a half life of over
a 1015 years (1 with 15 zeros).
History
Tantalum (Greek Tantalos, mythological character) was discovered in Sweden in 1802
by Anders Ekeberg and isolated in 1820 by Jons Berzelius. Many contemporary chemists believed niobium and tantalum were the same elements until 1844 and later 1866
when researchers showed that niobic and tantalic acids were different compounds.
Early investigators were only able to isolate impure metal and the first relatively pure
ductile metal was produced by Werner von Bolton in 1903. Wires made with tantalum
metal were used for light bulbs until tungsten replaced it.
Its name is derived from the character Tantalus, father of Niobe in Greek mythology,
who was punished after death by being condemned to stand knee-deep in water with
perfect fruit growing above his head, both of which eternally tantalized him - if he
bent to drink the water, it drained below the level he could reach, and if he reached
for the fruit, the branches moved out of his grasp. This was considered similar to tantalum's general non-reactivity - it sits among reagents and is unaffected by them.
Occurrence
Tantalum occurs principally in the mineral tantalite [(Fe, Mn) Ta2O6] and euxenite
(other minerals: samarskite, and fergusonite).
Tantalum ores are mined in Australia, Brazil, Canada, the Democratic Republic of the
Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, Portugal, and Thailand. Tantalite is largely found mixed
with columbite in an ore called coltan.
Several complicated steps are involved in the separation of tantalum from niobium.
Commercially production of this element can follow one of several different methods
which includes; electrolysis of molten potassium fluorotantalate, reduction of potassium fluorotantalate with sodium, or by reacting tantalum carbide with tantalum
oxide. Tantalum is also a byproduct from tin extraction.
Compounds
Los Alamos National Laboratory scientists have made a tantalum carbide graphite
composite material that is one of the hardest materials made.
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Tungsten
Tungsten (formerly Wolfram) is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the
symbol W (L. Wolframium), atomic number 74 and atomic weight of 183.84. It is a Transition Metal.
Name: Tungsten
Symbol: W
Atomic number: 74
Group name: (none)
Colour: greyish white, lustrous
A very hard, heavy, steel-gray to white transition metal, tungsten is found in several ores including wolframite and scheelite and is remarkable for its robust physical
properties. The pure form is used mainly in electrical applications but its many compounds and alloys are widely used in many applications (most notably in light bulb
filaments and in space-age superalloys).
Pure tungsten is steel-gray to tin-white and is a hard metal. Tungsten can be cut with
a hacksaw when it is very pure (it is brittle and hard to work when impure) and is otherwise worked by forging, drawing, or extruding. This element has the highest melting point (3422C), lowest vapor pressure and the highest tensile strength at temperatures above 1650C of all metals. Its corrosion resistance is excellent and it can only
be attacked slightly by most mineral acids. Tungsten metal forms a protective oxide
when exposed to air. When alloyed in small quantities with steel, it greatly increases
its hardness.
Applications
Tungsten is a metal with a wide range of uses, the largest of which is as tungsten carbide (W2C, WC) in cemented carbides. Cemented carbides (also called hardmetals) are
wear-resistant materials used by the metalworking, mining, petroleum and construction industries. Tungsten is widely used in light bulb and vacuum tube filaments, as
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well as electrodes, because it can be drawn into very thin metal wires that have a high
melting point.
Other uses;
* A high melting point also makes tungsten suitable for space-oriented and high
temperature uses which include electrical, heating, and welding applications. * Hardness and density properties make this metal ideal for making heavy metal alloys that
are used in armaments, heat sinks, and high-density applications, such as weights and
counterweights.
* High speed tool steels (Hastelloy , Stellite ) are often alloyed with tungsten,
with tungsten steels containing as much as 18% tungsten.
* Superalloys containing this metal are used in turbine blades, tool steels, and
wear-resistant alloy parts and coatings.
* Composites are used as a substitute for lead in bullets and shot.
* Tungsten chemical compounds are used in catalysts, inorganic pigments, and
tungsten disulfide high-temperature lubricants which is stable to 500C. * Since
this element's thermal expansion is similar to borosilicate glass, it is used for making
glass-to-metal seals.
* It is used Kinetic energy penetrators as an alternative to depleted uranium
Miscellaneous:
Oxides are used in ceramic glazes and calcium/magnesium tungstates are used widely in fluorescent lighting. The metal is also used in X-ray targets, heating elements
for electrical furnaces. Salts that contain tungsten are used in the chemical and tanning industries. Tungsten 'bronzes' (so called due to the colour of the tungsten oxides)
along with other compounds are used in paints.
History
Tungsten (Swedish tung sten meaning "heavy stone", even though the current name
for the element in Swedish is Wolfram) was first hypothesized to exist by Peter Woulfe
in 1779 who examined wolframite (which was later named for Woulfe) and concluded
that it must contain a new substance. In 1781 Carl Wilhelm Scheele ascertained that a
new acid could be made from tungstenite. Scheele and Torbern Bergman suggested
that it could be possible to obtain a new metal by reducing tungstic acid. In 1783 Jos
and Fausto Elhuyar found an acid in wolframite that was identical to tungstic acid. In
Spain later that year the brothers succeeded in isolating tungsten through reduction
of this acid with charcoal. They are credited with the discovery of the element.
Biological Role
Enzymes called oxidoreductases use tungsten in a way that is similar to molybdenum
by using it in a tungsten-pterin complex.
On August 20, 2002 officials representing the U.S.-based Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention announced that urine tests on leukemia patient families and control
group families in the Fallon, Nevada area had shown elevated levels of the metal tungsten in the bodies of both groups. 16 recent cases of cancer in children were discovered in the Fallon area which has now been identified as a "Cancer Cluster." Dr. Carol
H. Rubin, a branch chief at the CDC, said data demonstrating a link between tungsten
and leukemia are not available at present.
Occurrence
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Tungsten is found in the minerals wolframite (iron-manganese tungstate, (Fe,Mn)

WO4), scheelite (calcium tungstate, (CaWO4), ferberite (FeWO4) and hbnerite
(MnWO4). Important deposits of these minerals are in Bolivia, California, China, Colorado, Portugal, Russia, and South Korea (with China producing about 75% of the
world's supply). The metal is commercially produced by reducing tungsten oxide with
hydrogen or carbon.
Compounds
The most common oxidation state of tungsten is +6, but it exhibits all oxidation states
from ?2 to +6. Tungsten typically combines with oxygen to form the yellow tungstic
oxide, WO3, which dissolves in aqueous alkaline solutions to form tungstate ions,
WO42-.
Aqueous polyoxoanions
Aqueous tungstate solutions are noted for the formation of polyoxoanions under
neutral and acidic conditions. As tungstate is progressively treated with acid, it first
yields the soluble, metastable "paratungstate A" anion, W7O246-, which over hours or
days converts to the less soluble "paratungstate B" anion, H2W12O4210-.
Further acidification produces the very soluble metatungstate anion, H2W12O406-,
after equilibrium is reached. The metatungstate ion exists as a symmetric cluster of
twelve tungsten-oxygen octahedra known as the "Keggin" anion. Many other polyoxoanions exist as metastable species. The inclusion of a different atom such as phosphorus in place of the two central hydrogens in metatungstate produces a wide variety of the so-called heteropolyanions.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring tungsten consists of five radioisotopes whose half-lives are so
long that for most practical purposes they are considered stable. 27 other radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable of which are W-181 with a half-life of
121.2 days, W-185 with a half-life of 75.1 days, W-188 with a half-life of 69.4 days and
W-178 with a half-life of 21.6 days.
All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives of less than 24 hours, and
most of these have half-lives that are less than 8 minutes. Tungsten also has 4 meta
states, the most stable being W-179m (t1/2 6.4 minutes).
The isotopes of tungsten range in atomic weight from 157.974 amu (W-158) to 189.963
amu (W-190). The primary decay mode before the most abundant isotope, W-184, is
electron capture, and the primary mode after is beta decay. The primary decay products before W-184 are element 73 (tantalum) isotopes, and the primary products after
are element 75 (rhenium) isotopes.
Rhenium
Rhenium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Re, atomic
Name: Rhenium
Symbol: Re
Atomic number: 75
Group name: (none)
A silvery-white, rare, heavy, polyvalent transition metal, rhenium resembles manganese chemically and is used in some alloys. Rhenium is obtained as a by-product of
molybdenum refinement and rhenium-molybdenum alloys are superconducting. This
was the last naturally-occurring element to be discovered.
Rhenium is a silvery white metal, lustrous, and has one of the highest melting points
of all elements, exceeded by only tungsten and carbon. It is also one of the most
dense, exceeded only by platinum, iridium, and osmium. The oxidation states of rhenium include -1,+1,+2,+3,+4,+5,+6 and +7 oxidation states. The oxidation states +7,+6,+4,+2
and -1 are the most common.
Its usual commercial form is a powder, but this element can be consolidated by pressing and resistance-sintering in a vacuum or hydrogen atmosphere. This procedure
yields a compact shape that is in excess of 90 percent of the density of the metal.
When annealed this metal is very ductile and can be bent, coiled, or rolled. Rhenium-molybdenum alloys are superconductive at 10 K.
Applications
This element is used in platinum-rhenium catalysts which in turn are primarily used
in making lead-free, high-octane gasoline and in high-temperature superalloys that
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Other uses:
* Widely used as filaments in mass spectrographs and in ion gauges.
* An additive to tungsten and molybdenum-based alloys to give them useful properties.
* Rhenium catalysts are very resistant to chemical poisoning, and so are used in certain kinds of hydrogenation reactions.
* Electrical contact material due to its good wear resistance and ability to withstand
arc corrosion.
* Thermocouples containing alloys of rhenium and tungsten are used to measure
temperatures up to 2200 C.
* Rhenium wire is used in photoflash lamps in photography.
History
Rhenium (Latin Rhenus meaning "Rhine") was the last naturally-occurring element
to be discovered. It is generally considered to be discovered by Walter Noddack, Ida
Tacke, and Otto Berg in Germany. In 1925 they reported that they detected the element
in platinum ore and in the mineral columbite. They also found rhenium in gadolinite
and molybdenite. In 1928 they were able to extract 1 g of element by processing 660 kg
of molybdenite.
The process was so complicated and the cost so high that production was discontinued until early 1950 when tungsten-rhenium and molybdenum-rhenium alloys were
prepared. These alloys found important applications in industry that resulted in a
great demand for the rhenium produced from the molybdenite fraction of porphyry
copper ores.
Occurrence
Rhenium is not naturally found free in nature or even as a compound in a distinct
mineral species. This element is widely spread through the earth's crust at approximately 0.001 ppm. Commercial rhenium is extracted from molybdenum roaster-flue
dusts from copper-sulfide ores. Some molybdenum ores contain 0.002% to 0.2% rhenium. The metal form is prepared by reducing ammonium perrhentate with hydrogen at
high temperatures.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring rhenium is a mix of one stable isotope and one radioactive isotope with a very long half-life. There are twenty six other unstable isotopes recognized.
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Osmium
Osmium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Os, atomic
number 76. and atomic weight of 190.23. It is a transition metal. Precious metal element.
Name: Osmium
Symbol: Os
Atomic number: 76
Colour: bluish grey
A hard brittle blue-gray or blue-black transition metal in the platinum family, osmium is the densest natural element and is used in some alloys with platinum and iridium. Osmium is found native as an alloy in platinum ore and its tetroxide has been
used to stain tissues and in fingerprinting. Alloys of osmium are employed in fountain
pen tips, electrical contacts and in other applications where extreme durability and
hardness are needed.
Osmium in a metallic form is extremely dense, blue white, brittle and lustrous even at
high temperatures, but proves to be extremely difficult to make. Powdered osmium is
easier to make, but powdered osmium exposed to air leads to the formation of osmium tetroxide (OsO4), which is toxic. The oxide is also a powerful oxidizing agent, emits
a strong smell and boils at 130C.
Due to its very high density osmium is generally considered to be the heaviest known
element narrowly defeating iridium. However, calculations of density from the space
lattice may produce more reliable data for these elements than actual measurements
and give a density of 22,650 kg/m3 for iridium versus 22,661 kg/m3 for osmium. Definitive selection between the two is therefore not possible at this time. It's just too close
to call.
This metal has the highest melting point and the lowest vapor pressure of the platinum family. Common oxidation states of osmium are +4 and +3, but oxidation states
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from +1 to +8 are observed.
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Applications
Because of the extreme toxicity of its oxide, osmium is rarely used in its pure state,
and is instead often alloyed with other metals that are used in high wear applications.
Osmium alloys are very hard and along with other platinum group metals is almost
entirely used in alloys employed in the tips of fountain pens, phonograph needles,
instrument pivots, and electrical contacts.
Osmium tetroxide has been used in fingerprint detection and in staining fatty tissue
for microscope slides. An alloy of 90% platinum and 10% osmium (90/10) is used in surgical implants such as pacemakers and replacement pulmonary valves.
The tetroxide (and a related compound, potassium osmate) are important oxidants
for chemical synthesis.
History
Osmium (Greek osme meaning "a smell") was discovered in 1803 by Smithson Tennant
in London, England along with iridium in the residue of dissolving platinum in aqua
regia.
Occurrence
This transition metal is found in iridiosmium a naturally occurring alloy of iridium
and osmium and in platinum-bearing river sands in the Ural Mountains, and North
and South America. It is also occurs in nickel-bearing ores found in the Sudbury, Ontario region with other platinum group metals. Even though the quantity of platinum
metals found in these ores is small, the large volume of nickel ores processed makes
commercial recovery possible.
Isotopes
Osmium has seven naturally-occurring isotopes, 5 of which are stable: Os-187, Os-188,
Os-189, Os-190, and (most abundant) Os-192. Os-184, Os-186 have absurdly long half lifes
and for practical purposes can be consided to be stable as well. Os-187 is the daughter of rhenium-187 (half-life 4.56 x 1010 years) and is most often measured in a Os-187/
Os-186 ratio. This ratio, as well as the Re-187/Os-187 ratio, have been used extensively
in dating terrestrial as well as meteoric rocks. However, the most notable application
of Os in dating has been in conjunction with ridium, to analyze the layer of shocked
quartz along the K-T boundary that marks the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million
years ago.
Iridium
Iridium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Ir, atomic
Name: Iridium
Symbol: Ir
Atomic number: 77
A heavy, very hard, brittle, silvery-white transition metal of the platinum family, iridium is used in high strength alloys that can withstand high temperatures and occurs
in natural alloys with platinum or osmium. Iridium is notable for being the most corrosion resistant element known and for its association with the demise of the dinosaurs. It is used in high temperature apparatus, electrical contacts, and as a hardening
agent for platinum.
A platinum family metal, iridium is white, resembling platinum, but with a slight yellowish cast. Due to its extreme hardness and brittle properties, iridium is difficult to
machine, form, or work. Iridium is the most corrosion-resistant metal known.
Iridium cannot be attacked by any acids or by aqua regia, but it can be attacked
by molten salts, such as NaCl and NaCN. The specific gravity of this element is only
slightly lower than osmium, which is generally considered to be the heaviest element
known. However, calculations of density from the space lattice may produce more reliable data for these elements than actual measurements and give a density of 22650
kg/m for iridium versus 22661 kg/m for osmium. Definitive selection between the
two is therefore not possible at this time.
Applications
The principal use of iridium is as a hardening agent in platinum alloys.
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Other uses:
* For making crucibles and devices that require high temperatures.
* Electrical contacts (notable example: Pt/Ir sparkplugs).
* Osmium/iridium alloys are used for tipping fountain pen nibs and for compass
bearings.
* Iridium is used as a catalyst for carbonylation of methanol to produce acetic acid
At one time iridium, as an alloy with platinum, was used in bushing the vents of heavy
ordnance and, in a finely powdered condition (iridium black), for painting porcelain
black.
History
Iridium (Latin iris meaning "rainbow", "iridium" means "of rainbows") was discovered
in 1803 by Smithson Tennant in London, England along with osmium in the dark colored residue of dissolving crude platinum in aqua regia (a mixture of hydrochloric
and nitric acid). This element was named after the Latin word for rainbow because its
salts are highly colored.
This metal was used in the standard metre bar and kilogram mass, kept by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris. These are made of an alloy of
90% platinum and 10% iridium. In 1960 the Paris metre bar was replaced as the definition of the fundamental unit of length (see krypton), but the kilogram mass is still the
international standard of mass.
The KT event, marking the temporal border between the Cretaceous and Tertiary eras
of geological time, was identified by a thin stratum of iridium-rich clay. According to
many scientists, such as Luis Alvarez, this iridium was of extraterrestrial origin, attributed to a asteroid or a comet thought to have struck near what is now the Yucatan
Peninsula.
However, there are others such as Dewey M. McLean of Virginia Polytechnic Institute
who argue that the iridium was of volcanic origin. The Earth's core is rich in iridium,
and Piton de la Fournaise on Runion, for example, is still releasing iridium today.
Occurrence
Iridium is found uncombined in nature with platinum and other platinum group
metals in alluvial deposits. Naturally occurring iridium alloys include osmiridium and
iridiosmium, both of which are mixtures of iridium and osmium. It is recovered commercially as a by-product from nickel mining and processing.
Isotopes
There are two natural isotopes of iridium, and many radioisotopes, the most stable
being Ir-192 with a half-life of 73.83 days. Ir-192 beta decays into platinum-192, while
most of the other radioisotopes decay into osmium.
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Platinum
Platinum is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Pt, atomic
Name: Platinum
Symbol: Pt
Atomic number: 78
Group name: Precious metal or platinum group metal
A heavy, malleable, ductile, precious, gray-white transition metal, platinum is resistant to corrosion and occurs in some nickel and copper ores along with some native
deposits. Platinum is used in jewelry, laboratory equipment, electrical contacts, dentistry, and anti-pollution devices in automobiles.
The metal is a beautiful silvery-white when pure, and malleable and ductile. The
metal is corrosion-resistant. The catalytic properties of the six platinum family metals
are outstanding (a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen explodes in the presence of platinum). Platinum's wear and tarnish-resistance characteristics are well-suited for making fine jewelry.
Other distinctive properties include resistance to chemical attack, excellent
high-temperature characteristics, and stable electrical properties. All these properties
have been exploited for industrial applications. Platinum does not oxidize in air at any
temperature but can be corroded by cyanides, halogens, sulfur, and caustic alkalis.
This metal is insoluble in hydrochloric and nitric acid but does dissolve when mixed
as aqua regia (forming chloroplatinic acid). Common oxidation states of platinum include +2, +3, and +4.
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Applications
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Platinum is used extensively in jewelry, wire, in making crucibles for chemical use
and for constructing high-temperature electric furnaces. Finely divided platinum is
often used as a chemical catalyst. For example, platinum is used in catalytic converters for automobiles and in various industrial processes, such as the manufacture of
sulfuric acid.
Other uses:
* The metal can absorb large quantities of hydrogen gas and will release it when
heated. It is therefore been studied as a possible storage medium for the gas for use in
fuel cell vehicles.
* The chemical industry uses a significant amount of either platinum or a platinum-rhodium alloy catalyst in the form of gauze to catalyze the partial oxidation of
ammonia to yield nitric oxide, which is the raw material for fertilizers, explosives, and
nitric acid.
* Platinum-supported catalysts are used in the refining of crude oil, reforming, and
other processes used in the production of high-octane gasoline and aromatic compounds for the petrochemical industry.
* This metal has a coefficient of expansion that is almost equal to that of soda-lime-silica glass and is therefore used to make sealed electrodes in glass systems.
* Alloys of platinum and cobalt have excellent magnetic properties. One alloy that
has 76.7% Pt and 23.3% Co, by mass, forms an extremely powerful magnet.
* 90/10 Platinum/osmium alloy is used to make pacemakers, replacement valves and
other surgical implants.
* Used for coating missile nose cones, jet engine fuel nozzles, and other devices
which must perform reliably at high temperatures for extended periods of time.
* Fine platinum wire glows red hot when exposed to methyl alcohol vapor acting as
a catalyst that converts the alcohol to formaldehyde. This phenomenon has been commercially used to make cigarette lighters and hand warmers.
* Cis-platin, [PtCl2(NH3)2], is a drug that is effective in treating certain types of cancer which include leukemia and testicular cancer.
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England, and even made a member of the Royal Society he was prevented from publishing a reference to the unknown metal until 1748. Before that could happen Charles
Wood independently isolated the element in 1741. The alchemical symbol for platinum
was made by joining the symbols of silver and gold.
Platinum is now considered more precious than gold, so that a platinum award is better than a golden one. The price of platinum changes along with its availability, but it
normally costs about twice as much as gold.
The standard definition of a metre for a long time was based on the distance between
two marks on a bar of a platinum-iridium alloy housed at the Bureau International des
Poids et Mesures in Sevres, France. A platinum-iridium cylinder serves to this day as
the standard of the kilogram and is housed in the same facility as the meter bar. Platinum is also used in the definition of the Standard hydrogen electrode.
Occurrence
Platinum is often found in a native state and the ore sperrylite (platinum arsenide,
PtAs2) is a major source of the metal. A naturally occurring platinum/iridium alloy is
platiniridium and this metal is also found in the mineral cooperite (platinum sulfide,
PtS).
This metal is often accompanied by small amounts of other platinum family metals
which are found in alluvial deposits in Colombia, Ontario, the Ural Mountains, and in
certain western American states.
Platinum is produced commercially as a by-product of nickel ore processing. The
huge quantities of nickel ore processed makes up for the fact that platinum makes up
only two parts per million of the ore.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring platinum is composed of five stable isotopes and one radioisotope, Pt-190, which has a very long half-life (over 6 billion years). There are also many
other radioisotopes with the most stable being Pt-193 with a half-life of 50 years.
History
The name platinum derives from the Spanish platina meaning "little silver".
Naturally-occurring platinum and platinum-rich alloys have been known for a long
time. Though the metal was used by pre-Columbian Indians, the first European reference to platinum appears in 1557 in the writings of the Italian humanist Julius Caesar
Scaliger (1484-1558) as a description of a mysterious metal found in Central American
mines between Darin (Panama) and Mexico ("up until now impossible to melt by
any of the Spanish arts"). The Spaniards named the metal "platina," or little silver,
when they first encountered it in Colombia. They regarded platinum as an unwanted
impurity in the silver they were mining, and often discarded it.
Platinum was discovered by astronomer Antonio de Ulloa and Don Jorge Juan y Santacilia (1713-1773), both appointed by King Philip V to join a geographical expedition in
Peru that lasted from 1735 to 1745. Among other things, Ulloa observed the platina del
pinto, the unworkable metal found with gold in New Granada (Colombia). British privateers intercepted Ulloa's ship on the return voyage. Though he was well-treated in
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Gold
Gold is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Au (L. aurum),
atomic number 79 and atomic weight of 196.966569. It is a transition metal Precious
metal element.
Name: Gold
Symbol: Au
Atomic number: 79
Colour: gold
A soft, shiny, yellow, heavy, malleable, ductile (trivalent and univalent) transition
metal, gold does not react with most chemicals but is attacked by chlorine, fluorine,
and aqua regia. The metal occurs as nuggets or grains in rocks and in alluvial deposits
and is one of the coinage metals.
Gold is used as a monetary standard for many nations and is also used in jewelry,
dentistry, and in electronics. Its ISO currency code is XAU.
Gold is a metallic element that exhibits a yellow color en masse but can be black,
ruby, or purple when finely divided. It is the most malleable and ductile metal known.
In fact, 1 gram can be beaten into a 1 meter squared sheet, or 1 ounce into 300 feet
squared. A soft metal, gold is often alloyed with other metals to give it more strength.
Gold is also a good conductor of heat and electricity and is not affected by air and
most reagents. It is quite chemically unalterable by heat, moisture, and most corrosive
agents and therefore is well suited for its use in coin and jewelry.
The color of solid gold as well as of the intensely colored, often purple, colloidal solutions that can be made from it is caused by the fact that the plasmon frequency of this
element lies in the visible range, which causes red and yellow light to be reflected and
blue light to be absorbed. Native gold contains usually eight to ten per cent silver, but
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often much more. Natural alloys with a high silver content are called electrum. As the
amount of silver increases, the color becomes whiter and the specific gravity lower.
Gold will alloy with many other metals, alloys with copper yield a redder metal, alloys
with iron are green, aluminium alloys are purple, alloys with platinum metals produce
white, natural bismuth with silver alloys produce black. Jewelry made with combinations of colored gold is sold in the western United States to the tourist trade as Black
Hills gold. Common oxidation states of gold include +1 and +3.
Applications
Pure gold is too soft for ordinary use and is hardened by alloying with silver and
copper. Gold and its many alloys are most often used in jewelry, coinage and as a
standard for monetary exchange in many countries. Because of its superior electrical
conductivity and resistance to corrosion and other desirable combinations of physical
and chemical properties, gold also emerged in the late 20th century as an essential
industrial metal.
Other uses:
* Gold performs critical functions in computers, communications equipment, spacecraft, jet aircraft engines, and a host of other products.
* The high electrical conductivity and resistance to oxidation of gold has led to its
widespread use as thin layers electroplated on the surface of electrical connectors to
ensure a good, low-resistance connection.
* Like silver, gold can form a hard amalgam with mercury, and is sometimes used for
dental fillings.
* Colloidal gold (gold nanoparticles) is an intensely colored solution that is currently
studied in many labs for medical, biological and other applications. It is also the form
used as gold paint on ceramics prior to firing.
* Chlorauric acid is used in photography for toning the silver image.
* Disodium aurothiomalate is a treatment for rheumatoid arthritis (administered
intramuscularly).
* The gold isotope Au-198, (half-life: 2.7 days) is used in some cancer treatments and
for treating other diseases.
* Gold is used as a coating enabling biological material to be viewed under a scanning electron microscope.
* Many competitions and honors, such as the Olympics and the Nobel Prize, award a
gold medal to the winner (with silver to the second-place finisher, and bronze to the
third.)
* Since it is a good reflector of both infrared and visible light, it is used for the protective coatings on many artificial satellites.
* Gold flake is used on and in some gourmet sweets and drinks. Having no reactivity
it adds no taste but is taken as a delicacy.
History
Gold has been known and highly valued since prehistoric times. Egyptian hieroglyphs
from 2600 BC describe gold, which the Mesopotamian king Tushratta referred to as
being "common as dust" in Egypt. Egypt and Nubia had the resources to make them
major gold-producing areas for much of history. Gold is also mentioned several times
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in the Old Testament. The south-east corner of the Black Sea was famed for its gold.
Exploitation is said to date from the time of Midas, and this gold was important in the
establishment of what is probably the world's earliest coinage in Lydia in 700BC.
The European exploration of the Americas was fueled in no small part by reports of
the gold ornaments displayed in great profusion by Native American peoples, especially in Central America, Peru, and Colombia.
Gold has long been considered one of the most precious metals, and its value has
been used as the standard for many currencies (known as the gold standard) in history. Gold has been used as a symbol for purity, value, royalty, and particularly roles
that combine these properties (see gold album).
Gold in antiquity was relatively easy to obtain geologically however 75% of all gold
ever produced has been extracted since 1910 (see Goldsheet, cumulative gold production (http://www.goldsheetlinks.com/production2.htm)). It has been estimated that all
the gold in the world that has ever been refined would form a single cube 20 m (66 ft)
a side.
Alchemy
The primary goal of the alchemists was to produce gold from other substances, such
as lead, presumably by the interaction with a mythical substance called the philosopher's stone. Although they never succeeded in this attempt, the alchemists promoted
an interest in what can be done with substances, and this laid a foundation for today's
chemistry. Their symbol for gold was the circle with a point at its center, which was
also the astrological symbol, the Egyptian hieroglyph and the ancient Chinese character for the Sun.
Value
Like other precious metals, gold is measured by troy weight and by grams and when
it is alloyed with other metals the term carat is used to indicate the amount of gold
present, with 24 carats being pure gold. The purity of a gold bar can also be expressed
as a decimal figure, known as the millesimal fineness, such as 0.995.
The price of gold is determined on the open market, but a procedure known as the
Gold Fixing in London, originating in 1919, provides a twice-daily benchmark figure to
the industry
Historically gold was used to back currency in an economic system known as the gold
standard in which one unit of currency was equivalent to a certain amount of gold. As
part of this system, governments and central banks attempted to control the price of
gold by setting values at which they would exchange it for currency. For a long period the United States government set the price of gold at $20.67 per troy ounce but in
1934 the price of gold was set at $35.00 per troy ounce. By 1961 it was becoming hard
to maintain this price, and a pool of US and European banks began to act together to
defend the price against market forces.
On March 17, 1968, economic circumstances caused the collapse of the gold pool, and
a two-tiered pricing scheme was established whereby gold was still used to settle
international accounts at the old $35.00 per troy ounce ($1.13/g) but the price of gold
on the private market was allowed to fluctuate; this two-tiered pricing system was
abandoned in 1975 when the price of gold was left to find its free-market level. Central banks still hold historical gold reserves as a reserve asset although the level has
generally been declining. The largest gold depository in the world is the U.S. Federal
Reserve Bank.
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Since 1968 the price of gold on the open market has ranged widely, with a record high
of $850 on 21 January 1980, to a low of $252.90 on 21 June 1999 (London Fixing). Prices
have risen to the $420 mark in 2004, part of this rise was associated with a depreciation of the US dollar (an inverse relation between the prices exsists to a certain extent).
Because of its use as a reserve store of value, the possession of gold is sometimes
restricted or banned. Within the United States, the private possession of gold except
as jewelry and coin collecting was banned between 1933 and 1975. President Franklin
D. Roosevelt confiscated gold by Executive Order 6102, and President Richard Nixon
closed the gold window by which foreign countries could exchange American dollars
for gold at a fixed rate.
As a tangible investment gold is sometimes held as part of a portfolio because over
the long term gold has an extensive history of maintaining its value. It has in the last
century however lost ground to inflation. Thus the only way to make money over the
long term on gold investing in normal economic conditions is to trade it, attempting to buy low and sell high. This carries large amounts of risk and transaction costs.
However, gold does become particularly desirable in times of extremely weak confidence and during hyperinflation because gold maintains its value even as fiat money
becomes worthless. People who despite the risks enjoy investing in gold are known as
goldbugs.
Futures contracts based on gold currently trade on the COMEX (Commodity Exchange) which is a subsidiary of the New York Mercantile Exchange. Speculation about
the future price of gold and other commodities are carried on here.
Occurrence
Due to its relative chemical inertness gold is usually found as the native metal sometimes as large nuggets, but usually as minute grains in minerals, typically quartz
(usually as veins), or sulfide minerals most commonly, pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena,
sphalerite, arsenopyrite, stibnite and pyrrhotite or associated with these minerals.
Gold more rarely occurs with tellurium in the minerals petzite, calaverite, sylvanite,
muthmannite, nagyagite and krennerite.
Gold is widely distributed in the earth's crust at a background level of 0.03 g/1000 kg
(0.03 ppm), hydrothermal ore deposits of gold occur in metamorphic rocks and igneous rocks, alluvial deposits and placer deposits originate from these sources.
The primary source of gold is usually igneous rocks or surface concentrations. A deposit usually needs some form of secondary enrichment to form an economically viable ore deposit: either chemical or physical processes like erosion or solution or more
generally metamorphism, which concentrates the gold in sulfide minerals or quartz.
There are several primary deposit types, common ones are termed reef or vein. Primary deposits can be weathered and eroded, with most of the gold being transported
into stream beds where it congregates with other heavy minerals to form placer deposits. In all these deposits the gold is in its native form. Another important ore type
is in sedimentary black shale deposits containing finely disseminated gold and other
platinum group metals.
Gold ore grades may be as little as 0.5 g/1000 kg (0.5 ppm) on average in large easily
mined deposits, typical ore grades in open-pit mines are 1 - 5 g/1000 kg (1-5 ppm), ore
grades in underground or hard rock mines are usually at least 3 g/1000 kg (3 ppm) on
average. Ore grades of 30 g/1000 kg (30 ppm) are usually needed before gold will be
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visible to the naked eye, therefore even in gold mines you will often not see any gold.
Gold is extracted from alluvium ores by techniques of placer mining and from hard
rock ores by initially crushing and grinding the ore and then by one or more of the
following techniques; gravity separation, flotation, cyanidation, amalgamation, roasting, bioleaching or pressure oxidation(autoclaving). Refining of the metal is frequently accomplished by electrolysis. Gold occurs in sea water at 0.1 to 2 mg/1000 kg (0.1 - 2
ppb) depending on sample location. However, as of 2004 there is no profitable method
for recovering gold from sea water.
Since the 1880s South Africa has been the source for about two-thirds of the world's
gold supply. The city of Johannesburg was built atop the world's greatest gold finds.
Gold fields in the Orange Free State and the Transvaal were deep and require the
world's deepest mines. The Boer War of 1899 - 1901 between the British and the white
Boers was at least partly over the rights of miners and possession of the gold wealth
in South Africa. Other major producers are Canada, United States and Western Australia. Mines in South Dakota and Nevada supply two-thirds of gold used in the United
States.
Compounds
Auric chloride (AuCl3) and chlorauric acid (HAuCl4) are the most common compounds
of gold. Although gold is a noble metal it can form many compounds.
* It dissolves in Aqua regia to form the AuCl4- ion
* Gold halides (F,Cl,Br,I)
* Gold chalcogenides (O, S, Se,Te)
* Gold cluster compounds.
Isotopes
There is only one stable isotope of gold, and 18 radioisotopes with Au-195 being the
most stable with a half-life of 186 days.
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Mercury
Mercury also called quicksilver, is a chemical element in the periodic table that has
the symbol Hg (L. hydrargyrum) and atomic number 80, and Atomic weight of 200.59.
It is a Metallic element.
Name: Mercury
Symbol: Hg
Atomic number: 80
Standard state: liquid at 298 K (the heaviest known elemental liquid)
Group name: (none)
A heavy, silvery, transition metal, mercury is one of only two elements that are liquid
at room temperature (the other is bromine). Mercury is used in thermometers, barometers and other scientific apparatuses. Mercury is mostly obtained by reduction from
the mineral cinnabar.
Mercury is a relatively poor conductor of heat but is a good conductor of electricity.

