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Sociological Theories of Religion: Conflict Analysis

Theconflictperspectiveisanapproachtoanalyzingsocialbehaviorwhichisbasedontheassumption
thatsocialbehaviorisbestexplainedandunderstoodintermsofconflictortensionbetweencompeting
groups.Whenappliedtoreligion,conflictanalysispositsthatreligionisasourceofconflictthatdivides
orstratifiessociety.Marxarguedthatreligionisatoolwhichhelpsmaintainthestatusquoinsocietyby
makingthelowerclassescontentwithpromisesofgreatrewardsinthelifeafterdeath.Theconflict
perspectivecanexplainmanyconflictsseenaroundtheworldnotonlythroughouthistory,butalso
today.However,thisapproachdoesnotadequatelyexplainallthedataofthereligiousexperience.In
reality,religionisoftenfoundtobealiberatingforcewithinsocietypromotingequalityratherthan
inequality.
KeywordsConflictPerspectiveEthnocentrismFundamentalismIdeologyOperationalDefinition
ReligionSocialChangeSpirituality

SociologyofReligion:SociologicalTheoriesofReligion:ConflictAnalysis
Overview
Itisprobablysafetoassumethatmostadherentsofreligionbelievethatreligionmakesadifferencein
theirlives.Mostreligionshavestoriesofpeoplewhohavechangedtheirlivesastheresultofamystical
encounter.However,evenmorecommonplacearethebenefitsreligionofferspeople:asenseofmeaning
andpeaceafeelingofbelongingtoagroupandabeliefthatahigherpoweriswatchingoverthem.
Theologically,onemaytalkaboutthepowerofconversionortheinterventionofGodinpeople'slives.
Sociologists,however,typicallytrytoanalyzethepowerofreligionbytakingGodorotherhigher
powersoutoftheequationandexplainingthephenomenonofreligioninpurelysecularterms.This
approach,ofcourse,makescertainassumptionsaboutthevalidity(orinvalidity)ofvariousreligious
beliefs.Whetherornottheseassumptionsaretrueisopentodebate.

ConflictPerspective
Oneoftheframeworksthatcanbeappliedinasociologicalstudyofreligionisconflictperspective.This
approachisbasedontheassumptionthatsocialbehaviorisbestexplainedandunderstoodintermsof
conflictortensionbetweencompetinggroups.KarlMarxinparticularlookedatreligionasasourceof
conflictadivisiveratherthanacohesivepowerwithinsociety.Marxarguedthatreligionisatoolthat
helpsmaintainthestatusquoinsocietybymakingthelowerclassescontentwithpromisesofgreat
rewardsinthelifeafterdeath.Marxisoftenquotedassayingthat"religionistheopiumofthepeople."
Headvocatedthatpeopleshouldrejectotherworldlyvaluesinordertofocusonthehereandnowand
workforrewardsinthislife.Marxmaintainedthatthehappinessandrewardspromisedbyreligionare
merelyillusions.Inthisview,religionhelpsmaintainsocialinequalitybyjustifyingoppressionandisan
institutionthatjustifiesandperpetuatestheillsofsociety.Specifically,ratherthanresolvingconflictor
curingsocialinjustice,theconflictanalysisapproachviewsreligionasthebasisofintergroupconflict.
Further,theinequalitiesandsocialinjusticesthatexistinsocietyarereflectedwithinthereligious
institutionsthemselves(e.g.,race,class,orgenderstratification).Conflictanalysistheoristsalsoposit
thatreligionprovideslegitimizationforoppressivesocialconditions,therebysupportingandmaintaining
thestatusquo.Similarly,religiouspracticesandritualsdefinegroupboundarieswithinsociety,thereby
supportinganusthemmentality.
AccordingtoMarx,religionisamatterofideologynotoffaith,focusingmoreonsocialneedsand
aspirationsthanonspirituality.Inparticular,Marxbelievedthatreligionisanideologyoftheruling
classand,therefore,supportedthestatusquo.Inthisapproachtoexplainingreligion,subordinategroups

cometobelieveinthelegitimacyofthesocialorderthatoppressusthembyinternalizingtheideologyof
therulingclass.Ratherthansupportingsocialchangeandgrowth,Marxbelievedthatreligionactually
impedesthembyencouraginglowerstratumsocialgroupstofocusontheotherworldlythings.

