Moral

Foundations
PHL 154
Deontology and Utilitarianism High-Level Summary

I. Deontology
1. Associated with Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
2. Critical philosophy shows the conditions of possibility and the limits of what
it investigates.
3. Kant will find the conditions of possibility of morality in the structure of
reason alone. This will make morality autonomous (i.e., not heteronomous or
deriving from an outside source).
4. Kants moral philosophy is about intention. To have a good will (the only
criterion for ones worthiness to be happy) is to act from the objective maxim
(intention) for a given act. That objective maxim can always be summarized:
do you duty because it is your duty.
5. The objective maxim can be formulated in terms of the categorical
imperative, an imperative (do this!) that applies to everyone, no matter
what the circumstances. Acting on the categorical imperative is moral,
regardless of the consequences or outcome of such acting.
6. Two of Kants four formulas of the categorical imperative are: [a] Act in
such a way that you could will your maxim for acting to be a universal law (of
nature). [b] Act in such a way that you always treat humanity (i.e., our own
rational nature) never simply as a means (to an end) but always at the same
time as an end in itself.
7. Ethics does not have as its goal the happiness of anyone. Happiness, for
Kant, means pleasure and the absence of pain.
8. Problem: The road to hell (can be) paved with good intentions!

II. Utilitarianism
1. Associated with John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), along with Jeremy Bentham
(1748-1832), among others.
2. The Principle of Utility: Act in such a way as to bring about the greatest
good / happiness for the greatest number.
3. Happiness, for Mill, means pleasure and the absence of pain.
4. The moral worth of an act is to be found in its consequences (utilitarianism
is a flavor of consequentialism).
5. Utilitarianism is based on a philosophy of life: Pleasure and the absence
of pain are, ultimately, the only things desirable.
6. Utilitarianism requires (possibly complex) calculations regarding overall
happiness.
7. Mill spoke eloquently on the value of free speech and conscience in his On
Liberty. (please see the study guides for this; you should really read this short
book!).
8. Problem: Does the end always justify the means?