Mercury easily forms alloys with almost all common metals, including gold and silver
but not iron. Tellurium forms an alloy also, but it reacts slowly to form mercury telluride. The reaction of mercury with sulfur is more easily noticed. Any of these alloys is
called an amalgam.
This metal also has uniform volumetric thermal expansion, is less reactive than zinc
and cadmium and does not displace hydrogen from acids. Common oxidation states
of this element are +1 and +2. Rare instances of +3 mercury compounds exist. The commercial unit for handling mercury is the "flask," which weighs 76 lb.
Applications
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Most mercury is used for the manufacture of industrial chemicals or for electrical
and electronic applications. Mercury is also used in thermometers, especially ones
which are used to measure high temperatures. Other uses:
* The ease with which it forms amalgams with gold has resulted in its use in gold
recovery from ores.
* In addition to thermometers, mercury is used in barometers, diffusion pumps, and
many other laboratory instruments.
* The triple point of mercury, -38.8344 C, is a fixed point used as a temperature
standard for the International Temperature Scale (ITS-90).
* Gaseous mercury is used in mercury-vapor lamps and advertising signs.
* Mercury compounds are used as a preservative in vaccines and tattoo inks. Miscellaneous uses; mercury switches, pesticides, dental amalgams/preparations, mercury
cells for sodium hydroxide and chlorine production, anti-fouling paint, electrodes in
some types of electrolysis, batteries (mercury cells), and catalysts.
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are held together with van der Waals forces and result in HgNe, HgAr, HgKr, and HgXe.
Methyl mercury is a dangerous compound that is widely found as a pollutant in water
bodies and streams.
Isotopes
There are seven stable isotopes of mercury with Hg-202 being the most abundant
(26.86%). The longest-lived radioisotopes are Hg-194 with a half-life of 444 years, and
Hg-203 with a half-life of 46.612 days. Most of the remaining radioisotopes have halflifes that are less than a day.
History
Mercury was known to the ancient Chinese and Hindus and was found in Egyptian
tombs that date from 1500s BC. By 500 BC it was used to make amalgams with other metals. The ancient Greeks used mercury in ointments and the Romans used it in
cosmetics. Alchemists thought it to be the stuff from which all matter was formed and
they also thought that when it hardened it turned into gold.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, mercury nitrate was used to remove fur from the animal skins from which felt hats were made. This caused many cases of brain damage
among hatters, or milliners, leading, it is claimed, to the simile "as mad as a hatter",
and thereby to the Mad Hatter of Alice in Wonderland fame.
It was named by alchemists after the Roman god Mercury. Its symbol Hg comes from
hydrargyrum, a Latinised form of the Greek word hydrargyros, which was a compound
word whose Greek roots meant 'water' and 'silver'. Mercury is one of the few elements
that has an alchemical symbol (left).
Occurrence
A rare element in the earth's crust, mercury is found either as a native metal (rare)
or in cinnabar, corderoite, livingstonite, and other minerals with cinnabar (HgS) being the most common ore. Approximately 50% of the global supply comes from Spain
and Italy, with much of the rest coming from Slovenia, Russia, and North America. The
metal is extracted by heating cinnabar in a current of air and condensing the vapor.
Compounds
The most important salts are:
* Mercury (I) chloride (AKA calomel and is sometimes still used in medicine)
* Mercury (II) chloride (which is very corrosive, sublimates and is a violent poison)
* Mercury fulminate, (a detonator widely used in explosives), and
* Mercury (II) sulfide (AKA vermilion which is a high-grade paint pigment). Organic
mercury compounds are also important. Laboratory test have found that electrical
discharge causes the noble gases to combine with mercury vapor. These compounds
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Thallium
Thallium is the chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Tl, atomic
number 81 and atomic weight of 204.3833. It is a Metallic element.
Name: Thallium
Symbol: Tl
Atomic number: 81
Group name: (none)
This soft gray malleable poor metal resembles tin but discolors when exposed to air.
Thallium is highly toxic and is used in rodent and insect poisons but since it can also
cause cancer, this use has been cut back or eliminated in many countries. It is also
used in infrared detectors.
This metal is very soft and malleable and can be cut with a knife. When it is first exposed to air, thallium has a metallic luster but quickly tarnishes with a bluish-gray
tinge that resembles lead (it is preserved by keeping it under water). A heavy layer of
oxide builds up on thallium if left in air, and in the presence of water thallium hydride
is formed.
Applications
The odorless and tasteless thallium sulfate was widely used in the past as a rat poison and ant killer. In the United States and many other countries, this use is no longer
allowed due to safety concerns.
Other uses:
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* Thallium sulfide's electrical conductivity changes with exposure to infrared light
therefore making this compound useful in photocells.
* Thallium bromide-iodide crystals have been used as infrared optical materials.
* Tthallium oxide has been used to manufacture glasses that have a high index of
refraction.
* Used in semiconductor materials for selenium rectifiers.
* In gamma radiation detection equipment.
* High-density liquid used for sink-float separation of minerals.
* Used in the treatment of ringworm and other skin infections. However this use has
been limited due to the narrow margin that exists between toxicity and therapeutic
benefit.
* Radioactive thallium-201 is used for diagnostic purposes in nuclear medicine, particularly in stress tests used for risk stratification in patients with coronary artery
disease (CAD).
* Combined with sulfur or selenium and arsenic, thallium has been used in the production of high-density glasses that have low melting points in the range of 125 and
150C. These glasses have room temperature properties that are similar to ordinary
glasses and are durable, insoluble in water and have unique refractive indexes.
In addition, research activity with thallium is ongoing to develop high-temperature
superconducting materials for such applications as magnetic resonance imaging,
storage of magnetic energy, magnetic propulsion, and electric power generation and
transmission.
History
Thallium (Greek thallos meaning "a green shoot or twig") was discovered by Sir William Crookes in 1861 in England while he was making spectroscopic determinations
for tellurium on residues from a sulfuric acid plant. The name comes from Thallium's
bright green spectral emission lines. In 1862 Crookes and Claude-Auguste Lamy isolated the metal independent of each other.
Occurrence
Although the metal is reasonably abundant in the Earth's crust at a concentration
estimated to be about 0.7 part per million, it exists mostly in association with potassium minerals in clays, soils, and granites and, thus, is not generally considered to be
commercially recoverable from those forms. The major source of commercial thallium
is the trace amounts found in copper, lead, zinc, and other sulfide ores.
Thallium is found in the minerals crooksite, hutchinsonite, and lorandite. This metal is also contained in pyrites and is extracted as a by-product of sulfuric acid production when pyrite ore is roasted. Another way this element is obtained is from the
smelting of lead and zinc rich ores. Manganese nodules which are found on the ocean
floor, also contain thallium but nodule extraction is prohibitively expensive and potentially environmentally destructive. In addition, several other thallium minerals
containing 16% to 60% thallium, occur in nature as sulfide or selenide complexes with
antimony, arsenic, copper, lead, and silver but are rare and have no commercial importance as sources of this element.
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Isotopes
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Thallium has 25 isotopes which have atomic masses that range from 184 to 210. Tl 203 and Tl - 205 are the only stable isotopes and Tl - 204 is the most stable radioisotope with a half-life of 3.78 years.
Lead
Lead is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Pb, atomic number 82 and atomic weight of 207.2. It is a Metallic element.
Name: Lead
Symbol: Pb
Atomic number: 82
Group name: (none)
Colour: bluish white
A soft, heavy, toxic and malleable poor metal, lead has a dull gray appearance and is
bluish white when freshly cut but tarnishes to dull gray when exposed to air. Lead is
used in building construction, lead-acid accumulators, bullets and shot, and is part
of solder, pewter, and fusible alloys. Lead has the highest atomic number of all stable
elements.
Lead has a bright luster and is a ductile, very soft, highly malleable, bluish-white metal that has poor electrical conductivity. This true metal is highly resistant to corrosion. Because of this property, it is used to contain corrosive liquids (e.g. sulfuric acid).
Lead can be toughened by adding a small amount of antimony or other metals to it.
Applications
Early uses of lead included building materials, pigments for glazing ceramics, and
pipes for transporting water. The castles and cathedrals of Europe contain considerable quantities of lead in decorative fixtures, roofs, pipes, and windows. Lead is the
fifth most widely used metal (in its elemental state) after iron, aluminium, copper and
zinc.
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Common uses include:

* Lead-acid batteries, in electronic components, cable sheathing, ammunition, in the
glass of CRTs, ceramics, leaded glass (see glass making), lead piping (not much used
these days, although leaded solder was legal for use on drinking water pipes into the
1980s (US)), in paint (banned since 1978 in the US, and gradually in the UK from the
1950s to the 1970s, although older painted surfaces could be up to 50% lead by weight),
casting alloys, pewter, solder, and dentistry filling. Also used as flashing on roofing
to protect joins from rain. In gasoline (petrol) as tetra-ethyl lead and tetra-methyl
lead to reduce knocking (also called pre-detonation, pre-ignition or pinking) from the
1920s, in 1986 leaded gasoline was banned from sale in the United States, in the EU in
1999. Lead is a superconductor with critical temperature Tc=7.20 K (-265.95C).
Isotopes
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Lead has four stable, naturally occurring isotopes: Pb-204 (1.4%), Pb-206 (24.1%), Pb207 (22.1%) and Pb-208 (52.4%). Pb-206, Pb-207 and Pb-208 are all radiogenic, and are
the end products of complex decay chains that begin at U-238, U-235 and Th-232 respectively. The corresponding half-lives of these decay schemes vary markedly: 4.47
* 109, 7.04 * 108 and 1.4 *1010 years, respectively. Each is reported relative to 204Pb,
the only non-radiogenic stable isotope. The ranges of isotopic ratios for most natural
materials are 14.0-30.0 for Pb-206/Pb-204, 15.0-17.0 for Pb-207/Pb-204 and 35.0-50.0 for
Pb-208/Pb-204, although numerous examples outside these ranges are reported in the
literature.
History
Lead has been used by humans for at least 7000 years, because it was (and continues
to be) widespread and easy to extract, as well as easy to work with, being both highly malleable and ductile as well as easy to smelt. Lead was mentioned in the Book of
Exodus. Alchemists thought that lead was the oldest metal and associated it with the
planet Saturn. Lead pipes that bear the insignia of Roman emperors are still in service
and many Roman "pigs" (ingots) of lead figure in Derbyshire lead mining history and
in the history of the industry in other English centres. Lead's symbol Pb is an abbreviation of its Latin name plumbum. The English word "plumbing" also derives from this
Latin root.
By the mid-1980s, a significant shift in lead end-use patterns had taken place. Much
of this shift was a result of the U.S. lead consumers' compliance with environmental
regulations that significantly reduced or eliminated the use of lead in nonbattery
products, including gasoline, paints, solders, and water systems.
Extraction
Native lead does occur in nature, but it is rare. Currently lead is usually found in ore
with zinc, silver and (most abundantly) copper, and is extracted together with these
metals. The main lead mineral is galena (PbS), which contains 86.6% lead. Other common varieties are cerussite (PbCO3) and anglesite (PbSO4). But more than half of the
lead used currently comes from recycling.
In mining, the ore is extracted by drilling or blasting and then crushed and ground.
The ore is then taken through a process developed in the 19th century at Broken Hill,
Australia. A flotation process separates the lead and other minerals from the waste
rock (tailings) to form a concentrate by passing the ore, water and certain chemicals
through a series of tanks in which the slurry is constantly mixed. Air is blown through
the tanks and lead sulfides attach to the bubbles and rise to form a foam which can be
removed. The foam (which is around 50% lead) is dried and then sintered before being
smelted to produce a 97% lead concentrate. The lead is then cooled in stages which
causes the lighter impurites (dross) to rise to the surface where they can be removed.
The molten lead bullion is then refined by additional smelting with air being passed
over the lead to form a slag layer containing any remaining impurities and producing
99.9% pure lead.
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every year, or a hair every several thousand years, would lose mass more rapidly than
a sample of bismuth decays.
Applications
Bismuth
Bismuth is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Bi, atomic
number 83 and atomic weight of 208.9804 and it is a Prnctogen, a Metallic element.
Name: Bismuth
Symbol: Bi
Atomic number: 83
Colour: lustrous reddish white
This heavy, brittle, white crystalline trivalent poor metal has a pink tinge and chemically resembles arsenic and antimony. Most diamagnetic of all metals, bismuth has the
lowest thermal conductivity of all the elements except mercury. Lead-free bismuth
compounds are used in cosmetics and in medical procedures.
It is a brittle metal with a pinkish hue with an iridescent tarnish. Among the heavy
metals, it is the heaviest and the only non-toxic. No other metal is more diamagnetic
than bismuth, except mercury. This metal, which occurs in its native form, has a high
electrical resistance and also has the highest Hall effect of any metal (that is, it has the
greatest increase in electrical resistance when it is placed in a magnetic field). When
heated in air bismuth burns with a blue flame and its oxide forms yellow fumes.
Bismuth has long been thought to be unstable on theoretical grounds, but not until
2003 was this demonstrated when researchers at the Institut d'Astrophysique Spatiale in Orsay, France measured the alpha emission half-life of Bi-209, meaning that
bismuth is not truly stable, though in effect it is. Due to this phenomenal half-life, the
use of bismuth in (eg) certain medicines poses no radiological hazard. Any food containing the normal amount of carbon 14 is many thousands of times more radioactive
than bismuth. However, the radioactivity was of academic interest because bismuth
is one of few elements whose radioactivity was suspected, and indeed theoretically
predicted, rather than detected in the lab. An immortal who lost a digestive bacterium
Bismuth oxychloride is extensively used in cosmetics and bismuth subnitrate and

subcarbonate are used in medicine. Bismuth subsalicylate is a bright pink liquid used
as an antidiarrheal.
Some other uses are:
Strong permanent magnets can be made from the alloy bismanol (MnBi). Many bismuth alloys have low melting points and are widely used for fire detection and suppression system safety devices. Bismuth is used in producing malleable irons. Bismuth
is finding use as a catalyst for making acrylic fibers. Also used as a thermocouple material. A carrier for U-235 or U-233 fuel in nuclear reactors.
Bismuth has also been used in solders. The fact that bismuth and many of its alloys
expand slightly when they freeze make them ideal for this purpose. Bismuth subnitrate is a component of glazes that produces an iridescent luster finish.
In the early 1990s, research began on the evaluation of bismuth as a nontoxic replacement for lead in such uses as ceramic glazes, fishing sinkers, food processing equipment, free-machining brasses for plumbing applications, lubricating greases, and shot
for waterfowl hunting.
Crystals
Though virtually unseen in nature, high-purity bismuth can form into distinctive
hopper crystals. These colorful laboratory creations are typically sold to hobbyists
History
Bismuth (New Latin bisemutum from German Wismuth, perhaps from weisse Masse,
"white mass") was confused in early times with tin and lead due to its resemblance to
those elements. Claude Geoffroy Junine showed in 1753 that this metal is distinct from
lead.
Occurrence
The most important ores of bismuth are bismuthinite and bismite. Canada, Bolivia,
Japan, Mexico, and Peru are major producers. Bismuth produced in the United States
is obtained as a by-product of copper, gold, lead, silver, tin and especially lead ore
processing. The average price for bismuth in 2000 was US$ 7.70 per kilogram.
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Polonium
Polonium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Po, atomic
number 84 and atomic weight of 209. It is a metalloid element.in the Chalcogen group
.
Name: Polonium
Symbol: Po
Atomic number: 84
Atomic weight: 209
Colour: silvery
A rare radioactive metalloid, polonium is chemically similar to tellurium and bismuth

and occurs in uranium ores. Polonium had been studied for possible use in heating
spacecraft.
This radioactive substance dissolves readily in dilute acids, but is only slightly soluble
in alkalis. It is closely related chemically to bismuth and tellurium.
Polonium-210 is a volatile metal with 50% being vaporized in air after 45 hours at 328
K. This isotope is an alpha emitter that has a half-life of 138.39 days. A milligram of this
metalloid emits as many alpha particles as 5 grams of radium. A single gram of Polonium-210 generates 140 watts of heat energy.
A great deal of energy is released by its decay with a half a gram quickly reaching a
temperature above 750 K. A few curies of polonium emit a blue glow which is caused
by excitation of surrounding air.
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* This element has also been used in devices that eliminate static charges in textile
mills and other places. However beta sources are more commonly used and are less
dangerous.
* Polonium is used on brushes that remove accumulated dust from photographic
films. The polonium in these brushes is sealed and controlled thus minimizing radiation hazards.
* Polonium is used as thermoelectric power in space satellites
Since nearly all alpha radiation can be easily stopped by ordinary containers and
upon hitting its surface releases its energy, polonium has been proposed as a lightweight heat source to power thermoelectric cells in artificial satellites.
History
Also called Radium F, Polonium was discovered by Marie Curie and Pierre Curie in
1898 and was later named after Marie's home land of Poland. Poland at the time was
under Russian domination, and not recognized as a nation. It was Marie's hope that
naming the element after her home land would add noteriety to it's plight. Polonium
may be the first element named to highlight a political controversy.
This element was the first one discovered by the Curies while they were investigating the cause of pitchblende radioactivity. The pitchblende, after removal of uranium
and radium, was more radioactive than both radium and uranium put together. This
spurred them on to find the element. The electroscope showed it separating from bismuth.
Occurrence
A very rare element in nature, polonium is found in uranium ores at about 100 micrograms per ton. Its natural abundance is approximately 0.2% of radium's.
In 1934 an experiment showed that when natural bismuth (Bi-209) is bombarded with
neutrons, Bi-210, which is the parent of polonium, was created. Polonium may now be
made in milligram amounts in this procedure which uses high neutron fluxes found in
nuclear reactors.
Isotopes
Polonium has many isotopes all of which are radioactive. There are 25 known isotopes of polonium with atomic masses that range from 194 to 218. Polonium-210 is the
most widely available. Po-209 (half-life 103 years) and Po-208 (half-life 2.9 years) can
be made through the alpha, proton, or deuteron bombardment of lead or bismuth in a
cyclotron. However these isotopes are expensive to produce.
Applications
When it is mixed or alloyed with beryllium, polonium can be a neutron source.
Other uses:
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Occurrence
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Astatine is produced by bombarding bismuth with energetic alpha particles to obtain

relatively long-lived At-209 - At-211, which can then be distilled from the target by
heating in the presence of air.
Astatine
Astatine is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol At, atomic number 85 and atomic weight of 210. It is a Semi-metallic element in the Halogen
group.
Name: Astatine
Symbol: At
Atomic number: 85
Atomic weight: 210
Group name: Halogen
Colour: metallic
This radioactive element occurs naturally from uranium and thorium decay and is the
heaviest of the halogens.
This highly radioactive element has been confirmed by mass spectrometers to behave chemically much like other halogens, especially iodine (it probably accumulates
in the thyroid gland like iodine). Astatine is thought to be more metallic than iodine.
Researchers at the Brookhaven National Laboratory have performed experiments that
have identified and measured elementary reactions that involve astatine. The total
amount of astatine in Earth's crust is estimated to be less than 1 oz (28 g) at any one
time. This amounts to less than one teaspoon of the element.
History
Astatine (Greek astatos meaning "unstable") was first synthesized in 1940 by Dale R.
Corson, K. R. MacKenzie, and Emilio Segre of the University of California, Berkeley by
barraging bismuth with alpha particles.
Isotopes
Astatine has about 20 known isotopes, all of which are radioactive; the longest-lived
isotope is 210At which has a half-life of only 8.3 hours
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Radon
Radon is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Rn, atomic
number 86 and atomic weight of 222. It is a Noble gas.
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Name: Radon
Symbol: Rn
Atomic number: 86
Atomic weight: 222
Standard state: gas at 298 K (the heaviest known mononuclear gas at
298 K)
Colour: colourless
A radioactive noble gas that is formed by the disintegration of radium, radon is one
of the heaviest gases and is considered to be a health hazard. The most stable isotope
is Rn-222 which has a half-life of 3.8 days and is used in radiotherapy.
Essentially inert, radon is the heaviest noble gas and one of the heaviest gases at
room temperature. (The heaviest is tungsten hexafluoride, WF6.) At standard temperature and pressure radon is a colorless gas but when it is cooled below its freezing
point it has a brilliant phosphorescence which turns yellow as the temperature is lowered and orange-red at the temperature air liquefies. Some experiments indicate that
fluorine can react with radon and form radon fluoride. Radon clathrates have also
been reported.
Natural radon concentrations in Earth's atmosphere are so low that natural waters
in contact with the atmosphere will continually lose radon by volatilization. Hence,
ground water has a higher concentration of Rn-222 than surface water. Likewise, the
saturated zone of a soil frequently has a higher radon content than the unsaturated
zone due to diffusional losses to the atmosphere.
Applications
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Radon is sometimes produced by a few hospitals for therapeutic use by pumping its
gas from a radium source and storing it in very small tubes which are called seeds or
needles. This practice is being phased-out as hospitals get seeds from suppliers who
make them with the desired activity levels. Such seeds - often using radioactive forms
of cobalt and caesium - also last for several years, which is a logistical advantage.
Because of its rapid loss to air, radon is used in hydrologic research that studies the
interaction between ground water, streams and rivers. Any significant concentration
of radon in a stream or river is a good indicator that there are local inputs of ground
water.
History
Radon (named for radium) was discovered in 1900 by Friedrich Ernst Dorn, who called
it radium emanation. In 1908 William Ramsay and Robert Whytlaw-Gray, who named
it niton (Latin nitens meaning "shining"; symbol Nt), isolated it, determined its density
and that it was the heaviest known gas. It has been called radon since 1923.
Occurrence
On average, there is one molecule of radon in 1 x 1021 molecules of air. Soil down to
depth of 6 inches (150 mm) has about 1 gram of radium, which decays to radon and
releases tiny amounts of this deadly gas into the atmosphere. Radon can be found in
some spring waters and hot springs. The town of Misasa, Japan, boasts its radium-rich
springs exhausting radon.
Radon exhausts naturally from the ground, particularly in certain regions, especially but not only regions with granitic soils. Not all granitic regions are prone to high
exhausts of radon. Depending on how houses are built and ventilated, radon may
accumulate in basements and dwellings. The European Union recommends that action
should be taken starting from concentrations of 4003 for old houses, and 2003 for
new ones. The United States Environmental Protection Agency recommends action for
any house with a conectration higher then 4In SI uints, the US standard is 1483. Nearly
one in 15 homes in the U.S. has a high level of indoor radon. The U.S. Surgeon General
and EPA recommend all homes be tested for radon. Since 1985, millions of homes have
been tested for radon in the U.S.
In most cases, simply increased ventilation suffices in reducing the danger. Other
measures, such as blocking fissures and vents through which radon reaches from the
ground, may have to be taken. A layer of foil under the carpet or floor helps block
the radon gas from rising up into the house. About 1.2 million new homes have been
built with radon-resistant features since 1990 in the U.S. To date, EPA estimates that as
many as 650 future lung cancer deaths are prevented (lives saved) each year as a result of houses altered and new houses built with preventative features installed.
Isotopes
There are twenty known isotopes of radon. The most stable isotope is radon-222
which is a decay product (daughter isotope) of radium-226, has a half-life of 3.823 days
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and emits radioactive alpha particles. Radon-220 is a natural decay product of thorium and is called thoron. It has a half-life of 55.6 seconds and also emits alpha rays.
Radon-219 is derived from actinium, is called actinon, is an alpha emitter and has a
half-life of 3.96 seconds.
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Actinium
Actinium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Ac, atomic
number 89 ang atomic weight of 227. It is a Actinoid.
Name: Actinium
Symbol: Ac
Atomic number: 89
Atomic weight: 227
Group name: Actinoid
Period in periodic table: 7 (actinoid)
Colour: silvery
Actinium is a silvery radioactive metallic element. Due to its intense radioactivity,
Actinium glows in the dark with an eerie blue light. It is found only in traces in uranium ores as 227-Ac, an and emitter with a half-life of 21.773 years. One ton of uranium ore contains about a tenth of a gram of actinium.
Applications
It is about 150 times as radioactive as radium, making it valuable as a neutron source.
Otherwise it has no significant industrial applications. Actinium-225 is used in medicine to produce Bi-213 in a reusable generator or can be used alone as an agent for
radio-immunotherapy.
History
Actinium was discovered in 1899 by Andr-Louis Debierne, a French chemist, who
separated it from pitchblende. Friedrich Otto Giesel independently discovered actinium in 1902. The chemical behavior of actinium is similar to that of the rare earth
lanthanum. The word actinium comes from the Greek aktis, aktinos, meaning beam or
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Occurrence
Actinium is found in trace amounts in uranium ore, but more commonly is made in
milligram amounts by the neutron irradiation of 226-Ra in a nuclear reactor. Actinium
metal has been prepared by the reduction of actinium fluoride with lithium vapor at
about 1100 to 1300C.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring actinium is composed of 1 radioactive isotope; with 227-Ac being
the most abundant (100% natural abundance). 27 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 227-Ac with a half-life of 21.773 years, 225-Ac with a
half-life of 10 days, and 226-Ac with a half-life of 29.37 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 10 hours and the majority of these
have half lifes that are less than 1 minute. This element also has 2 meta states. Purified
actinium-227 comes into equilibrium with its decay products at the end of 185 days,
and then decays according to its 21.773-year half-life. The isotopes of actinium range
in atomic weight from 206 u (206-actinium) to 234 u (234-actinium).
Thorium
Thorium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Th, atomic
number 90 and atomic weight of 232.03806. It is a Actinoid.
Name: Thorium
Symbol: Th
Atomic number: 90
Thorium is a naturally occurring, slightly radioactive metal. When pure, thorium is a

silvery white metal that retains its lustre for several months. However, when it is contaminated with the oxide, thorium slowly tarnishes in air, becoming grey and eventually black. Thorium oxide (ThO2), also called thoria, has one of the highest boiling
points of all oxides (3300C). When heated in air, thorium metal turnings ignite and
burn brilliantly with a white light.
Applications
Applications of thorium:
* Mantles in portable gas lights. These mantles glow with a dazzling light when
heated in a gas flame.
* As an alloying element in magnesium, imparting high strength and creep resistance at elevated temperatures.
* Thorium is used to coat tungsten wire used in electronic equipment. * Thorium
has been used in welding electrodes and heat-resistant ceramics.
* The oxide is used to control the grain size of tungsten used for electric lamps.
* The oxide is used for high-temperature laboratory crucibles.
* Thorium oxide added to glass helps create glasses of a high refactive index and
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with low dispersion. Consequently, they find application in high quality lenses for
cameras and scientific instruments.
* Thorium oxide has been used as a catalyst:
- In the conversion of ammonia to nitric acid.
- In petroleum cracking.
- In producing sulfuric acid.
* Uranium-thorium age dating has been used to date hominid fossils.
* As a fertile material for producing nuclear fuel.
* Thorium dioxide (ThO2) is the active ingredient of Thorotrast, which was used as
part of X-ray diagnostics. This use has been abandoned due to the carcinogenic nature of Thorotrast.
History
Thorium was discovered in 1828 by the Swedish chemist Jns Jacob Berzelius, who
named it after Thor, the Norse god of war. The metal had virtually no uses until the
invention of the lantern mantle in 1885.
Occurrence
Thorium is found in small amounts in most rocks and soils, where it is about three
times more abundant than uranium, and is about as common as lead. Soil commonly
contains an average of around 6 parts per million (ppm) of thorium.
Thorium occurs in several minerals, the most common being the rare earth-thorium-phosphate mineral, monazite, which contains up to about 12% thorium oxide.
There are substantial deposits in several countries. Thorium-232 decays very slowly
(its half-life is about three times the age of the earth) but other thorium isotopes occur in the thorium and uranium decay chains. Most of these are short-lived and hence
much more radioactive than Th-232, though on a mass basis they are negligible.
Thorium as a Nuclear Fuel