RealWorldExamples
Examplessupportiveofthistheoryarethestuffoftoday'sheadlines.TheconflictbetweenCatholicsand
ProtestantsinNorthernIreland,clashesbetweentheJewsandtheMuslimsintheMiddleEast,ethnic
cleansingagainstBosnianMuslims,andtheterroristattacksontheWorldTradeCenterinNewYorkand
theundergroundatTavistockSquareinLondonareallexamplesofreligiousconflict.Infact,world
historyisfullofsuchexamplesincludingwars,terrorism,andgenocideallperformedinthenameof
religion.Alltoofrequently,andparticularlyinthemorefundamentalistsects,thepictureofreligionis
oneinconflictitself:pietyandcontemplationontheonehandandwarsandbattlesontheother.Partof
thereasonforthisconflictisethnocentrism,orthebeliefthatone'sowngroupissuperiortoother
groups.Evenreligionsthatteachtoleranceandsharemanyofthesamemoralandethicalprinciplessuch
asJudaism,Christianity,andIslam,canbeinconflictwithoneanotherdespitetheircommonalities.This
iswellillustratedbythemedievalCrusadesandtheIsraeli/Palestinianconflict.Sincemostreligionshave
historicallybeenpatriarchalinnature,thisusthemmentalityalsoextendstostratificationofgenders,
withmalesoftenbeingallowedpositionsofpowerandauthoritywhilewomenareassignedto
subservientroles.Thisapproachcanalsobeusedtoexplaintheconflictovergayrightsandordinationof
gaysandlesbianswithinmanychurchestoday.

TheHinduCasteSystem
Perhapsoneofthebestexamplesofreligionencouragingthestratificationofsocietyisfoundinthe
Hinducastesystem.Thishierarchicalreligioussysteminfluencesthesocialsystem,definingnotonlythe
manifestationsofthereligion,butalsothejobstowhichonecanaspireandtheresultingsocioeconomic
statusandreligiousprivilegeofmembersofthatcaste.WithinHinduism,thehighestcasteisthe
Brahmins.Individualsinthiscastearehonoredbyall,andbecomepriestsandphilosophers.Underthe
Brahmins,istheKshatriyacaste,theHinduuppermiddleclass.Individualsinthiscasteareconsidered
lowerinstatusthantheBrahmins.TheKshatriaystakejobsasprofessionalsandgovernmentofficials.
ThenextlowercastecomprisestheVaisyas,whoaremerchantsandfarmers.BelowthemaretheSudras.
Thedutyofmembersofthiscasteistoserveaslaborersandservantstomembersofhighercastes.
Sudrasarenotonlylimitedbothinsocietyinthetypesofjobsthattheycantakebutalsowithinthe
religionastheyarebarredfromparticipatinginmanyrituals.Dalitsaretraditionallyviewedaspolluting
oruntouchableoutcastesandrelegatedtotasksconsideredtoodegradingormenialforcastemembers
toperform,suchashumanwasteremoval,leatherworking,andcobbling(Rathore,2013Ghatak&
Udogo,2012).

Applications
Women
Socialstratificationoccursandaffectsthesecularcultureinmanyplacesaroundtheworld.Anexample
intheUnitedStatesisthetreatmentofwomenwithintheChristianChurch,particularlyasillustratedby
theissueofwhetherornotwomenareallowedtobeordainedtobecomepriestsorministers.The
biblicalevidencecanbeinterpretedtoeithersupportorprohibittheordinationofwomen.TheNew
Testamentstatesthat"thereisneithermalenorfemale"(Galatians3:28),astatementthatwouldseemto
supportwomen'sordination.Elsewhere,however,otherbiblicalpassagesmakesuchstatementsas"Ido
notpermitawomantoteachortohaveauthorityoveramanshemustbesilent"(1Timothy2:12),a
statementthatwouldseemtoprohibitit.However,thereisalsoevidenceintheChristianNewTestament
thatwomenweretheleadersofhousechurchesandwereordainedasdeaconsintheChurch.Similarly,
archeologicalevidencesupportsthefactthatwomenwerenotonlyleadersintheearlyChurch,butalso
wereordainedbothaspriestsandasdeacons.So,eveninthefirstcenturywhenwomenweretypically

subservienttomeninmostareas,theChurchordainedwomentothepriesthood.Itcanbeargued,infact,
thattheacceptanceofwomenasclergywaschangedtoreflectthesecularsocialstructureratherthan
beingimplementedfromthestartasasupportsystemtomaintainwomeninsubservientpositions.
Gradually,theattitudetowardwomeninthechurchchangedandwomen'sordinationwasnolonger
permittedbymanydenominations.Forexample,theRomanCatholicChurchtodaystilldoesnotpermit
theordinationofwomenaseitherpriestsordeaconsandappearsunlikelytodosointheforeseeable
future.Howeverwithinrecentdecades,someProtestantreligions...
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