Thorium, as well as uranium, can be used as fuel in a nuclear reactor. Although not
fissile itself, thorium-232 (Th-232) will absorb slow neutrons to produce uranium-233
(U-233), which is fissile. Hence, like uranium-238 (U-238), it is fertile.
In one significant respect U-233 is better than uranium-235 and plutonium-239, because of its higher neutron yield per neutron absorbed. Given a start with some other
fissile material (U-235 or Pu-239), a breeding cycle similar to but more efficient than
that with U-238 and plutonium (in slow-neutron reactors) can be set up. The Th-232
absorbs a neutron to become Th-233 which normally decays to protactinium-233 and
then U-233. The irradiated fuel can then be unloaded from the reactor, the U-233 separated from the thorium, and fed back into another reactor as part of a closed fuel
cycle.
Problems include the high cost of fuel fabrication due partly to the high radioactivity
of U-233 which is always contaminated with traces of U-232; the similar problems in
recycling thorium due to highly radioactive Th-228, some weapons proliferation risk
of U-233; and the technical problems (not yet satisfactorily solved) in reprocessing.
Much development work is still required before the thorium fuel cycle can be com-
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mercialised, and the effort required seems unlikely while (or where) abundant uranium is available.
Nevertheless, the thorium fuel cycle, with its potential for breeding fuel without the
need for fast neutron reactors, holds considerable potential long-term. Thorium is
significantly more abundant than uranium, so it is a key factor in the sustainability of
nuclear energy.
India has particularly large reserves of thorium, and so have planned their nuclear
power program to eventually use it exclusively, phasing out uranium as an input material. This ambitious plan uses both fast and thermal breeder reactors.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring thorium is composed of 1 isotope: 232-Th. 25 radioisotopes have
been characterized with the most {abundant and/or stable} being 232-Th with a halflife of 14.05 billion years, 230-Th with a half-life of 75,380 years, 229-Th with a half-life
of 7340 years, and 228-Th with a half-life of 1.92 years. All of the remaining radioactive
isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 30 days and the majority of these have half
lifes that are less than 10 minutes. This element also has 1 meta state. The isotopes of
thorium range in atomic weight from 212 amu (212-Th) to 236 amu (236-Th).
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Protactinium
Protactinium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Pa,
atomic number 91 and atomic weight of 231.03588. It is a Metallic Actinoid.
Name: Protactinium
Symbol: Pa
Atomic number: 91
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Aristid V. Grosse prepared 2 mg of Pa2O5 in 1927, and later on managed to isolate
Protactinium for the first time in 1934 from 0.1 mg of Pa2O5, first converting the oxide
to an iodide and then cracking it in a high vacuum by an electrically heated filament
by the reaction 2PaI5 ? 2Pa + 5I2.
In 1961, the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority was able to produce 125 g of
99.9% pure protactinium, processing 60 tons of waste material in a 12-stage process
and spending 500,000 USD; this was the world's only supply of the element for many
years to come, and it is reported that the metal was sold to laboratories for a cost of
2,800 USD / g in the following years.
Biological Role
Protactinium does not play any biological role.
Occurrence
Protactinium occurs in pitchblende to the extent of about 1 part 231-Pa to 10 million
of ore; ores from Zaire have about 3 ppm.
Isotopes
29 radioisotopes of protactinium have been characterized, with the most stable being
231-Pa with a half life of 32760 years, 233-Pa with a half-life of 26.967 days, and 230-Pa
with a half-life of 17.4 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes
that are less than 1.6 days, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than
1.8 seconds. This element also has 2 meta states, 217m-Pa (t1/2 1.15 milliseconds) and
234m-Pa (t1/2 1.7 minutes).
The primary decay mode before the most stable isotope, 231-Pa, is alpha decay and
the primary mode after is beta minus decay. The primary decay products before 231Pa are element Ac (actinium) isotopes and the primary products after are element U
(uranium) isotopes.
Protactinium is a silver metallic element that belongs to the actinide group, with a
bright metallic luster that it retains for some time in the air. It is superconductive at
temperatures below 1.4 K.
Applications
Due to its scarcity, high radioactivity and toxicity, there are currently no uses for
protactinium outside of basic scientific research.
History
Protactinium was first identified in 1913, when Kasimir Fajans and O. H. Ghring encountered short-lived isotope 234m-Pa, with a half-life of about 1.17 minutes, during
their studies of the decay chain of 238-U. They gave the new element the name Brevium (Latin brevis, brief, short); the name was changed to Protoactinium in 1918 when
two groups of scientists (Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner of Germany and Frederick Soddy
and John Cranston of the UK) independently discovered 231-Pa, and shortened to Protactinium in 1949.
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Uranium
Uranium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol U, atomic
number 92 and atomic weight of 238.02891. It is a Actinoid.
Name: Uranium
Symbol: U
Atomic number: 92
Colour: metallic grey
A heavy, silvery-white, toxic, metallic , and naturally-radioactive element, uranium belongs to the actinide series and its isotope uranium-235 is used as the fuel for
nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Uranium is commonly found in very small
amounts in rocks, soil, water, plants, and animals (including humans).
When refined, uranium is a silvery white, weakly radioactive metal, which is slightly
softer than steel. It is malleable, ductile, and slightly paramagnetic. Uranium metal
has very high density, 65% more dense than lead. When finely divided, it can react
with cold water; in air, uranium metal becomes coated with uranium oxide. Uranium in ores can be extracted and chemically converted into uranium dioxide or other
chemical forms usable in industry.
Uranium metal has three allotropic forms:
* alpha (orthorhombic) stable up to 667.7C * beta (tetragonal) stable from 667.7 C
to 774.8C
* gamma (body-centered cubic) from 774.8C to melting point - this is the most
malleable and ductile state. Its two principal isotopes are 235U and 238U (see Uranium-235 and Uranium-238). Naturally-occurring Uranium also contains a small amount
of the 234U isotope, which is a decay product of 238U. The isotope 235U is important
for both nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons because it is the only isotope existing
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in nature to any appreciable extent that is fissile, that is, fissionable by thermal neutrons. The isotope 238U is also important because it absorbs neutrons to produce a
radioactive isotope that subsequently decays to the isotope 239Pu (plutonium), which
also is fissile.
The artificial 233U isotope is also fissile and is made from 232thorium by neutron
bombardment.
Uranium was the first element that was found to be fissile, i.e. upon bombardment
with slow neutrons, its 235U isotope becomes the very short lived 236U, that immediately divides into two smaller nuclei, liberating energy and more neutrons. If these
neutrons are absorbed by other 235U nuclei, a nuclear chain reaction occurs, and if
there is nothing to absorb some neutrons and slow the reaction, it is explosive.
The first atomic bomb worked by this principle (nuclear fission). A more accurate
name for both this and the hydrogen bomb (nuclear fusion) would be "nuclear weapon", because only the nuclei participate.
Applications
Uranium metal is very dense and heavy. Depleted uranium (almost pure U-238 with
less than 0.2% U-235) is used by some militaries as shielding to protect tanks, and also
in parts of bullets and missiles, as it is extremely dense. The military also uses enriched uranium (more than natural levels of U-235) to power nuclear propelled navy
ships and submarines, and in nuclear weapons. Fuel used for United States Navy reactors is typically highly enriched in U-235 (the exact values are classified information).
In nuclear weapons uranium is also highly enriched, usually over 90% (again, the exact
values are classified information).
The main use of uranium in the civilian sector is to fuel commercial nuclear power
plants, where fuel is typically enriched in U-235 to 2-3%. However, the Canadian Candu
reactors use natural unenriched uranium as fuel. Depleted uranium is used in helicopters and airplanes as counterweights on certain wing parts.
Other uses include:
* Ceramic glazes where small amounts of natural uranium (that is, not having gone
through the enrichment process) may be added for color.
* Addition of uranium makes fluorescent yellow or green colored glass. * The long
half-life of the isotope uranium-238 (4.51 * 109) make it well-suited for use in estimating the age of the earliest igneous rocks.
* U-238 is converted into plutonium in breeder reactors. Plutonium can be used in
reactors, or in nuclear weapons.
* Uranyl acetate, UO2(CH3COO)2 is used in analytical chemistry. It forms an insoluble
salt with sodium. * Some lighting fixtures utilize uranium, as do some photographic
chemicals (esp. uranium nitrate).
* Phosphate fertilizers often contain high amounts of natural uranium, because the
mineral material from which they are made is typically high in uranium. * Uranium
metal is used for X-ray targets in making of high-energy X-rays.
* The element has found use in inertial guidance devices and in gyroscopic compasses.
History
The use of uranium, in its natural oxide form, dates back to at least 79 AD, when it
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was used to add a yellow color to ceramic glazes (yellow glass with 1% uranium oxide
was found near Naples, Italy).
The discovery of the element is credited to the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth who in 1789 found uranium as part of the mineral called pitchblende. It was
named after the planet Uranus, which had been discovered eight years earlier. It was
first isolated as a metal in 1841 by Eugene-Melchior Peligot. Uranium was found to be
radioactive by French physicist Henri Becquerel in 1896, who first discovered the process of radioactivity with uranium minerals.
During the Manhattan Project, the wartime Allied program to develop the first atomic bombs during World War II, uranium gained new importance on the world political
scene. Before the discovery of plutonium, only uranium was considered for the development of an atomic bomb, though the process of enriching it to applicable levels
required gargantuan facilities (see Oak Ridge National Laboratory). Eventually enough
uranium was enriched for one atomic bomb, which was dropped on Hiroshima, Japan
in 1945. The other nuclear weapons developed during the war used plutonium as their
fissionable material, which itself requires uranium to produce. Initially it was believed
that uranium was relatively rare, though within a decade large deposits of it were discovered in many places around the world.
The exploration and mining of radioactive ores in the United States began around
the turn of the 20th century. Sources for radium (contained in uranium ore) were
sought for use as luminous paint for watch dials and other instruments, as well as for
health-related applications (some of which in retrospect were incredibly unhealthy).
Because of the need for the element during World War II, the Manhattan Project contracted with numerous vanadium mining companies in the American Southwest, and
also purchased uranium ore from the Belgian Congo.
American uranium ores mined in Colorado were primarily mixes of vanadium and
uranium, but because of wartime secrecy the Manhattan Project would only publicly
admit to purchasing the vanadium, and did not pay the uranium miners for the uranium ore (in a much later lawsuit, many miners were able to reclaim lost profits from
the U.S. government). American uranium ores did not have nearly as high uranium
concentrations as the ore from the Belgian Congo, but they were pursued vigorously to ensure nuclear self-sufficiency. Similar efforts were undertaken in the Soviet
Union, which did not have native stocks of uranium when it started developing its
own weapons program.
In the beginning of the Cold War, to ensure adequate supplies of uranium for national defense, Congress passed the U.S. Atomic Energy Act of 1946, creating the Atomic
Energy Commission (AEC) which had the power to withdraw prospective uranium
mining land from public purchase, and also to manipulate the price of uranium to
meet national needs. By setting a high price for uranium ore, the AEC created a uranium "boom" in the early 1950s, which attracted many prospectors to the four corners
region of the country. Moab, Utah became the Uranium-capital of the world, when
geologist Charles Steen discovered such an ore in 1952.
Military requirements declined in the 1960s, and the government completed its
uranium procurement program by the end of 1970. Simultaneously, a new market
emerged - commercial nuclear power plants.
Because uranium ores emit radon gas, and their harmful and highly radioactive
daughter products, uranium mining is significantly more dangerous than other (already dangerous) hard rock mining, requiring adequate ventilation systems if the
mines are not open pit. During the 1950s, a significant amount of American uranium
miners were Navajo Indians, as many uranium deposits were discovered on Navajo
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reservations. An unusually high number of these miners later developed lung cancer.
Some survivors and their descendants received compensation under the Radiation
Exposure Compensation Act in 1990.
During the Manhattan Project, the names tuballoy and oralloy were used to refer to
natural uranium and enriched uranium respectively, originally for purposes of secrecy. These names are still used occasionally to refer to natural or enriched uranium.
Compounds
Uranium tetrafluoride (UF4) is known as "green salt" and is an intermediate product
in the production of uranium hexafluoride. Uranium hexafluoride (UF6) is a white
solid which forms a vapor at temperatures above 56 degrees Celsius. UF6 is the compound of uranium used for the two most common enrichment processes, gaseous diffusion enrichment and centrifuge enrichment. It is simply called "hex" in the industry.
Yellowcake is uranium concentrate. It takes its name from the color and texture of
the concentrates produced by early mining operations, despite the fact that modern
mills using higher calcining temperatures produce "yellowcake" that is dull green to
almost black. Yellowcake typically contains 70 to 90 percent uranium oxide (U3O8) by
weight.
Ammonium diuranate is an intermediate product in the production of yellowcake,
and is bright yellow in colour. It is sometimes confusingly called "yellowcake" as well,
but this is not a standard name.
Occurrence
Uranium is a naturally-occurring element found at low levels in virtually all rock, soil,
and water. It is considered to be more plentiful than antimony, beryllium, cadmium,
gold, mercury, silver, or tungsten and is about as abundant as arsenic or molybdenum.
It is found in many minerals including pitchblende, uraninite (most common uranium
ore), autunite, uranophane, torbernite, and coffinite.
Significant concentrations of uranium occur in some substances such as phosphate
rock deposits, and minerals such as lignite, and monazite sands in uranium-rich ores
(it is recovered commercially from these sources). Because uranium has such a long
radioactive half-life (4.47x109 years for U-238), the total amount of it on Earth stays
almost the same.
The decay of uranium and its nuclear reactions with thorium in the Earth's core is
thought to be the source for much of the heat that keeps the outer core liquid, which
in turn drives plate tectonics. Uranium ore is rock containing uranium mineralization
in concentrations that can be mined economically, typically 1 to 4 pounds of uranium
oxide per ton or 0.05 to 0.20 percent uranium oxide.
Production and Distribution

Commercial-grade uranium can be produced through the reduction of uranium halides with alkali or alkaline earth metals. Uranium metal can also be made through
electrolysis of KUF5 or UF4, dissolved in a molten CaCl2 and NaCl. Very pure uranium
can be produced through the thermal decomposition of uranium halides on a hot filament.
Owners and operators of U.S. civilian nuclear power reactors purchased from U.S. and
foreign suppliers a total of 21,300 tons of uranium deliveries during 2001. The aver-
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age price paid was $26.39 per kilogram of uranium, a decrease of 16 percent compared
with the 1998 price. In year 2001, the U.S. produced 1,018 tons of uranium from 7 mining operations, all of which are west of the Mississippi River.
Uranium is distributed worldwide, especially by the French. Generally, large countries produce more uranium than smaller ones because the worldwide distribution of
uranium is very roughly uniform. Canada is the world's largest producer of uranium,
with the world's richest deposits in Saskatchewan. Saskatchewan through three large
mines produces over a quarter of the world's uranium. Because of this production,
extra capacity, and the close government control of the industry the provincial government plays a central role in setting international uranium prices. Australia also has
extensive uranium deposits making up approximately 30% of the world's known uranium reserves.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring uranium is composed of 3 major isotopes, U-238, U-235, and
U-234, with U-238 being the most abundant (99.3% natural abundance). These 3 isotopes are radioactive, creating radioisotopes, with the most abundant and stable
being U-238 with a half-life of 4.5 109 years, U-235 with a half-life of 7 108 years,
and U-234 with a half-life of 2.5 105 years.
Uranium isotopes can be separated to increase the concentration of one isotope relative to another. This process is called "enrichment" (see enriched uranium). To be
considered to be 'enriched' the U-235 fraction has to be increased to significantly
greater than the 0.711% (by weight) (eg typically to levels from 3% to 7%). Uranium-235
is typically the main fissile material for nuclear power reactors. Either U235 or Pu239
are used for making nuclear weapons. The process produces huge quantities of uranium that is depleted of U-235 and with a correspondingly increased fraction of U-238,
called depleted uranium or "DU". To be considered to be 'depleted', the U-235 isotope
concentration has to have been decreased to significantly less than 0.711% (by weight).
Typically the amount of U235 left in depleted uranium is 0.2% to 0.3%. This represents
anywhere from 28% to 42% of the original fraction of U235.
Given that the half life of U235 is considerably shorter than U238, the "depleted" uranium is still significantly radioactive as is the natural uranium after refining.
Another way to look at this is as follows: Candu style reactors burn natural uranium
(0.71% fissile material). From a PWR reactors of typical design (most USA reactors are
PWR) we note the fuel goes in with about 4% U235 and 96% U238 and comes out with
about 1% U235, 1% PU239 and 95%U238. If the PU239 were removed (fuel reprocessing is
not allowed in the USA) and this were added to the "depleted uranium" then we would
have 1.2% fissile material in the reprocessed "depleted uranium" and at the same time
have 1% fissile material in the left over "spent" fuel. Both of these would be considered
"enriched" fuels for a CANDU style reactor.
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Neptunium
Neptunium is a synthetic element in the periodic table that has the symbol Np. atomic number 93 and atomic weight of 237.0482. It is a Actinoid .
Name: Neptunium
Symbol: Np
Atomic number: 93
A silvery radioactive metallic element, neptunium is the first transuranic element and belongs to the actinide series. Its most stable isotope, neptunium-237 is a
by-product of nuclear reactors and plutonium production and it can be used as a component in neutron detection equipment. Neptunium is also found in trace amounts in
uranium ores.
Silvery in appearance, neptunium metal is fairly chemically reactive and is found in
at least three structural modifications:
* alpha-neptunium, orthorhombic, density 20,250 kg/m3,
* beta-neptunium (above 280C), tetragonal, density (313 C) 19,360 kg/m3, and
* gamma-neptunium (above 577C), cubic, density (600C) 18,000 kg/m3.
This element has four ionic oxidation states while in solution:
* Np+3 (pale purple), analogous to the rare earth ion Pm+3,
*Np+4 (yellow green);
* NpO2+ (green blue): and
* NpO2++ (pale pink). Neptunium forms tri- and tetrahalides such as NpF3, NpF4,
NpCl4, NpBr3, NpI3, and oxides of the various compositions such as are found in the
uranium-oxygen system, including Np3O8 and NpO2.
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History
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Neptunium (named for the planet Neptune) was first discovered by Edwin McMillan
and Philip Abelson in 1940. The discovery was made at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory of the University of California, Berkeley where the team produced the neptunium
isotope Np-239 (2.4 day half-life) by bombarding uranium with cyclotron-accelerated
neutrons. It was the first transuranium element produced synthetically and the first
actinide series transuranium element discovered.
Occurrence
Trace amounts of neptunium are found naturally as decay products from transmutation reactions in uranium ores. Np-237 is produced through the reduction of
NpF3 with barium or lithium vapor at around 1200 C and is most often extracted
from spent nuclear fuel rods as a by-product in plutonium production.
Isotopes
19 neptunium radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being Np237 with a half-life of 2.14 million years, Np-236 with a half-life of 154,000 years, and
Np-235 with a half-life of 396.1 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have
half-lifes that are less than 4.5 days, and the majority of these have half lifes that are
less than 50 minutes. This element also has 4 meta states, with the most stable being
Np-236m (t1/2 22.5 hours).
The isotopes of neptunium range in atomic weight from 225.0339 u (Np-225) to
244.068 u (Np-244). The primary decay mode before the most stable isotope, Np-237,
is electron capture (with a good deal of alpha emission), and the primary mode after
is beta emission. The primary decay products before Np-237 are element 92 (uranium)
isotopes (alpha emission produces element 91, protactinium, however) and the primary products after are element 93 (plutonium) isotopes.
Weapons Applications
In September, 2002, researchers for the University of California conducting research
for a United States of America weapons of mass destruction development program
created the first nuclear critical mass using neptunium rather than plutonium or
uranium. US officials in March, 2004, planned to move the nation's supply of enriched
neptunium to a site in Nevada.
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Plutonium
Plutonium is a radioactive, metallic, chemical element. It has the symbol Pu, atomic
number 94 and atomic weight of 244.06. It is a Metallic Actinoid.
Name: Plutonium
Symbol: Pu
Atomic number: 94
Atomic weight: 244
Plutonium density 19,800 kg/m3. It is the element used in most modern nuclear
weapons. The most important isotope of plutonium is 239Pu, with a half-life of 24,200
years.
Plutonium is silvery in pure form, but has a yellow tarnish when oxidized. The heat
given off by alpha particle emission makes plutonium warm to the touch in reasonable quantities; larger amounts can boil water. It displays four ionic oxidation states
in aqueous solution:
* Pu3+ (blue lavender)
* Pu4+ (yellow brown) * PuO2+ (pink orange)
* PuO+ (thought to be pink; this ion is unstable in solution and will disproportionate
into Pu4+ and PuO2+; the Pu4+ will then oxidize the remaining PuO+ to PuO2+, being
reduced in turn to Pu3+. Thus, aqueous solutions of plutonium tend over time towards
a mixture of Pu3+ and PuO2+.)
Applications
Plutonium is a key fissile component in modern nuclear weapons, due to its ease of
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fissioning and availability. The critical mass for an unreflected sphere of plutonium
is 16 kg, but through the use of a neutron reflecting tamper the pit of plutonium in a
fission bomb is reduced to 10 kg, which is a sphere with a diameter of 10 cm. Complete
detonation of plutonium will produce an explosion of 20 kiloton per kilogram..
Plutonium could also be used to manufacture radiological weapons or as a (not particularly deadly) poison.
The plutonium isotope 238Pu is an alpha emitter with a half life of 87 years. These
characteristics make it well suited for electrical power generation for devices which
must function without direct maintenance for timescales approximating a human life
time. It is therefore used in RTGs such as those powering the Galileo and Cassini space
probes; earlier versions of the same technology powered seismic experiments on the
Apollo Moon missions.
Plutonium 238Pu has been used successfully to power artificial heart pacemakers, to
reduce the risk of repeated surgery. It has been largely replaced by lithium-based batteries, but as of 2003 there were somewhere between 50 and 100 plutonium-powered
pacemakers still implanted and functioning in living patients.
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oxides. It reacts with the halides, giving rise to compounds such as PuX3 where X can
be F, Cl, Br or I; PuF4 is also seen. The following oxyhalides are observed: PuOCl, PuOBr
and PuOI. It will react with carbon to form PuC, nitrogen to form PuN and silicon to
form PuSi2.
Isotopes and Synthesis

Twenty radioactive isotopes of plutonium have been characterized. The longest-lived
are plutonium-244, with a half-life of 80.8 million years, plutonium-242, with a halflife of 373,300 years, and plutonium-239, with a half-life of 24,110 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 7,000 years. This element also has eight metastable states, though none are stable and all have half-lives
less than one second.
History
Plutonium was discovered in 1940 by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg, Edwin M. McMillan, J. W.
Kennedy, and A. C. Wahl by deuteron bombardment of uranium in the 60-inch cyclotron of the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley,
but the discovery was kept secret. It was named after the planet Pluto, having been
discovered directly after neptunium (which itself was one higher on the periodic table
than uranium), by analogy with the ordering of the planets in the solar system. During
the Manhattan Project, large reactors were set up in Hanford, Washington for the production of plutonium, which was used in two of the first atomic bombs (the first was
tested at Trinity site, the second dropped on Nagasaki, Japan).
Large stockpiles of plutonium were built up by both the old Soviet Union and the
United States during the Cold War, It was estimated that 300,000 kg of plutonium had
been accumulated by 1982. Since the end of the Cold War, these stockpiles have become a focus of nuclear proliferation concerns. In 2002, the United States Department
of Energy took possession of 34 metric tons of excess weapons grade plutonium stockpiles from the United States Department of Defense, and as of early 2003 was considering converting several nuclear power plants in the US from enriched uranium fuel
to MOX fuel as a means of disposing of these.
Occurrence
While almost all plutonium is manufactured synthetically, extremely tiny trace
amounts are found naturally in uranium ores. These come about by a process of neutron capture by 238U nuclei, initially forming 239U; two subsequent beta decays then
form 239Pu (with a 239Np intermediary), which has a half-life of 24,100 years. This is
also the process used to manufacture 239Pu in nuclear reactors.
Compounds
Plutonium reacts readily with oxygen, forming PuO and PuO2, as well as intermediate
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Americium
Americium is a synthetic element in the periodic table that has the symbol Am, and
atomic number 95 and atomic weight 243. It is a Actinoid.
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Name: Americium
Symbol: Am
Atomic number: 95
Atomic weight: 243
A radioactive metallic element, americium is an actinide that was obtained by bombarding plutonium with neutrons and was the fourth transuranic element to be discovered. It was named for the Americas, by analogy with europium. Notable characteristics Freshly prepared americium metal has a white and silvery luster (more silvery
than plutonium or neptunium) and at room temperatures it slowly tarnishes in dry
air. Alpha emission from Am-241 is approximately three times radium. Gram quantities
of Am-241 emit intense gamma rays which creates a serious exposure problem for anyone handling the element.
Applications
This element can be produced in kilogram amounts and has some uses (mostly Am241 since it is easier to produce relatively pure samples of this isotope). Americium has
found its way into the household, where one type of smoke detector contains a tiny
amount of Am-241 as a source of ionizing radiation. Am-241 has been used as a portable gamma ray source for use in radiography. The element has also been employed to
gauge glass thickness to help create flat glass. Am-242 is a neutron emitter and has
found uses in neutron radiography. However this isotope is extremely expensive to
produce in usable quantities.
History
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Americium was first synthesized by Glenn T. Seaborg, Leon O. Morgan, Ralph A.

James, and Albert Ghiorso in late 1944 at the wartime Metallurgical Laboratory at the
University of Chicago (now known as Argonne National Laboratory). The team created
the isotope Am-241 by subjecting plutonium-239 to successive neutron capture reactions in a nuclear reactor. This created Pu-240 and then Pu-241 which in turn decayed
into Am-241 via beta decay.
Isotopes
18 radioisotopes of americium have been characterized, with the most stable being
Am-243 with a half-life of 7370 years and Am-241 with a half-life of 432.2 years. All of
the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 51 hours, and the
majority of these have half lifes that are less than 100 minutes. This element also has 8
meta states, with the most stable being Am-242m (t1/2 141 years). The isotopes of americium range in atomic weight from 231.046 amu(Am-231) to 249.078 amu (Am-249).
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(CmO2), curium trioxide (Cm2O3), curium bromide (CmBr3), curium chloride (CmCl3),
curium tetrafluoride (CmF4) and curium iodide (CmI3).
History
Curium
Curium is a synthetic element in the periodic table that has the symbol Cm, atomic
number 96 and atomic weight of 247. It is a Actinoid.
Name: Curium
Symbol: Cm
Atomic number: 96
Atomic weight: 247
Colour: silver
Curium was first synthesized at the University of California, Berkeley and by Glenn T.
Seaborg, Ralph A. James, and Albert Ghiorso in 1944. The team named the new element
after Marie Curie and her husband Pierre who are famous for discovering radium and
for their work in radioactivity. It was chemically identified at the Metallurgical Laboratory (now Argonne National Laboratory) at the University of Chicago. It was actually
the third transuranium element to be discovered even though it is the second in the
series. Curium-242 (half-life 163 days) and one free neutron were made by bombarding
alpha particles onto a plutonium-239 target in the 60-inch cyclotron at Berkeley. Louis
Werner and Isadore Perlman created a visible sample of curium-242 hydroxide at the
University of California in 1947 by bombarding americium-241 with neutrons. Curium
was made in its elemental form in 1951 for the first time
Isotopes
19 radioisotopes of curium have been characterized, with the most stable being Cm247 with a half-life of 1.56 x 107 years, Cm-248 with a half-life of 3.40 x 105 years, Cm250 with a half-life of 9000 years, and Cm-245 with a half-life of 8500 years. All of the
remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 30 years, and the
majority of these have half ifes that are less than 33 days. This element also has 4 meta
states, with the most stable being Cm-244m (t1/2 34 ms). The isotopes of curium range
in atomic weight from 233.051 amu (Cm-233) to 252.085 amu (Cm-252).
A radioactive metallic transuranic element of the actinide series, curium is produced

by bombarding plutonium with alpha particles (helium ions) and was named for Marie
Curie and her husband Pierre.
The isotope curium-248 has been synthesized only in milligram quantities, but curium-242 and curium-244 are made in multigram amounts, which allows for the determination of some of the element's properties. Curium-244 can be made in quantity by
subjecting plutonium to neutron bombardment. Very small amounts of curium may
exist in uranium ore as a daughter product of natural decay. There are few commercial applications for curium but it may one day be useful in radioisotope thermoelectric generators. Curium bio-accumulates in bone tissue where its radiation destroys
bone marrow and thus stops red blood cell creation.
A rare earth homolog, curium is somewhat chemically similar to gadolinium but with
a more complex crystal structure. Chemically reactive, its metal is silvery-white in
color and the element is more electropositive than aluminium (most trivalent curium
compounds are slightly yellow). Curium-242 is useful as a portable energy source due
to the fact that it can generate around 2 watts of thermal energy per gram. It is used
in pacemakers, remote navigational buoys, and in space missions.
Several curium compounds have been produced. They include: curium dioxide
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Berkelium
Berkelium is a synthetic element in the periodic table that has the symbol Bk, atomic
Name: Berkelium
Symbol: Bk
Atomic number: 97
Atomic weight: 247
Colour: unknown, but probably metallic and silvery white or grey in
appearance
A radioactive metallic element in the actinide series, berkelium was first synthesized
by bombarding americium with alpha particles (helium ions) and was named after
Berkeley, California. Berkelium was the fifth transuranic element to be synthesized.
Weighable amounts of berkelium-249 (half-life 314 days) make it possible to determine some of its properties using macroscopic quantities. As of 2004 it had not been
isolated in its elemental form, but it is predicted to be a silvery metal that would easily oxidize in air at elevated temperatures and would be soluble in dilute mineral acids.
X-ray diffraction techniques have been used to identify various berkelium compounds such as berkelium dioxide (BkO2), berkelium fluoride (BkF3), berkelium oxychloride (BkOCl), and berkelium trioxide (BkO3). In 1962 visible amounts of berkelium chloride were isolated that weighed 3 billionth of a gram. This was the first time
visible amounts of a pure berkelium compound were produced. Like other actinides,
berkelium bio-accumulates in skeletal tissue. This element has no known uses outside
of basic research and plays no biological role.
History
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Berkelium was first synthesized by Glenn T. Seaborg, Albert Ghiorso, Stanley G.

Thompson, and Kenneth Street, Jr at the University of California, Berkeley in December 1949. The team used a cyclotron to bombard a milligram-sized target of americium-241 with alpha particles to produce berkelium-243 (half-life 4.5 hours) and two free
neutrons. One of the longest lived isotopes of the element, berkelium-249 (half-life
320 days), was later synthesized by subjecting a curium-244 target with an intense
beam of neutrons.
Isotopes
19 radioisotopes of berkelium have been characterized, with the most stable being Bk247 with a half-life of 1380 years, Bk-248 with a half-life of >9 years, and Bk-249 with a
half-life of 320 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are
less than 5 days, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 5 hours.
This element also has 2 meta states, with the most stable being Bk-248m (t1/2 23.7
hours). The isotopes of berkelium range in atomic weight from 235.057 amu (Bk-235) to
254.091 amu (Bk-254).
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Californium
Californium is a synthetic element in the periodic table that has the symbol Cf, atomic number 98 and atomic weight of 251 It is a Actinoid.
Name: Californium
Symbol: Cf
Atomic number: 98
Atomic weight: 251
appearance
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* As a portable neutron source in gold and silver prospecting via on-the-spot activation analysis.
As of 2004, californium has not been isolated in its metallic form. The only californium ion that is stable in aqueous solution is californium (III). Californium has no biological role and only a few californium compounds have been made and studied. Included among these are: californium oxide (CfO3), californium trichloride (CfCl3) and
californium oxychloride (CfOCl).
History
Californium was first synthesized by University of California, Berkeley researchers
Stanely Thompson, Kenneth Street, Jr., Albert Ghiorso and Glenn T. Seaborg in 1950. It
was the sixth transuranium element to be discovered and the team announced their
discovery on March 17, 1950. It was named after the U.S. state of California and for the
University of California, Berkeley (which is nicknamed "Cal").
To produce element 98, the team bombarded a microgram-sized target of curium-242
with 35 MeV alpha particles in the 60-inch Berkeley cyclotron to produced atoms of
californium-245 (half-life 44 minutes) and a free neutron.
Isotopes
19 radioisotopes of californium have been characterized, with the most stable being
Cf-251 with a half-life of 898 years, Cf-249 with a half-life of 351 years, andCf-250 with
a half-life of 13 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are
less than 2.7 years, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 20 minutes. The isotopes of californium range in atomic weight from 237.062 amu (Cf-237) to
256.093 amu (Cf-256).
A radioactive transuranic element, californium has very few uses and was discovered
by bombarding curium with alpha particles (helium ions).
Weighable amounts of californium make it posible to determine some of its properties using macroscopic quantities. Californium-252 (half-life 2.6 years) is a very strong
neutron emitter and is thus extremely radioactive and harmful (one microgram spontaneously emits 170 million neutrons per minute). The decay of californium-254 (55day half-life) may have been detected through telescopes in supernovae remnants.
Californium-249 is formed from the beta decay of berkelium-249 and most other californium isotopes are made by subjecting berkelium to intense neutron in a nuclear
reactor. The element does have some specialist applications dealing with its radioactivity but otherwise is largely too difficult to produce to have useful significance as a
material.
Two of its few uses:
* In neutron moisture gauges which are in turn used to find water and oil layers in
oil wells.
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neutrons. Around 3 mg was created over a four year program of irradiation and then
chemical separation from a starting 1 kg of plutonium isotope.
Isotopes
Einsteinium
Einsteinium is a synthetic element in the periodic table that has the symbol Es, atomic number 99 and atomic weight of 252. It is a Actinoid.
Name: Einsteinium
Symbol: Es
Atomic number: 99
Atomic weight: 252
appearance
A metallic highly radioactive transuranic element (7th in the series) in the actinides,
einsteinium is produced by bombarding plutonium with neutrons and was discovered
in the debris of the first hydrogen bomb test. It was named after Albert Einstein and
has no known uses. Tracer studies using the isotope Es-253 show that einsteinium has
chemical properties typical of a heavy trivalent, actinide element.
History
Einsteinium was first identified in December 1952 by Albert Ghiorso at the University
of California, Berkeley and another team headed by G.R. Choppin at Los Alamos National Laboratory. Both were examining debris from the first hydrogen bomb test of
November, 1952 (see Operation Ivy). They discovered the isotope einsteinium-253 (halflife 20.5 days) that was made by the nuclear fusion of 15 neutrons with uranium-238
(which then went through seven beta decays). These findings were kept secret until
1955 due to Cold War tensions, however. In 1961, enough einsteinium was synthesized
to prepare a macroscopic amount of Es-253. This sample weighed about 0.01 mg and
was measured using a special balance. The material produced was used to produce
mendelevium. Further einsteinium has been produced at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory's High Flux Isotope Reactor in Tennessee by bombarding plutonium-239 with
17 radioisotopes of einsteinium have been characterized, with the most stable being
Es-252 with a half-life of 471.7 days, Es-254 with a half-life of 275.7 days, Es-255 with a
half-life of 39.8 days, and Es-253 with a half-life of 20.47 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 40 hours, and the majority of these
have half lifes that are less than 30 minutes. This element also has 3 meta states, with
the most stable being Es-254m (t1/2 39.3 hours). The isotopes of einsteinium range in
atomic weight from 240.069 amu (Es-240) to 257.096 amu (Es-257).
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Fermium
Fermium is a synthetic element in the periodic table that has the symbol Fm, atomic
Name: Fermium
Symbol: Fm
Atomic number: 100
Atomic weight: 257
Standard state: presumably a solid at 298 K
appearance
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Fermium (after Enrico Fermi) was first discovered by a team led by Albert Ghiorso in
1952. The team found fermium-255 in the debris of the first hydrogen-bomb explosion
(see Operation Ivy). That isotope was created when uranium-238 combined with 17
neutrons in the intense temperature and pressure of the explosion (eight beta decays
also occurred to create the element). The work was overseen by the University of California Radiation Laboratory, Argonne National Laboratory, and Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratory.
All these findings were kept secret until 1955 due to Cold War tensions, however. In
late 1953 and early 1954 a team from the Nobel Institute of Physics in Stockholm bombarded a uranium-238 target with oxygen-16 ions, producing an alpha-emitter with
an atomic weight of ~250 and with 100 protons (in other words, element 100-250). The
Noble team did not claim discovery but the isotope they produced was later positively
identified as fermium-250.
Isotopes
17 radioisotopes of ermium have been characterized, with the most stable being Fm257 with a half-life of 100.5 days, Fm-253 with a half-life of 3 days, Fm-252 with a halflife of 25.39 hours, and Fm-255 with a half-life of 20.07 hours. All of the remaining
radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 5.4 hours, and the majority of
these have half lifes that are less than 3 minutes. This element also has 1 meta state,
Fm-250m (t1/2 1.8 seconds). The isotopes of fermium range in atomic weight from
242.073 amu (Fm-242) to 259.101 amu (Fm-259).
A highly radioactive metallic transuranic element of the actinide series, fermium is

made by bombarding plutonium with neutrons and is named after nuclear physicist
Enrico Fermi.
Only small amounts of fermium have ever been produced or isolated. Thus relatively
little is known about its chemical properties. Only the (III) oxidation state of the element appears to exist in aqueous solution. Fermium-254 and heavier isotopes can be
synthesized by intense neutron bombardment of lighter elements (especially uranium and plutonium). During this, successive neutron captures mixed with beta decays
build the fermium isotope. The intense neutron bombardment conditions needed to
create fermium exist in thermonuclear explosions and can be replicated in the laboratory (such as in the High Flux Isotope Reactor at Oak Ridge National Laboratory). The
synthesis of element 102 (nobelium) was confirmed when fermium-250 was chemically
identified. There are no known uses of fermium outside of basic research. Fermium is
the eighth transuranic element.
History
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inch cyclotron (Md-256 was synthesized one atom at a time). Element 101 was the ninth
transuranic element synthesized.
Isotopes
Mendelevium
Mendelevium (also known as unnilunium) is a synthetic element in the periodic table
with the symbol Md, (formerly Mv) atomic number 101 and atomic weight of 258. It is a
Actinoid.
Name: Mendelevium
Symbol: Md
Atomic number: 101
Atomic weight: 258
appearance
A metallic radioactive transuranic element of the actinides, mendelevium is synthesized by bombarding einsteinium with alpha particles and was named after Dmitri
Mendeleev.
Researchers have shown that mendelevium has a moderately stable dipositive (II) oxidation state in addition to the more characteristic (for actinide elements) tripositive
(III) oxidation state. Md-256 has been used to find out some of the chemical properties
of this element while in an aqueous solution. There are no other uses of mendelevium
and only trace amounts of the element have ever been produced.
History
Mendelevium (for Dmitri Mendeleev) was first synthesized by Albert Ghiorso (team
leader), Glenn T. Seaborg, Bernard Harvey, and Greg Choppin in early 1955. The team
produced Md-256 (half-life of 76 minutes) when they bombarded an einsteinium-253
target with alpha particles (helium nuclei) in the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory's 60-
15 radioisotopes of mendelevium have been characterized, with the most stable being
Md-258 with a half-life of 51.5 days, Md-260 with a half-life of 31.8 days, and Md-257
with a half-life of 5.52 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes
that are less than 97 minutes, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less
than 5 minutes. This element also has 1 meta state, 258m-Md (t1/2 57 minutes). The isotopes of mendelevium range in atomic weight from 245.091 amu (Md-245) to 260.104
amu (Md-260).
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Nobelium
Nobelium, also known as unnilbium is a synthetic element in the periodic table that
has the symbol No, atomic number 102 and atomic weight of 259. It is a Actinoid.
Name: Nobelium
Symbol: No
Atomic number: 102
Atomic weight: 259
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A year earlier, however, physicists at the Nobel Institute in Sweden announced that
they had synthesized an isotope of element 102. The team reported that they created an isotope with a half-life of 10 minutes at 8.5 MeV after bombarding curium-244
with carbon-13 nuclei. Based on this report, the Commission on Atomic Weights of the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry assigned and accepted the name
nobelium and the symbol No for the "new" element. Subseqent Russian and American
efforts to repeat the experiment failed.
In 1966 researchers at UC Berkeley confirmed the 1958 experiments and went on to
show the existence of nobelium-254 (half-life 55 s), nobelium-252 (half-life 2.3 s), and
nobelium-257 (half-life 23 s). The next year Ghiorso's group decided to retain the name
nobelium for element 102.
Nobelium was the most recent element "of which the news had come to Harvard"
when Tom Lehrer wrote "The Elements Song" and was therefore the element with the
highest atomic number to be included.
Isotopes
13 radioisotopes of nobelium have been characterized, with the most stable being
No-259 with a half-life of 58 minutes, No-255 with a half-life of 3.1 minutes, and No-253
with a half-life of 1.7 minutes. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes
that are less than 56 seconds, and all of these have half lifes that are less than 2.4 seconds. This element also has 1 meta state, No-254m (t1/2 0.28 seconds).
The known isotopes of nobelium range in atomic weight from 249.088 u (No-249) to
262.108 u (No-262). The primary decay mode before the most stable isotope, No-259, is
alpha emission, and the primary mode after is spontaneous fission. The primary decay
products before No-259 are element 100 (fermium) isotopes, and the primary products
after are energy and subatomic particles.
A radioactive metallic transuranic element in the actinide series, nobelium is synthesized by bombarding curium with carbon ions. It was first identified by a team led by
Albert Ghiorso and Glenn T. Seaborg in 1958.
Little is known about nobelium and only small quantities of it have ever been produced. Its has no uses whatsoever outside of the laboratory. Its most stable isotope,
nobelium-259, has a half-life of 58 minutes and decays to fermium-255 through alpha
decay or to mendelevium-259 through electron capture.
History
Nobelium (named for Alfred Nobel) was first synthesized by Albert Ghiorso, Glenn
T. Seaborg, John R. Walton and Torbrn Sikkeland in April 1958 at the University of
California, Berkeley. The team used the new heavy-ion linear accelerator (HILAC) to
bombard a curium target (95% Cm-244 and 4.5% Cm-246) with carbon-12 ions to make
nobelium-254 (half-life 55 seconds). Their work was confirmed by Soviet researchers in
Dubna.
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Lawrencium
Lawrencium is a synthetic element in the periodic table that has the symbol Lr, atomic number 103 and atomic weight of 262. It is a Actinoid.
Name: Lawrencium
Symbol: Lr
Atomic number: 103
Atomic weight: 262
Group name: (none)
appearance
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called Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory) on the University of California, Berkeley campus. It was produced by bombarding a 3 milligram target composed of three
isotopes of californium with boron-10 and B-11 ions in the Heavy Ion Linear Accelerator ( HILAC ).
The transmutation nuclei became electrically charged, recoiled with a helium atmosphere and were collected on a thin copper conveyor tape. This tape was then moved
in order to place the collected atoms in front of a series of solid-state detectors. The
Berkeley team reported that the isotope 103-257 was detected in this manner and decayed by emitting an 8.6 MeV alpha particle with a half-life of 4.2 seconds.
In 1967, researchers in Dubna, Russia reported that they were not able to confirm an
alpha emitter with a half-life of 4.2 seconds as 103-257. This assignment has since been
changed to Lr-258 or Lr-259. Eleven isotopes of element 103 have been synthesized
with Lr-262 being the longest lived with a half-life of 216 minutes ( it decays into nobelium-256 ). The isotopes of lawrencium decay via alpha emission, spontaneous fission and electron capture (in order or most to least common types).
The origin of the name, preferred by the American Chemical Society, is in reference
to Ernest O. Lawrence, inventor of the cyclotron. The symbol Lw was originally used
but in 1963 it was changed to Lr. In August 1997 the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) ratified the name lawrencium and symbol Lr during a
meeting in Geneva.
A short-lived radioactive transuranic rare earth element, lawrencium is synthesized

from californium and has no known uses.
The appearance of this element is unknown, however it is most likely silvery-white or
gray and metallic. If sufficient amounts of lawrencium were produced, it would pose
a radiation hazard. Very little is known about the chemical properties of this element
but some preliminary work on a few atoms has indicated that it behaves similarly to
the actinides.
Lawrencium was, and often still is, grouped with the actinide chemical series in the
periodic table. However, unlike all other rare earths, element 103 is a d-block element
and therefore is increasingly being placed with the other d-block elements in the
transition metal chemical series.
History
Lawrencium was discovered by Albert Ghiorso, Torbjorn Sikkeland, Almon Larsh and
Robert M. Latimer on February 14, 1961 at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory (now
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Rutherfordium (symbol Rf) for the new element to honor Ernest Rutherford, a noted nuclear physicist from New Zealand. The International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted Unnilquadium (symbol Unq) as a temporary name for this
element. However in 1997 they resolved the dispute and adopted the current name.
Rutherfordium
Rutherfordium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Rf,
atomic number 104 and atomic weigh of 265. It is a Transactinide element.
Name: Rutherfordium
Symbol: Rf
Atomic number: 104
Atomic weight: 265
Group name: (none)
appearance
This is a highly radioactive synthetic element whose most stable isotope has a half
life of less than 70 seconds. This element therefore is not used for anything and little
is known about it. Rutherfordium is the first transactinide element and it is predicted
to have chemical properties similar to hafnium.
History
Rutherfordium (named in honor of Ernest Rutherford) was reportedly first synthesized in 1964 at the Joint Nuclear Research Institute at Dubna (U.S.S.R.). Researchers
there bombarded plutonium with accelerated 113 to 115 MeV neon ions and claimed
that they detected nuclear fission tracks in a special type of glass with a microscope
which indicated the presence of a new element.
In 1969 researchers at the University of California, Berkeley synthesized the element
by subjecting californium-249 and carbon-12 to high energy collisions. The UC group
also stated that they could not reproduce the earlier synthesis by Soviet scientists.
This resulted in an element naming controversy; Since the Soviets claimed that it was
first detected in Dubna, Dubnium (Db) was suggested, as was Kurchatovium and symbol Ku for element 104, in honor of Igor Vasilevich Kurchatov (1903-1960), former Head
of Soviet Nuclear Research. The Americans, however, proposed.
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Dubnium
Dubnium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Db, atomic
number 105 and atomic weight of 262. It is a Transactinide element.
Name: Dubnium
Symbol: Db
Atomic number: 105
Atomic weight: 262
Group name: (none)
appearance
This is a highly radioactive synthetic element whose most stable isotope has a half
life of 16 hours (dubnium-268). This relatively high stability compared to the surrounding elements on the periodic table gives evidence that by manipulating the number of
neutrons in a nucleus, one can alter the stabilities of such nuclei.
History
Dubnium (named after Dubna, Russia) was reportedly first synthesized in 1967 at the
Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia (reportedly producing element
105-260 and element 105-261 by bombarding americium-243 with neon-22). In late April
1970 researchers led by Albert Ghiorso working at the University of California, Berkeley had positively identified element 105.
The American team synthesized the element by bombarding a target californium-249
with a beam of 84 MeV nitrogen nuclei in the Heavy Ion Linear Accelerator (a particle
accelerator), which produced element 105-260 with a half-life of 1.6 seconds. Atoms of
element 105 were detected conclusively on March 5, 1970 but there is evidence that
this element had already been formed at Berkeley a year earlier using the same method.
The Berkeley scientists later tried to confirm the Soviet findings using more sophis-
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ticated methods but were not successful. They proposed that the new element should
be named hahnium (symbol Ha) in honor of the late German scientist Otto Hahn. Consequently this was the name that most American and Western European scientists
used.
An element naming controversy erupted over what to name this element after Russian researchers protested. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC) thus adopted unnilpentium (symbol Unp) as a temporary name for this element. However in 1997 they resolved the dispute and adopted the current name, dubnium (symbol Db), after the city that contains the Russian Joint Institute for Nuclear
Research.
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recommended that element 106 be named rutherfordium and adopted a rule that no
element can be named after a living person. This ruling was fiercely objected to by the
American Chemical Society. Critics pointed out that a precedent had been set in the
naming of einsteinium during Albert Einstein's life. In 1997, as part of a compromise
involving elements 104 to 108, the name seaborgium for element 106 was recognized
internationally.
Seaborgium
Seaborgium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Sg, atomic number 106 and atomic weight of 271. It is probably a Transactinide element.
Name: Seaborgium
Symbol: Sg
Atomic number: 106
Atomic weight: 271
Group name: (none)
appearance
It was also known as "unnilhexium" (Unh), and at one time "rutherfordium" was suggested. Seaborgium is a synthetic element whose most stable isotope 266Sg has a
half-life of 21 seconds. Its chemistry resembles that of tungsten.
History
Element 106 was discovered almost simultaneously by two different laboratories. In
June 1974, a Soviet team led by G. N. Flerov at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research
at Dubna reported producing an isotope with mass number 259 and a half-life of 7 ms,
and in September 1974, an American research team led by Albert Ghiorso at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley reported creating
an isotope with mass number 263 and a half-life of 0.9 s.
Because their work was independently confirmed first, the Americans suggested the
name seaborgium to honor the American chemist Glenn T. Seaborg. This name was
extremely controversial because Seaborg was still alive. An international committee
decided in 1992 that the Berkeley and Dubna laboratories should share credit for the
discovery.
An element naming controversy erupted and as a result IUPAC adopted unnilhexium (symbol Unh) as a temporary name for this element. In 1994 a committee of IUPAC
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recognized internationally in 1997
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Bohrium
Bohrium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Bh and atomic number 107 and atomic weight of 264 It is a Transactinide element.
Name: Bohrium
Symbol: Bh
Atomic number: 107
Atomic weight: 264
Standard state: presumably a solid at 298 K.
Group name: (none)
appearance.
It is a synthetic element whose most stable isotope, Bh-262, has a half-life of 102 ms.
History
It was synthesized in 1976 by a Soviet team led by Y. Oganessian at the Joint Institute
for Nuclear Research at Dubna, who produced isotope 261Bh with a half-life of 1-2 ms
(later data give a half life of around 10 ms). They did this by bombarding bismuth-204
with heavy nuclei of chromium-54. In 1981 a German research team led by P. Armbruster and G. Mnzenberg at the Gesellschaft fr Schwerionenforschung (Institute for
Heavy Ion Research) at Darmstadt were also able to confirm the Soviet team's results
and produce bohrium, this time the longer-lived Bh-262.
The Germans suggested the name nielsbohrium to honor the Danish physicist Niels
Bohr. The Soviets had suggested this name be given to element 105 (dubnium). There
was an element naming controversy as to what the elements from 101 to 109 were to
be called; thus IUPAC adopted unnilseptium (symbol Uns) as a temporary name for
this element. In 1994 a committee of IUPAC recommended that element 107 be named
bohrium. While this conforms to the names of other elements honoring individuals,
where only the surname is taken, it was opposed by many who were concerned that
it could be confused with boron. Despite this, the name bohrium for element 107 was
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Hassium
Hassium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Hs, atomic
number 108 Atomic weight 277. It is a Transactinide element.
Name: Hassium
Symbol: Hs
Atomic number: 108
Atomic weight: 277
Group name: (none)
appearance
It is a synthetic element whose most stable isotope is Hs-265, with a half-life of 2 ms.
History
It was first synthesized in 1984 by a German research team led by Peter Armbruster
and Gottfried Mnzenberg at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research at Darmstadt. The
name hassium was proposed by them, derived from the Latin name for the German
state of Hessen where the institute is located.
There was an element naming controversy as to what the elements from 101 to 109
were to be called; thus IUPAC adopted unniloctium (symbol Uno) as a temporary name
for this element. In 1994 a committee of IUPAC recommended that element 108 be
named hahnium. The name hassium was adopted internationally, however, in 1997.
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Meitnerium
Meitnerium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Mt, atomic number 109 and atomic weight of 276. It is a Transactinide element.
Name: Meitnerium
Symbol: Mt
Atomic number: 109
Atomic weight 276
Group name: (none)
appearance
It is a synthetic element whose most stable isotope is Mt-266 with a half-life of 3.4 ms.
History
Meitnerium was first synthesized on August 29, 1982 by a German research team led
by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Mnzenberg at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research at Darmstadt.The team did this by bombing a target of bismuth-209 with accelerated nuclei of iron-58. The creation of this element demonstrated that nuclear
fusion techniques could be used to make new, heavy nuclei.
The name meitnerium was suggested in honor of the Austrian-Swedish physicist and
mathematician Lise Meitner, but there was an element naming controversy as to what
the elements from 101 to 109 were to be called; thus IUPAC adopted unnilennium (symbol Une) as a temporary, systematic element name. However in 1997 they resolved the
dispute and adopted the current name.
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Darmstadtium
Darmstadtium (formerly ununnilium) is a chemical element in the periodic table that
has the symbol Ds, atomic number 110, and atomic weight of 281. Making it one of the
super-heavy atoms and it probably is a Metallic element.
Name: Darmstadtium
Symbol: Ds
Atomic number: 110
Atomic weight: 281
Group name: (none)
appearance
It is a synthetic element and decays in thousandths of a second. Due to its presence in
Group 10 it is believed to likely be metallic and solid.
History
It was first created on November 9, 1994 at the Gesellschaft fr Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt, Germany. It has never been seen and only a few atoms of it
have been created by the nuclear fusion of isotopes of lead and nickel in a heavy ion
accelerator (nickel atoms are the ones accelerated and bombarded into the lead).
Scientists are not always serious, so some suggested the name policium for the new
element, because, 110 is the telephone number of the German police. The element
was named after the place of its discovery, Darmstadt (actually, the GSI is located in
Wixhausen, a small suburb north of Darmstadt). The new name was given to it by the
IUPAC in August 2003.
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Roentgenium
Roentgenium (former temporary name: unununium) is a chemical element in the
periodic table that has the symbol Rg, (formerly Uuu) atomic number 111 and atomic
weight of 280. It is a synthetic element . Probably metallic and solid.
Name: Roentgenium
Symbol: Rg
Atomic number: 111
Atomic weight: 280
Group name: (none)
appearance
It has an atomic weight of 272 making it one of the super-heavy atoms. It is a synthetic element whose only known isotope has a half-life of around 15 ms before it decays
into meitnerium. Due to its presence in Group 11 it is a transition metal and so probably metallic and solid.
History
It was first created at the Gesellschaft fr Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt,
Germany on December 8, 1994. Only three atoms of it have been created (all 272Rg), by
the fusion of bismuth-209 and nickel-64 in a linear accelerator. (Nickel was bombarded
onto the target.)
The name roentgenium was accepted as a permanent name on November 1, 2004 in
honor of Wilhelm Roentgen; before this date, the element was known under the temporary IUPAC systematic element name unununium.

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Copernicium
( formerly Ununbium Uub 112 )

Copernicium (koh-per-NIS-ee-m) is a chemical element with symbol Cn and atomic
number 112 and atomic weight of 285. It is a Transactinide element.
Name: Copernicium
Symbol: Cn
Atomic number: 112
Atomic weight: 285
Standard state: presumably a liquid at 298 K
Group name: (none)
appearance
It is an extremely radioactive synthetic element that can only be created in a laboratory. The most stable known isotope, copernicium-285, has a half-life of approximately
29 seconds, but it is possible that this copernicium isotope may have an isomer with a
longer half-life, 8.9 min.[citation needed] Copernicium was first created in 1996 by the
GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research near Darmstadt, Germany. It is named
after the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus.
History
It was first created on February 9, 1996 at the Gesellschaft fur Schwerionenforschung
(GSI) in Darmstadt, Germany. This element was created by fusing a zinc atom with a
lead atom by accelerating zinc nuclei into a lead target in a heavy ion accelerator.Ununbium is a temporary IUPAC systematic element name
In the periodic table of the elements, it is a d-block element, which belongs to transactinide elements. During reactions with gold, it has been shown to be a volatile metal and a group 12 element.
Copernicium is calculated to have several properties that differ between it and its
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lighter homologues, zinc, cadmium and mercury; the most notable of them is withdrawing two 6d-electrons before 7s ones due to relativistic effects, which confirm
copernicium as an undisputed transition metal.
Copernicium is also calculated to show a predominance of the oxidation state +4,
while mercury shows it in only one compound at extreme conditions and zinc and
cadmium do not show it at all. It has also been predicted to be more difficult to oxidise copernicium from its neutral state than the other group 12 elements.
In total, approximately 75 atoms of copernicium have been detected using various
nuclear reactions
Naming
Copernicium was named after Nicolaus Copernicus, a scientist who showed that the
Earth moves around the Sun, and not the other way round.
Chemical
Copernicium is the last member of the 6d series of transition metals and the heaviest
group 12 element in the periodic table, below zinc, cadmium and mercury. It is predicted to differ significantly from the lighter group 12 elements. Due to stabilization
of 7s electronic orbitals and destabilization of 6d ones caused by relativistic effects
Isotopes
Copernicium has no stable or naturally-occurring isotopes. Several radioactive isotopes have been synthesized in the laboratory, either by fusing two atoms or by observing the decay of heavier elements. Six different isotopes have been reported with
atomic masses from 281 to 285, and 277, two of which, copernicium-283 and copernicium-285, have known metastable states. Most of these decay predominantly through
alpha decay, but some undergo spontaneous fission.The isotope copernicium-283 was
instrumental in the confirmation of the elements flerovium and livermorium.
Also Known As:
Ununbium Uub 112

Ununbium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has symbol Uub and has
the atomic number 112. Element 112 is one of the superheavy elements and its atoms
decompose through the emission of alpha particles with a half life of only about 240
s
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Ununtrium
Ununtrium is the temporary name of an unconfirmed synthetic element in the periodic table that has the temporary symbol Uut, atomic number 113 and atomic weight
of 284. It is a Transactinide element.
Name: Ununtrium
Symbol: Uut
Atomic number: 113
Atomic weight: 284
Group name: (none)
appearance
It is placed as the heaviest member of the group 13 (IIIA) elements although a sufficiently stable isotope is not known at this time that would allow chemical experiments to confirm its position as a heavier homologue to thallium. It was first detected in 2003 in the decay of ununpentium and was synthesized directly in 2004. Only
fourteen atoms of ununtrium have been observed to date. The longest-lived isotope
known is 286Uut with a half-life of ~20 s, allowing first chemical experiments to study
its chemistry.
History
On February 1, 2004, ununtrium and ununpentium were reported by a team composed of Russian scientists at Dubna (Joint Institute for Nuclear Research), and American scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Their discovery of the
element still awaits confirmation.
On September 28, 2004, a team of Japanese scientists declared that they succeeded in
synthesizing the element.
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Flerovium
( formerly ununquadium Uuq 114)
Flerovium (formerly ununquadium) is a radioactive, superheavy artificial chemical
element with symbol Fl and atomic number 114 and Atomic weight 289. It is a Transactinide element.
Name: Flerovium
Symbol: Fl
Atomic number: 114
Atomic weight: 289
Group name: (none)
Colour: unknown, but probably metallic and silvery white or grey in appearance
It is an extremely radioactive element that has only been created in the laboratory
and has not been observed in nature.
History
From the late 1940s to the early 1960s, the early days of the synthesis of heavier and
heavier transuranium elements, it was predicted that since such heavy elements did
not occur in nature, they would have shorter and shorter half-lives to spontaneous
fission, until they stopped being able to exist altogether at around element 108 (now
known as hassium). Initial work in the synthesis of the actinides appeared to confirm
this.
About 80 decays of atoms of flerovium have been observed to date, 50 directly and 30
from the decay of the heavier elements livermorium and ununoctium. All decays have
been assigned to the five neighbouring isotopes with mass numbers 285 - 289. The
longest-lived isotope currently known is 289Fl with a half-life of ~2.6 s, although there
is evidence for a nuclear isomer, 289bFl, with a half-life of ~66 s, that would be one of
the longest-lived nuclei in the superheavy element region.
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Chemical studies performed in 2007 indicate that flerovium may possess some noneka-lead properties, in which case it might behave as the first superheavy element
that exhibits some noble-gas-like properties due to relativistic effects.
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Discovery
Flerovium was first synthesized in December 1998 by a team of scientists at the Joint
Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Russia led by Yuri Oganessian, who
bombarded a target of plutonium-244 with accelerated nuclei of calcium-48:
A single atom of flerovium, decaying by alpha emission with a half-life of 30 seconds,
was detected. This observation was assigned to the isotope flerovium-289 and was
subsequently published in January 1999. However, while the experiment was later repeated, an isotope with these decay properties was never found again and hence the
exact identity of this activity is unknown. It is possible that it is due to a metastable
isomer, namely 289mFl.
The element is named after Russian physicist Georgy Flyorov, the founder of the Joint
Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia, where the element was discovered.
The name was adopted by IUPAC on May 31, 2012.
Also Known As:
Ununquadium Uuq 114

Ununquadium is the temporary name of a radioactive chemical element in the periodic table that has the temporary symbol Uuq has the atomic number 114 and atomic
weight of 289 Ununquadium does not occur naturally.
Ununpentium
Ununpentium is the temporary name of an unconfirmed synthetic superheavy element in the periodic table that has the temporary symbol Uup, atomic number 115 and
atomic weight of 288. It is in the Pnictogen group.
Name: Ununpentium
Symbol: Uup
Atomic number: 115
Atomic weight: 288
appearance
History
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
On February 1, 2004, the synthesis of ununpentium and ununtrium were reported

in Physical Review C by a team composed of Russian scientists at Dubna University's
Joint Institute for Nuclear Research and American scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory . Their discovery of the element still awaits confirmation
The team reported that they bombarded americium (element 95) with calcium (element 20) to produce four atoms of ununpentium (element 115). These atoms, they
report, decayed to ununtrium (element 113) in a fraction of a second. The ununtrium
produced then existed for 1.2 seconds before decaying into known elements.
Ununpentium is a temporary IUPAC systematic element name. Ununpentium was
theorized to be inside the island of stability. This probably explains why it was mentioned regularly in popular culture before it was actually created:
* In the world of UFO conspiracy theory culture during the 1980s and 1990s, Bob
Lazar asserted that ununpentium functioned as "fuel" for UFOs, being "stepped up"
to ununhexium under "particulate bombardment," and that the ununhexium's decay
products would include antimatter. These processes are considered implausible in
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terms of nuclear physics, not least due to the very short half-lives of both elements.
* As a reference to this kind of UFO conspiracy theory, in the X-COM game series
there is an element called elerium-115 or just elerium ("elerium-115" probably being an
error as in this form the number would have referred to the number of nucleons instead of the atomic number, meaning that elerium would have no neutrons, which is
not possible).
* A fictional stable isotope of ununpentium occurs in the game Dark Reign.
* A fictional stable isotope of ununpentium occurs in the movie The Core.
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Livermorium
( formerly Ununhexium Uuh 116)
Livermorium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Lv, atomic number 116 and atomic weight of 293. It is in the Chalcogen group.
Name: Livermorium
Symbol: Uuh
Atomic number: 116
Atomic weight: 293
appearance
Naming
Livermorium is historically known as eka-polonium. Ununhexium (Uuh) was the temporary IUPAC systematic element name. Scientists usually refer to the element simply
as element 116 (or E116). According to IUPAC recommendations, the discoverer(s) of a
new element has the right to suggest a name.
The discovery of livermorium was recognized by JWG of IUPAC on 1 June 2011, along
with that of flerovium. According to the vice-director of JINR, the Dubna team wanted to name element 116 moscovium, after the Moscow Oblast in which Dubna is located. However, the name Livermorium and the symbol Lv were adopted on May 31, 2012
after an approval process by the IUPAC. The name recognises the Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory, within the city of Livermore, California, USA, which collaborated
with JINR on the discovery. The city in turn is named after the American rancher Robert Livermore, a naturalized Mexican citizen of English birth.
Discovery
On July 19, 2000, scientists at Dubna (JINR) detected a single decay from an atom of
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livermorium following the irradiation of a Cm-248 target with Ca-48 ions. The results were published in December 2000. This 10.54 MeV alpha-emitting activity was
originally assigned to 292Lv due to the correlation of the daughter to previously assigned 288Fl. That assignment was later altered to 289Fl, and hence this activity was
correspondingly changed to 293Lv. Two further atoms were reported by the institute
during their second experiment between April - May 2001.
History
In 1999, researchers at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory announced the discovery of elements 116 and 118 (see ununoctium), in a paper published in Physical Review
Letters. The following year, they published a retraction after other researchers were
unable to duplicate the results. In June 2002, the director of the lab announced that
the original claim of the discovery of these two elements had been based on data fabricated by the principal author Victor Ninov.
In January, 2001 the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna, published results
that described the decay of the isotope 292Uuh, which was produced in the reaction
of 248Cm with 48Ca. It has a half-life of about 0.6 milliseconds (0.0006 seconds) and
decayed into 288Uuq. On May 11th, 2001, the institute reported synthesizing a second
atom, and that the properties confirmed a region of "enhanced" stability. Confirmation of these results is still pending.
Ununhexium in popular culture:
In the world of UFO conspiracy theory culture during the 1980s and 1990s, Bob Lazar
asserted that ununpentium functioned as "fuel" for UFOs, being "stepped up" to ununhexium under "particulate bombardment," and that the ununhexium's decay products would include antimatter. These processes are considered implausible in terms of
nuclear physics, not least due to the very short half-lives of both elements.
Also Known As:
Ununhexium Uuh 116
Ununhexium was the temporary name of an unconfirmed synthetic superheavy element in the periodic table that has the temporary symbol Uuh and has the atomic
number 116.
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Ununseptium
Ununseptium is the temporary name of an undiscovered chemical element in the periodic table that has the temporary symbol Uus, atomic number 117 and atomic weight
of 294. It is in the Halogen. group.
Name: Ununseptium
Symbol: Uus
Atomic number: 117
Atomic weight: 294
Group name: Halogen
Colour: unknown, but probably metallic and dark in appearance
Classification: Unknown
In the periodic table ununseptium is located in the group 17, all previous members of
which are halogens. The element is unlikely to be a halogen, however, and will probably show differences, although a few key properties such as melting and boiling
points and first ionization are expected to follow the periodic trends. While lighter
isotopes are agreed in the literature to be very unstable, there are signs that the super-heavy isotopes may be much more stable.
History
Ununseptium has not yet been discovered. Ununseptium is a temporary IUPAC systematic element name.
It is the second-heaviest element of all created. Its discovery was first announced in
2010, when the element was claimed to have been created in Dubna by a joint Russian
- American collaboration. Another experiment in 2011 created one of its daughters using a different method, partially proving the results of the discovery experiment, and
the original experiment was repeated successfully in 2012. The International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), however, has made no comment on whether or
not the element can be recognized as discovered.
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Discovery
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The experiment began in June 2009 and, in January 2010, scientists at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions announced internally that they had succeeded in detecting the decay of a new element with Z = 117 via two decay chains of an odd-odd isotope
(undergoing 6 alpha decays before undergoing a spontaneous fission) and of an oddeven one (3 alpha decays before fission).On April 9, 2010 an official report was released
in the journal Physical Review Letters. It revealed that the isotopes mentioned in the
previous chains referred to 294Uus and 293Uus,
Naming
Using Mendeleev's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements, ununseptium should be known as eka-astatine or dvi-iodine. In 1979 IUPAC published recommendations according to which the element was to be called ununseptium (with the
corresponding symbol of Uus), a systematic element name as a placeholder, until the
discovery of the element is confirmed and a name is decided on. The recommendations are largely ignored among scientists, who call it "element 117", with the symbol
of (117) or even simply 117. No official name has yet been suggested for the element.
According to current guidelines from IUPAC, the ultimate name for all new elements
should end in "-ium", which means the name for ununseptium will end in "-ium", not
"-ine", even if ununseptium turns out to be a halogen, which traditionally have names
ending in "-ine".
Atomic and Physical

Ununseptium is a member of group 17 in the periodic table, below the five halogens.
ununseptium will behave similar to the halogens in many respects. However, notable
differences are likely to arise; a largely contributing effect is the spinn-orbit (SO) interaction, or, more exactly, subshell splitting. For many theoretical purposes,
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Ununoctium
Ununoctium is the temporary name of an undiscovered chemical element in the periodic table that has the temporary symbol Uuo, atomic number 118 and atomic weight
of 294. It is in the Noble gas group.
Name: Ununoctium
Symbol: Uuo
Atomic number: 118
Atomic weight: 294
Standard state: presumably a gas at 298 K
Colour: unknown, but probably a colourless gas
If discovered, it would probably share the properties of its group, the noble gases,
resembling radon in its chemical properties. It would only be the second radioactive,
gaseous element, which is an interesting fact, and the first standard semiconductive
gas, which is also interesting.
History
In 1999, researchers at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory announced the discovery of elements 116 and 118, in a paper published in Physical Review Letters. The
following year, they published a retraction after other researchers were unable to
duplicate the results. In June 2002, the director of the lab announced that the original
claim of the discovery of these two elements had been based on data fabricated by
principal author Victor Ninov Ununoctium is a temporary IUPAC systematic element
name.
Unsuccessful Synthesis Attempts

In late 1998, Polish physicist Robert Smolanczuk published calculations on the fusion
of atomic nuclei towards the synthesis of superheavy atoms, including ununoctium.
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His calculations suggested that it might be possible to make ununoctium by fusing
lead with krypton under carefully controlled conditions.
In 1999, researchers at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory made use of these predictions and announced the discovery of ununhexium (now livermorium) and ununoctium, in a paper published in Physical Review Letters, and very soon after the results
were reported in Science.
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Group 1: Alkali Metals or Llthium family
Lithium Li
Sodium Na
Potassium K
Rubidium Rb
Caesium Cs (also spelled cesium)
Francium Fr
The Alkali Metals are a group of chemical elements in the periodic table with very
similar properties: they are all shiny, soft, silvery, highly reactive metals at standard
temperature and pressure and readily lose their outermost electron to form cations
with charge +1.:28 They can all be cut easily with a knife due to their softness, exposing a shiny surface that tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation. Because of their high
reactivity, they must be stored under oil in sealed glass ampoules to prevent reaction
with air. In the modern IUPAC nomenclature, the alkali metals comprise the group 1
elements, excluding hydrogen (H), which is nominally a group 1 element but not normally considered to be an alkali metal as it rarely exhibits behaviour comparable to
that of the alkali metals. All the alkali metals react with water, with the heavier alkali
metals reacting more vigorously than the lighter ones.
The Alkali Metals are lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium
(Cs), and francium (Fr). This group lies in the s-block of the periodic table as all alkali metals have their outermost electron in an s-orbital. The alkali metals provide the
best example of group trends in properties in the periodic table, with elements exhibiting well-characterized homologous behaviour.
All the discovered Alkali Metals occur in nature. Experiments have been conducted
to attempt the synthesis of ununennium (Uue), which is likely to be the next member
of the group, but they have all met with failure. However, ununennium may not be an
alkali metal due to relativistic effects, which are predicted to have a large influence
on the chemical properties of superheavy elements.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Alkaline Earth Metals or Beryllium family

Beryllium Be
Magnesium Mg
Calcium Ca
Strontium Sr
Barium Ba
Radium Ra
The Alkaline Earth Metals are a group of chemical elements in the periodic table with
very similar properties: they are all shiny, silvery-white, somewhat reactive metals at
standard temperature and pressure and readily lose their two outermost electrons to
form cations with charge +2. In the modern IUPAC nomenclature, the alkaline earth
metals comprise the group 2 elements.
The Alkaline Earth Metals are beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), and radium (Ra). This group lies in the s-block of the periodic
table as all alkaline earth metals have their outermost electron in an s-orbital.
All the discovered Alkaline Earth Metals occur in nature. Experiments have been
conducted to attempt the synthesis of unbinilium (Ubn), which is likely to be the next
member of the group, but they have all met with failure. However, unbinilium may
not be an alkaline earth metal due to relativistic effects, which are predicted to have a
large influence on the chemical properties of superheavy elements
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Group 3:Scandium family (consisting of the Rare Earth

Metal plus the Actinides)

Scandium Sc
Yttrium Y
Lanthanoids
Lanthanum La
Cerium Ce
Praseodymium Pr
Neodymium Nd
Promethium Pm
Samarium Sm
Europium Eu
Gadolinium Gd
Terbium Tb
Dysprosium Dy
Holmium Ho
Erbium Er
Thulium Tm
Ytterbium Yb
Lutetium Lu
Actinides
Actinium Ac
Thorium Th
Protactinium Pa
Uranium U
Neptunium Np
Plutonium Pu
Americium Am
Curium Cm
Berkelium Bk
Californium Cf
Einsteinium Es
Fermium Fm
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Mendelevium Md
Nobelium No
Lawrencium Lr
Lutetium Lu
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The group 3 elements are a group of chemical elements in the periodic table. This
group, like other d-block groups, should contain four elements, but it is not agreed
what elements belong in the group. Scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y) are always included, but the other two spaces are usually occupied by lanthanum (La) and actinium (Ac),
or by lutetium (Lu) and lawrencium (Lr); less frequently, it is considered the group
should be expanded to 32 elements (with all the Lanthanoids and Actinoids included)
or contracted to contain only scandium and yttrium. The group itself has not acquired
a trivial name; however, scandium, yttrium and the lanthanides are sometimes called
rare earth metals.
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Group 4: Titanium family

Titanium Ti
Zirconium Zr
Hafnium Hf
Rutherfordium Rf
Three group 3 elements occur naturally, scandium, yttrium, and either lanthanum or
lutetium. Lanthanum continues the trend started by two lighter members in general
chemical behavior, while lutetium behaves more similarly to yttrium. This is in accordance with the trend for period 6 transition metals to behave more similarly to their
upper periodic table neighbors.
The Group 4 elements are a group of chemical elements in the periodic table. In the
modern IUPAC nomenclature, Group 4 of the periodic table contains titanium (Ti),
zirconium (Zr), hafnium (Hf) and rutherfordium (Rf). This group lies in the d-block of
the periodic table. The group itself has not acquired a trivial name; it belongs to the
broader grouping of the transition metals.
This trend is seen from hafnium, which is almost identical chemically to zirconium, to
mercury, which is quite distant chemically from cadmium, but still shares with it almost equal atomic size and other similar properties. They all are silvery-white metals
under standard conditions. The fourth element, either actinium or lawrencium, has
only radioactive isotopes. Actinium, which occurs only in trace amounts, continues
the trend in chemical behavior for metals that form tripositive ions with a noble gas
configuration; synthetic lawrencium is calculated and partially shown to be more similar to lutetium and yttrium.
The three Group 4 elements that occur naturally are titanium (Ti), zirconium (Zr) and
hafnium (Hf). The first three members of the group share similar properties; all three
are hard refractory metals under standard conditions. However, the fourth element
rutherfordium (Rf), has been synthesized in the laboratory; none of its isotopes have
been found occurring in nature. All isotopes of rutherfordium are radioactive. So far,
no experiments in a supercollider have been conducted to synthesize the next member of the group, either unpentquadium (Upq) or unpenthexium (Uph), and it is unlikely that they will be synthesized in the near future.
So far, no experiments have been conducted to synthesize any element that could
be the next group 3 element. Unbiunium (Ubu), which could be considered a group
3 element if preceded by lanthanum and actinium, might be synthesized in the near
future, it being only three spaces away from the current heaviest element known, ununoctium.
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Group 5: Vanadium family

Vanadium V
Zirconium Zr
Tantalum Ta
Dubnium Db
A Group 5 element is a chemical element in the fifth group in the periodic table. In
the modern IUPAC nomenclature, Group 5 of the periodic table contains vanadium (V),
niobium (Nb), tantalum (Ta) and dubnium (Db). This group lies in the d-block of the periodic table. The group itself has not acquired a trivial name; it belongs to the broader
grouping of the transition metals.
The lighter three Group 5 elements occur naturally and do share similar properties;
all three are hard refractory metals under standard conditions. The fourth element,
dubnium, has been synthesized in the laboratory, but it has not been found occurring
in nature, with half-life of the most stable isotope, dubnium-268, being only 28 hours,
and other isotopes even more radioactive. To date, no experiments in a supercollider
have been conducted to synthesize the next member of the group, either unpentpentium (Upp) or unpentseptium (Ups). As unpentpentium and unpentseptium are both
late period 8 elements it is unlikely that these elements will be synthesized in the near
future.
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Group 6: Chromium family

Chromium Cr
Molybdenum Mo
Tungsten W
Seaborgium Sg
A Group 6 element is one in the series of elements in group 6 (IUPAC style) in the periodic table, which consists of the transition metals chromium (Cr), molybdenum (Mo),
tungsten (W), and seaborgium (Sg). The period 8 elements of group 6 are likely to be
either unpenthexium (Uph) or unpentoctium (Upo) (if possible, since drip instabilities
may imply that the periodic table ends at unbihexium). Neither of them have been
synthesized, and it is unlikely that this will happen in the near future.
Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior:
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Group 7: Manganese family

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Manganese Mn
Technetium Tc
Rhenium Re
Bohrium Bh
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Group 8: Iron family

Iron Fe
Ruthenium Rh
Osmium Os
Hassium Hf
A Group 7 element is one in the series of elements in group 7 (IUPAC style) in the periodic table, which consists of manganese (Mn), technetium (Tc), rhenium (Re), and
bohrium (Bh). All known elements of group 7 are transition metals.
A Group 8 element is one in the series of elements in group 8 (IUPAC style) in the periodic table, which consists of the transition metals iron (Fe), ruthenium (Ru), osmium
(Os) and hassium (Hs).
Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in their electron configurations, especially the outermost shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior.
Bohrium has not been isolated in pure form, and its properties have not been conclusively observed; only manganese, technetium, and rhenium have had their properties
experimentally confirmed. All three elements are typical silvery-white transition metals, hard, and have high melting and boiling points
Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior.
Group 7 contains the two naturally occurring transition metals discovered last: technetium and rhenium. Manganese has been known for millennia. Rhenium was discovered when Masataka Ogawa found what he thought was element 43 in thorianite, but
this was dismissed; recent studies by H. K. Yoshihara suggest that he discovered rhenium instead.
Group 8 is the new IUPAC name for this group; the old style name was "group VIIIA"
in the old European system or "group VIIIB" in the old US system. Group 8 must not
be confused with the group with the old-style group names of either VIIIB (European
system) or VIIIA (US system); that group is now called group 18.
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Group 9: Cobalt family

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Cobalt Co
Rhodium Rh
Iridium Ir
Meitnerium Mt
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Group 10: Nickel family

Nickel Ni
Palladium Pd
Platinum Pt
Darmstadtium Ds
In modern IUPAC nomenclature, Group 9 of the periodic table contains the elements
cobalt (Co), rhodium (Rh), iridium (Ir), and meitnerium (Mt). These are all d-block transition metals. All known isotopes of meitnerium are radioactive with short half-lives,
and it is not known to occur in nature; only minute quantities have been synthesized
in laboratories.
A Group 10 element is one in the series of elements in group 10 (IUPAC style) in the periodic table, which consists of the d-block transition metals nickel (Ni), palladium (Pd),
platinum (Pt), and darmstadtium (Ds). All known isotopes of Ds are radioactive with
short half-lives, and it is not known to occur in nature; only minute quantities have
been synthesized in laboratories.
Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior,
though rhodium curiously does not follow the pattern.
Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost shells (though for this family it is particularly weak
with palladium being an exceptional case). The relativistic stabilization of the 7s orbital is the explanation to the unusual electron configuration of darmstadtium.

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Group 11: Coinage Metals or Copper family

Copper Cu
Silver Ag
Gold Au
Roentgenium Rg
A Group 11 element is one in the series of elements in group 11 (IUPAC style) in the periodic table, consisting of transition metals copper (Cu), silver (Ag), and gold (Au).
Roentgenium (Rg) belongs to this group of elements based on its theoretical electronic configuration, but it is a short-lived transactinide with a 22.8 seconds half-life
that has only been observed in laboratory conditions.
Although at various times societies have used other metals in coinage including aluminium, lead, nickel, stainless steel, tin, and zinc, the name "coinage metals" is used
to highlight the special physio-chemical properties that make this series of metals
uniquely well suited for monetary purposes. These properties include ease of identification, resistance to tarnish, extreme difficulty in counterfeiting, durability, fungibility and a reliable store of value unmatched by any other metals known.
History
All the elements of the group except roentgenium have been known since prehistoric
times, as all of them occur in metallic form in nature and no extraction metallurgy has
to be used to produce them.
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Group 12: Zinc family

Zinc Zn
Cadmium Cd
Mercury Hg
Copernicium Cn
A group 12 element is one of the elements in group 12 (IUPAC style) in the periodic
table. This includes zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd) and mercury (Hg). The further inclusion of
copernicium (Cn) in group 12 is supported by recent experiments on individual copernicium atoms.
The elements in group 12 are usually considered to be d-block elements, but not transition elements as the d-shell is full.
The three group 12 elements that occur naturally are zinc, cadmium and mercury.
They are all widely used in electric and electronic applications, as well as in various
alloys. The first two members of the group share similar properties as they are solid
metals under standard conditions. Mercury is the only metal that is a liquid at room
temperature. While zinc is very important in the biochemistry of living organisms,
cadmium and mercury are both highly toxic. As copernicium does not occur in nature,
it has to be synthesized in the laboratory.
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Boron was known to the ancient Egyptians, but only in the mineral borax. The metalloid element was not known in its pure form until 1808, when Humphry Davy was able
to extract it by the method of electrolysis. Davy devised an experiment in which he
dissolved a boron-containing compound in water and sent an electric current through
it, causing the elements of the compound to separate into their pure states
Group 13: Triels, Boron group or Boron family

Boron B
Aluminium Al
Gallium Ga
Indium In
Thallium Ti
Ununtrium Uut
The boron group is the series of elements in group 13 (IUPAC style) of the periodic
table, comprising boron (B), aluminium (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In), thallium (Tl), and
ununtrium (Uut).
The elements in the boron group are characterized by having three electrons in their
outer energy levels (valence layers). These elements have also been referred to as
earth metals and as triels.
Boron is classified as a metalloid while the rest, with the possible exception of ununtrium, are considered poor metals. Ununtrium has not yet been confirmed to be a
poor metal and, due to relativistic effects, might not turn out to be one. Boron occurs
sparsely, probably because bombardment by the subatomic particles produced from
natural radioactivity disrupts its nuclei. Aluminium occurs widely on earth, and indeed is the third most abundant element in the Earth's crust (8.3%). Gallium is found
in the earth with an abundance of 13 ppm. Indium is the 61st most abundant element
in the earth's crust, and thallium is found in moderate amounts throughout the planet. Ununtrium is never found in nature and therefore is termed a synthetic element.
Several group 13 elements have biological roles in the ecosystem. Boron is a trace
element in humans and is essential for some plants. Lack of boron can lead to stunted
plant growth, while an excess can also cause harm by inhibiting growth. Aluminium
has neither a biological role nor significant toxicity and is considered safe. Indium
and gallium can stimulate metabolism; gallium is credited with the ability to bind itself to iron proteins. Thallium is highly toxic, interfering with the function of numerous vital enzymes, and has seen use as a pesticide
History
The boron group has had many names over the years. According to former conventions it was Group IIIB in the European naming system and Group IIIA in the American. The group has also gained two collective names, "earth metals" and "triels". The
latter name is derived from the Latin prefix tri- ("three") and refers to the three valence electrons that all of these elements, without exception, have in their valence
shells.
Characteristics
Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in their electron configuration, especially the outermost shells, resulting in trends in chemical behavior:
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Group 14: Tetrels, Carbon group or Carbon family

Carbon C
Silicon Si
Germanium Ge
Tin Sn
Lead Pb
Flerovium Fl - formerly ununquadium
The carbon group is a periodic table group consisting of carbon (C), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), and flerovium (Fl) formerly ununquadium.
In modern IUPAC notation, it is called Group 14. In the old IUPAC and CAS systems, it
was called Group IVB and Group IVA, respectively. In the field of semiconductor physics, it is still universally called Group IV. The group was once also known as the tetrels
(from Greek tetra, four), stemming from the Roman numeral IV in the group names, or
(not coincidentally) from the fact that these elements have four valence electrons.
History
Carbon, tin, and lead, are a few of the elements well known in the ancient world together with sulfur, iron, copper, mercury, silver, and gold.
Carbon as an element was discovered by the first human to handle charcoal from a
fire. Modern carbon chemistry dates from the development of coals, petroleum, and
natural gas as fuels and from the elucidation of synthetic organic chemistry, both
substantially developed since the 19th century.
Amorphous elemental silicon was first obtained pure in 1824 by the Swedish chemist
Jons Jacob Berzelius; impure silicon had already been obtained in 1811. Crystalline elemental silicon was not prepared until 1854, when it was obtained as a product of electrolysis. In the form of rock crystal, however, silicon was familiar to the predynastic
Egyptians, who used it for beads and small vases; to the early Chinese; and probably
to many others of the ancients. The manufacture of glass containing silica was carried
out both by the Egyptians at least as early as 1500 BCE - and by the Phoenicians.
Germanium is one of three elements the existence of which was predicted in 1871
by the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev when he first devised his periodic table.
Not until 1886, however, was germanium identified as one of the elements in a newly
found mineral.
The origins of tin seem to be lost in history. It appears that bronzes, which are alloys
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of copper and tin, were used by prehistoric man some time before the pure metal was
isolated. Bronzes were common in early Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, Egypt, Crete,
Israel, and Peru. Much of the tin used by the early Mediterranean peoples apparently
came from the Scilly Isles and Cornwall in the British Isles, where mining of the metal
dates from about 300 - 200 BCE.
Lead is mentioned often in early Biblical accounts. The Babylonians used the metal
as plates on which to record inscriptions. The Romans used it for tablets, water pipes,
coins, and even cooking utensils; indeed, as a result of the last use, lead poisoning was
recognized in the time of Augustus Caesar. Modern developments date to the exploitation in the late 18th century of deposits in the Missouri - Kansas - Oklahoma area
in the United States.
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Group 15: Pnictogens or Nitrogen family

Nitrogen N
Phosphorus P
Arsenic As
Antimony Sb
Bismuth Bi
Ununpentium Uup
The nitrogen group (also known as the pnictogens) is a periodic table group consisting of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi) and ununpentium (Uup) (unconfirmed).
In modern IUPAC notation, it is called Group 15. In the old IUPAC and CAS systems,
it was called Group VB and Group VA, respectively (pronounced "group five B" and
"group five A", "V" for the Roman numeral. In the field of semiconductor physics, it
is still universally called Group V. The "five" ("V") in the historical names comes from
the "pentavalency" of nitrogen, reflected by the stoichiometry of compounds such as
N2O5.
History
The term "pnictogen" was suggested by the Dutch chemist Anton Eduard van Arkel
in the early 1950s. It is also spelled "pnicogen" or "pnigogen". It comes from the Greek
root pnikta ("suffocated things"), and thus the word "pnictogen" is also a reference to
the German name for nitrogen (Stickstoff, "suffocating substance"). Hence, "pnictogen" could be translated as "suffocator maker". The word "pnictide" also comes from
the same root.
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Group 16: Chalcogens or Oxygen family

Oxygen O
Sulfur S
Selenium Se
Tellurium Te
Polonium Po
Livermorium Lv
The chalcogens are the chemical elements in group 16 of the periodic table. This
group is also known as the oxygen family. It consists of the elements oxygen (O), sulfur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), the radioactive element polonium (Po), and the
synthetic element livermorium (Lv).
The first four chalcogens (oxygen (O), sulfur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te)) are all
primordial on Earth. Polonium forms naturally after the decay of other elements, even
though it is not primordial.
Although all group 16 elements of the periodic table, including oxygen, are defined
as chalcogens, oxygen and oxides are usually distinguished from chalcogens and chalcogenides. The term chalcogenide is more commonly reserved for sulfides, selenides,
and tellurides, rather than for oxides.
Binary compounds of the chalcogens are called chalcogenides (rather than chalcides;
however, this breaks the pattern of halogen/halide and pnictogen/pnictide).
Although the word "chalcogen" is literally taken from Greek words being "copper-former", the meaning is more in line with "copper-ore former" or more generally, "ore-former". These electronegative elements are strongly associated with metal-bearing minerals, where they have formed water-insoluble compounds with the
metals in the ores.
Properties
Members of this group show similar patterns in their electron configuration, especially the outermost shells, resulting in similar trends in chemical behavior:
Oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are non-metals, and tellurium and polonium are metalloid semiconductors (that means, their electrical properties are between those of a
metal and an insulator). Nevertheless, tellurium, as well as selenium, is often referred
to as a metal when in elemental form. Metal chalcogens are common as minerals.
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Group 17: Halogens or Fluorine family

Fluorine F
Chlorine Cl
Bromine Br
Iodine I
Astatine At
Ununseptium Uus
The halogens or halogen elements are a series of nonmetal elements from group 17 of
the periodic table (formerly: VII, VIIA), comprising fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine
(Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At). The artificially created element 117 (ununseptium) may
also be a halogen.
The group of halogens is the only periodic table group which contains elements in
all three familiar states of matter at standard temperature and pressure. Chlorine is a
gas, bromine is a liquid and iodine is a solid. Fluorine could not be included due to its
high reactivity.
History
In 1842 the Swedish chemist Baron Jns Jakob Berzelius proposed the term "halogen"
"salt" or "sea", (ggnomai), "come to be" - for the four elements (fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, and iodine) that produce a sea-salt-like substance when they form a compound with a metal. Earlier, in 1811, the word "halogen" had been proposed as a name
for the newly discovered element chlorine, but Davy's proposed term for this element
eventually won out.
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Group 18: Noble gases or Helium family or Neon family

Helium He
Neon Ne
Argon Ar
Krypton Kr
Xenon Xe
Radon Rn
Ununoctium Uuo
The noble gases are a group of chemical elements with very similar properties: under standard conditions, they are all odorless, colorless, monatomic gases, with very
low chemical reactivity. The six noble gases that occur naturally are helium (He), neon
(Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and the radioactive radon (Rn).
For the first six periods of the periodic table, the noble gases are exactly the members
of group 18 of the periodic table. However, it is possible that due to relativistic effects,
the group 14 element flerovium exhibits some noble-gas-like properties, instead of
the group 18 element ununoctium.
The properties of the noble gases can be well explained by modern theories of atomic structure: their outer shell of valence electrons is considered to be "full", giving
them little tendency to participate in chemical reactions, and it has been possible to
prepare only a few hundred noble gas compounds. The melting and boiling points for
each noble gas are close together, differing by less than 10C (18F); that is, they are
liquids over only a small temperature range.
Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are obtained from air using the methods of liquefaction of gases and fractional distillation. Helium is typically separated from natural
gas, and radon is usually isolated from the radioactive decay of dissolved radium compounds. Noble gases have several important applications in industries such as lighting, welding, and space exploration.
A helium-oxygen breathing gas is often used by deep-sea divers at depths of seawater over 55 m (180 ft) to keep the diver from experiencing oxygen toxemia, the lethal
effect of high-pressure oxygen, and nitrogen narcosis, the distracting narcotic effect
of the nitrogen in air beyond this partial-pressure threshold. After the risks caused by
the flammability of hydrogen became apparent, it was replaced with helium in blimps
and balloons.
History
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Noble gas is translated from the German noun Edelgas, first used in 1898 by Hugo
Erdmann to indicate their extremely low level of reactivity. The name makes an analogy to the term "noble metals", which also have low reactivity. The noble gases have
also been referred to as inert gases, but this label is now deprecated as many noble
gas compounds are now known.
Rare gases is another term that was used, but this is also inaccurate because argon
forms a fairly considerable part (0.94% by volume, 1.3% by mass) of the Earth's atmosphere.
The group 14 element Flerovium exhibits some noble-gas-like properties, instead of
the group 18 element ununoctium
Alkaline Metal Elements

Lithium Li 3
Sodium Na 11
Potassium K 19
Rubidium Rb 37
Caesium Cs 55
Francium Fr 87
Earth Metal Elements

Beryllium Be 4
Magnesium Mg 12
Calcium Ca 20
Strontium Sr 38
Barium Ba 56
Radium Ra 88
Zinc Zn 30
Cadmium Cd 48
Mercury Hg 80
Aluminium Al 13
Gallium Ga 31
Indium In 49
Thallium Tl 81
Tin Sn 50
Lead Pb 82
Bismuth Bi 83
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Non - Metal Elements

Hydrogen H 1
Carbon C 6
Nitrogen N 7
Phosphorus P 15
Oxygen O 8
Sulfur S 16
Selenium Se 34
Fluorine F 9
Chlorine Cl 17
Bromine Br 35
Iodine I 53
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Actinoid Elements

Actinium Ac 89
Thorium Th 90
Protactinium Pa 91
Uranium U 92
Neptunium Np 93
Plutonium Pu 94
Americium Am 95
Curium Cm 96
Berkelium Bk 97
Californium Cf 98
Einsteinium Es 99
Fermium Fm 100
Mendelevium Md 101
Nobelium No 102
Lawrencium Lr 103
Nobel Gas Elements

Helium He 2
Neon Ne 10
Argon Ar 18
Krypton Kr 36
Xenon Xe 54
Radon Rn 86
Ununoctium Uuo 118
Lanthanoid Elements

Lanthanum La 57
Cerium Ce 58
Praseodymium Pr 59
Neodymium Nd 60
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Promethium Pm 61
Samarium Sm 62
Europium Eu 63
Gadolinium Gd 64
Terbium Tb 65
Dysprosium Dy 66
Holmium Ho 67
Erbium Er 68
Thulium Tm 69
Ytterbium Yb 70
Lutetium Lu 71
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Semi - Metallic Elements

Boron B 5
Silicon Si 14
Germanium Gm 32
Arsenic As 33
Antimony Sb 51
Tellurium Te 52
Polonium Po 84
Astatine At 85
Ununseptium Uus 117
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Transition Metal Elements

Scandium Sc 21
Yttrium Y 39
Titanium Ti 22
Zirconium Zr 40
Hafnium Hf 72
Vanadium V 23
Niobium Nb 41
Tantalum Ta 73
Chromium Cr 24
Molybdenum Mo 42
Tungsten W 74
Manganese Mn 25
Technetium Tc 43
Rhenium Re 75
Iron Fe 26
Ruthenium Ru 44
Osmium Os 76
Cobalt Co 27
Rhodium Rh 45
Iridium Ir 77
Nickel Ni 28
Palladium Pd 46
Platinum Pt 78
Copper Cu 29
Silver Ag 47
Gold Au 79

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedi
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Transactinides Elements

Rutherfordium Rf 104
Dubnium Db 105
Seaborgium Sg 106
Bohrium Bh 107
Hassium Hs 108
Meitnerium Mt 109
Darmstadtium Ds 110
Roentgenium Rg 111
Copernicium Cn 112
Ununtrium Uut 113*
Flerovium Fl 114
Ununpentium Uup 115*
Livermorium Lv 116
Ununseptium Uus 117*
Ununoctium Uuo 118*
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In chemistry, transactinide elements (also, transactinides, or super-heavy elements)
are the chemical elements with atomic numbers greater than those of the actinides,
the heaviest of which is lawrencium (103).
Transactinide elements are also transuranic elements, that is, have an atomic number greater than that of uranium (92), an actinide. The further distinction of having an
atomic number greater than the actinides is significant in several ways:
The transactinide elements all have electrons in the 6d subshell in their ground
state (and thus are placed in the d-block). The last actinide, lawrencium, also has one
electron in the 6d subshell. Except for dubnium, even the longest-lasting isotopes of
transactinide elements have extremely short half-lives, measured in seconds, or smaller units.
The element naming controversy involved the first five or six transactinide elements.
These elements thus used three-letter systematic names for many years after their
discovery had been confirmed. (Usually the three-letter names are replaced with
two-letter names relatively shortly after a discovery has been confirmed.)
Transactinides are radioactive and have only been obtained synthetically in laboratories. None of these elements has ever been collected in a macroscopic sample. Transactinide elements are all named after nuclear physicists and chemists or important
locations involved in the synthesis of the elements.
Chemistry Nobelist Glenn T. Seaborg who first proposed the actinide concept which
led to the acceptance of the actinide series also proposed the existence of a transactinide series ranging from element 104 to 121 and a superactinide series approximately
spanning elements 122 to 153. The transactinide seaborgium is named in his honor.
The term transactinide is an adjective, and is not commonly used alone as a noun to
refer to the transactinide elements.
List of the transactinide elements IUPAC defines an element to exist if its lifetime is
longer than 10-14 seconds, which is the time it takes for the nucleus to form an electronic cloud.
* The synthesis of these elements has not been officially attested by IUPAC, while in
several cases previous syntheses have been confirmed by other institutions or other
methods. The names and symbols given are provisional as no names for the elements
have been agreed on.
Transactinide elements
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Period 1 Elements
A period 1 element is one of the chemical elements in the first row (or period) of the
periodic table of the chemical elements. The periodic table is laid out in rows to illustrate recurring (periodic) trends in the chemical behaviour of the elements as their
atomic number increases: a new row is begun when chemical behaviour begins to
repeat, meaning that elements with similar behaviour fall into the same vertical columns. The first period contains fewer elements than any other row in the table, with
only two: hydrogen and helium. This situation can be explained by modern theories of
atomic structure. In a quantum mechanical description of atomic structure, this period corresponds to the filling of the 1s orbital. Period 1 elements obey the duet rule in
that they need two electrons to complete their valence shell. The maximum number of
electrons that these elements can accommodate is two, both in the 1s orbital. Therefore, period 1 can have only two elements.
Periodic trends
Hydrogens electron configuration is 1.
Heliums electron configuration is 2.
All other periods in the period table contain at least 8 elements, and it is often helpful to consider periodic trends across the period. However, period 1 contains only two
elements, so this concept does not apply here.
In terms of vertical trends down groups, helium can be seen as a typical noble gas at
the head of Group 18, but as discussed below, hydrogrens chemistry is unique and it is
not easily assigned to any group.
Position of period 1 elements in the periodic table
Although both hydrogen and helium are in the s-block, neither of them behaves similarly to other s-block elements. Their behaviour is so different from the other s-block
elements that there is considerable disagreement over where these two elements
should be placed in the periodic table.
Hydrogen
Helium
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Period 2 Elements
A period 2 element is one of the chemical elements in the second row (or period) of
the periodic table. The periodic table is laid out in rows to illustrate recurring (periodic) trends in the chemical behavior of the elements as their atomic number increases;
a new row is started when chemical behavior begins to repeat, creating columns of
elements with similar properties.
The second period contains the elements lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, and neon. This situation can be explained by modern theories
of atomic structure. In a quantum mechanical description of atomic structure, this
period corresponds to the filling of the 2s and 2p orbitals. Period 2 elements obey the
octet rule in that they need eight electrons to complete their valence shell. The maximum number of electrons that these elements can accommodate is ten, two in the 1s
orbital, two in the 2s orbital and six in the 2p orbital. All of the elements in the period
can form diatomic molecules except beryllium and neon.
Period 2 is the first period in the periodic table that periodic trends can be drawn
from. Period 1, which only contains two elements (hydrogen and helium) is too small
to draw any conclusive trends from it, especially because the two elements behave
nothing like other s-block elements. Period 2 has much more conclusive trends. For all
elements in period 2, as the atomic number increases, the atomic radius of the elements decreases, the electronegativity increases, and the ionization energy increases
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon

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Period 3 Elements
A period 3 element is one of the chemical elements in the third row (or period) of the
periodic table of the chemical elements. The periodic table is laid out in rows to illustrate recurring (periodic) trends in the chemical behaviour of the elements as their
atomic number increases: a new row is begun when the periodic table skips a row and
a chemical behaviour begins to repeat, meaning that elements with similar behavior
fall into the same vertical columns. The third period contains eight elements: sodium,
magnesium, aluminium, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine, and argon. The first two,
sodium and magnesium, are members of the s-block of the periodic table, while the
others are members of the p-block. Note that there is a 3d orbital, but it is not filled
until Period 4, such giving the period table its characteristic shape of "two rows at a
time". All of the period 3 elements occur in nature and have at least one stable isotope.
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon
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Period 4 Elements
A period 4 element is one of the chemical elements in the fourth row (or period) of
the periodic table of the elements. The periodic table is laid out in rows to illustrate
recurring (periodic) trends in the chemical behaviour of the elements as their atomic number increases: a new row is begun when chemical behaviour begins to repeat,
meaning that elements with similar behaviour fall into the same vertical columns. The
fourth period contains 18 elements, beginning with potassium and ending with krypton. As a rule, period 4 elements fill their 4s shells first, then their 3d and 4p shells, in
that order, however there are exceptions, such as chromium.
Properties
Every single one of these elements are stable, and many are extremely common in
the earths crust and/or core. Many of the transition metals in period 4 are incredibly
strong, and therefore commonly used in industry, especially iron. Copper is one of
three elements that are not silver or gray in color, along with caesium and gold. Three
adjacent elements are known to be toxic, with arsenic one of the most well-known
poisons, selenium being toxic to humans in large quantities, and bromine, a very toxic
liquid. Many elements are essential to humans survival, such as calcium being what
forms bones
Potassium
Calcium
Scandium
Titanium
Vanadium
Chromium
Manganese
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Gallium
Germanium
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Krypton
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Period 5 Elements
A period 5 element is one of the chemical elements in the fifth row (or period) of the
periodic table of the elements. The periodic table is laid out in rows to illustrate recurring (periodic) trends in the chemical behaviour of the elements as their atomic
number increases: a new row is begun when chemical behaviour begins to repeat,
meaning that elements with similar behaviour fall into the same vertical columns. The
fifth period contains 18 elements, beginning with rubidium and ending with xenon.
As a rule, period 5 elements fill their 5s shells first, then their 4d, and 5p shells, in that
order, however there are exceptions, such as rhodium.
Physical Properties
This period contains technetium, one of the two elements until lead that has no stable isotopes (along with promethium), as well as molybdenum and iodine, two of the
heaviest elements with a known biological role, and Niobium has the largest magnetic known penetration depth of all the elements. Zirconium is one of the main components of zircon crystals, currently the oldest known minerals in the earths crust.
Many later transition metals, such as rhodium, are very commonly used in jewelry due
to the fact that they are incredibly shiny.
This period is known to have a large number of exceptions to the Madelung rule.

37
Rb Rubidium
Alkali metal

38 Sr Strontium
Alkaline earth metal

39 Y
Yttrium
Transition metal

40 Zr Zirconium
Transition metal

41
Nb Niobium
Transition metal (*)

42 Mo Molybdenum
Transition metal *)

43 Tc Technetium
Transition metal

44 Ru Ruthenium

45 Rh Rhodium

46 Pd Palladium

47 Ag Silver

48 Cd Cadmium
Transition metal

49 In Indium
Other metal

50 Sn Tin
Other metal

51
Sb Antimony
Metalloid

52 Te Tellurium
Metalloid

53 I
Iodine
Diatomic nonmetal

54 Xe Xenon
Noble gas
(*) Exception to the Madelung rule
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Period 6 Elements
A period 6 element is one of the chemical elements in the sixth row (or period) of the
periodic table of the elements, including the lanthanides. The periodic table is laid
out in rows to illustrate recurring (periodic) trends in the chemical behaviour of the
elements as their atomic number increases: a new row is begun when chemical behaviour begins to repeat, meaning that elements with similar behaviour fall into the
same vertical columns. The sixth period contains 32 elements, tied for the most with
period 7, beginning with caesium and ending with radon. Lead is currently the last
stable element; all subsequent elements are radioactive, however bismuth has a halflife of more than 10 years, more than 1,000 times longer than the current age of the
universe. As a rule, period 6 elements fill their 6s shells first, then their 4f, 5d, and 6p
shells, in that order, however there are exceptions, such as cerium.

55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71 Lu
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
Cs Caesium
Ba Barium
La Lanthanum
Ce Cerium
Pr Praseodymium
Nd Neodymium
Pm Promethium
Sm Samarium
Eu Europium
Gd Gadolinium
Tb Terbium
Dy Dysprosium
Ho Holmium
Er Erbium
Tm Thulium
Yb Ytterbium
Lutetium
Hf Hafnium
Ta Tantalum
W Tungsten
Re Rhenium
Os Osmium
Ir
Iridium
Pt Platinum
Au Gold
Hg Mercury
Tl Thallium
Alkali metal
Lanthanide [a]
Lanthanide
Lanthanide
Lanthanide
Lanthanide
Lanthanide
Lanthanide
Lanthanide
Lanthanide
Lanthanide
Lanthanide
Lanthanide
Lanthanide
Lanthanide
Lanthanide [a]
Transition metal
Transition metal
Transition metal
Transition metal
Transition metal
Transition metal
Transition metal
Transition metal
Transition metal
Post-transition metal
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82
83
84
85
86
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine
Radon
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Halogen
Noble gas
a Note that lutetium (or, alternatively, lanthanum) is considered to be a transition

metal, but marked as a lanthanide, as it is considered so by IUPAC.
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Period 7 Elements
A period 7 element is one of the chemical elements in the seventh row (or period) of
the periodic table of the chemical elements. The periodic table is laid out in rows to
illustrate recurring (periodic) trends in the chemical behaviour of the elements as
their atomic number increases: a new row is begun when chemical behaviour begins
to repeat, meaning that elements with similar behaviour fall into the same vertical
columns. The seventh period contains 32 elements, tied for the most with period 6,
beginning with francium and ending with ununoctium, the heaviest element currently discovered. As a rule, period 7 elements fill their 7s shells first, then their 5f, 6d, and
7p shells, in that order, however there are exceptions, such as protactinium.
Properties
All elements of period 7 are radioactive. This period contains the actinides, which
contains the heaviest naturally occurring element, californium; subsequent elements
must be synthesized artificially. Whilst one of these (einsteinium) is now available in
macroscopic quantities, most are extremely rare, having only been prepared in microgram amounts or less. The later, transactinide elements have only been identified in
laboratories in batches of a few atoms at a time: of these, ununtrium, ununpentium
and those beyond livermorium have not been recognised by the IUPAC.
Although the rarity of many of these elements means that experimental results are
not very extensive, their periodic and group trends are less well defined than other
periods. Whilst francium and radium do show typical properties of their respective
groups, actinides display a much greater variety of behaviour and oxidation states
than the lanthanides. These peculiarities are due to a variety of factors, including a
large degree of spin-orbit coupling and relativistic effects, ultimately caused by the
very high positive electrical charge from their massive atomic nuclei.

87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
Fr
Ra
Ac
Th
Pa
U
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Francium
Radium
Actinium
Thorium
Protactinium
Uranium
Neptunium
Plutonium
Americium
Curium
Berkelium
Alkali metal
Actinide (*)
Actinide (*)
Actinide (*)
Actinide (*)
Actinide (*)
Actinide
Actinide
Actinide (*)
Actinide
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98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
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Next Page
Contents
Cf Californium
Actinide
Es Einsteinium
Actinide
Fm Fermium
Actinide
Md Mendelevium Actinide
No Nobelium
Actinide
Lr Lawrencium
Actinide (probably) (**)
Rf Rutherfordium Transition metal (probably)
Db Dubnium
Transition metal (?)
Sg Seaborgium
Bh Bohrium
Hs Hassium
Transition metal
Mt Meitnerium
Ds Darmstadtium Transition metal (?)
Rg Roentgenium Transition metal (?)
Cn Copernicium
Uut Ununtrium
Post-transition metal (?)
Fl
Flerovium
Uup Ununpentium Post-transition metal (?)
Lv Livermorium
Uus Ununseptium Metalloid (?)
Uuo Ununoctium
Noble gas (?)
(?) Prediction
(*) Exception to the Madelung rule.
(**) Probably an exception to the Madelung rule.
Previous Page
Contents
Next Page
Actinium
Ac
Aluminium
Al
Americium
Am
Antimony Sb
Argon Ar
Arsenic As
Astatine At
Barium Ba
Berkelium Bk
Beryllium
Be
Bismuth Bi
Bohrium
Bh
Boron

B
Bromine Br
Cadmium Cd
Caesium
Cs
Calcium Ca
Californium
Cf
Carbon C
Cerium
Ce
Chlorine
Cl
Chromium
Cr
Cobalt
Co
Copernicium
Cn

Copper Cu
Curium
Cm
Darmstadtium
Ds
Dubnium
Db
Dysprosium
Dy
Einsteinium
Es
Erbium
Er
Europium Eu
Fermium
Fm
Flerovium Fl
Fluorine F
Francium Fr
Gadolinium

Gd
Gallium Ga
Germanium

Gm
Gold Au
Hafnium
Hf
Hassium
Hs
Helium
He
Holmium
Ho
89
13
95
51
18
33
85
56
97
4
83
107
5
35
48
55
20
98
6
58
17
24
27
112
29
96
110
105
66
99
68
63
100
114
9
87
64
31
32
79
72
108
2
67
Previous Page
Hydrogen
H
Indium
In
Iodine
I
Iridium
Ir
Iron Fe
Krypton
Kr
Lanthanum
La
Lawrencium
Lr
Lead
Pb
Lithium
Li
Livermorium
Lv
Lutetium
Lu
Magnesium
Mg
Manganese
Mn
Meitnerium
Mt
Mendelevium
Md
Mercury
Hg
Molybdenum
Mo
Neodymium
Nd
Neon
Ne
Neptunium
Np
Nickel
Ni
Niobium
Nb
Nitrogen
N
Nobelium
No
Osmium
Os
Oxygen
O
Palladium
Pd
Phosphorus
P
Platinum
Pt
Plutonium
Pu
Polonium
Po
Potassium
K
Praseodymium
Pr
Promethium

Pm
Protactinium
Pa
Radium
Ra
Rhenium
Re
Rubidium
Rb
Rutherfordium
Rf
Roentgenium
Rg
Rhodium
Rh
Radon
Rn
Ruthenium
Ru
Samarium
Sm
Scandium
Sc
Seaborgium
Sg
Selenium
Se
Silicon
Si
Silver
Ag
Contents
Previous Page
Next Page
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26
36
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103
82
3
116
71
12
25
109
101
80
42
60
10
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28
41
7
102
76
8
46
15
78
94
84
19
59
61
91
88
75
37
104
111
45
86
44
62
21
106
34
14
47
Sodium
Na
Strontium
Sr
Sulfur
S
Tantalum
Ta
Technetium
Tc
Tellurium
Te
Terbium
Tb
Thallium
Tl
Thorium
Th
Thulium
Tm
Tin Sn
Titanium
Ti
Tungsten
W
Ununoctium
Uuo
Ununpentium
Uup
Ununseptium
Uus
Ununtrium
Uut
Uranium
U
Vanadium
V
Xenon
Xe
Yttrium
Y
Ytterbium
Yb
Zinc Zn
Zirconium
Zr
Contents
Next Page
Ununhexium
Livermorium Lv
Ununquadium
Flerovium Fl
Ununbium Copernicium Cn
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16
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43
52
65
81
90
69
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The Periodic Table of the Elements

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The Periodic Table

At standard temperature and pressure it is a colorless, odorless, non-metallic,

The Hydrogen Atom

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Helium: Physical Properties

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F rom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia and webelements

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Occurrence and Resources

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A multivalent, nonmetal of the nitrogen group, phosphorus is commonly found in

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An abundant tasteless odorless multivalent non-metal, sulfur is best known as yellow

Other important compounds of sulfur include:

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Potassium in the body

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Other uses include:

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* In metallurgy, to impart corrosion resistance and a shiny finish:

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Cobalt is a hard ferromagnetic silver-white element. The Curie temperature is of 1388

* Superalloys, for parts in gas turbine aircraft engines.

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* Stainless steel and other corrosion-resistant alloys.

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effect is normally found for metals).

Other uses include:

* Since it wets glass or porcelain, gallium is used to create brilliant mirrors.

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Elemental bromine is used to manufacture a wide variety of bromine compounds

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Other potential or current uses:

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An alkaline earth metal, strontium is a soft silver-white or yellowish metallic element

* It is also used in producing ferrite magnets and in refining zinc.

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A lustrous gray-white, strong transition metal that resembles titanium, zirconium is

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