Comprehension Processes

What is involved in effective information

processing. Implications for ELT.
What do we know about the process of second language reading and listening?
GENERAL WORLD KNOWLEDGE

Schematic knowledge

SOCIOCULTURAL KNOWLEDGE
TOPIC KNOWLEDGE
GENRE KNOWLEDGE

GRAMMAR

Systemic knowledge

VOCABULARY
COHESIVE DEVICES
DISCOURSE SIGNALS
PHONOLOGY

SUCCESSFUL LISTENING/READING INVOLVES

Using word attack skills such as identifying sound/symbol correspondences
Relating text content to ones background knowledge
Extracting gist/essential information from longer texts without necessarily
understanding every word
Listening: interpreting rhythm, stress and intonation to identify information focus and
attitudinal tone
Reading: identifying the functional intention of individual sentences or text segments
(e.g. when the writer is offering a definition or a summary)

TOP-DOWN PROCESSES
Discriminating the function of the text
Inferring cause/effect relationships

BOTTOM-UP PROCESSES
Scanning the input to identify familiar
lexical items

Anticipating outcomes

Deduce meanings of words from context

Inferring the topic of the discourse

Using grammatical cues to organise input

Inferring the sequence of events

Inferring missing details
Detect attitude and opinion

into constituents
Recognise markers of cohesion

Implications for the ELT classroom

THE ROLE OF EXTENSIVE READING
Hedge (2001:204) claims that extensive reading allows learners to build their language competence,
progress in their reading ability, become more independent in their studies, acquire cultural
knowledge, and develop confidence and motivation to carry on learning. Extensive reading might
comprise include the following:
reading large quantities of material from varied sources
reading consistently over time on a frequent and regular basis
reading longer texts
reading for general meaning, primarily for pleasure
engaging in independent reading, ideally of self-selected material

Ways of supporting extensive reading:

Reading time
Book conferences
Reading syndicate

TEXTS AND TASKS

It is now standard practice in ELT methodology to consider real purposes for reading/listening outside
the classroom in order to select materials and design activities.
List of purposes:
for pleasure
to understand the general idea
to extract specific information
intensive reading/listening
read/listen in order to respond
read / listen to infer attitude and opinion
interactional: the social purpose of communication
transactional: to describe the purpose of exchanging information
A BASIC METHODOLOGICAL MODEL FOR THE TEACHING OF PROCESSING SKILLS

Lead-

familiarisation with the topic of the reading or listening exercise

Purpose: to create expectations and arouse ss interest in the subject matter of the text,
personalise the content, activate or build background knowledge.

T directs comprehension
task

Ss then read/listen to a text to perform the task the teacher has set

SS listen/read for

T directs
feedback

T gives instructions, explains and directs the students purpose for

reading/listening

T helps SS see if they have completed the task successfully and will
will find out how well they have done. This may follow a stage in which SS
check their answers with each other first.

T directs text-related
task

T organises some kind of follow-up task related to the text.

LEAD-IN
PRE-LISTENING
PRE-READING

SS PERFORM THE TASK

WHILE-LISTENING
WHILE-READING

FOLLOW-UP TASK
POST-LISTENING
POST-READING

ACTIVITY TYPES
- Analysing the title / headline
- Looking at pictures: looking and talking about
- Looking at a list of items/thoughts/etc. before listening/reading
- Making lists of possibilities/ideas/suggestions
- Reading a text before listening and viceversa
- Labelling a picture
- Completing part of a chart
- Predicting/speculating
- Previewing the language which will be heard in the listening text
- Class discussion
-

Confirming predictions
Marking/checking items
Which picture?
Storyline picture sets
Putting pictures in order
Completing pictures
Picture drawing
Carrying out actions
Following a route
Form/chart completion
Labelling
Using lists
Text completion (gap-filling)
Spotting mistakes
Predicting what is going to happen next
Seeking specific items of information
Finding reference
Guessing the meaning of unknown words from context
Jigsaw reading/listening
Inferring opinions across the whole text

Memory challenging tasks

Media transfer
Problem-solving and decision-making
Role-play / simulation
Written work
Expressing opinions
Whole class discussion
Telling/writing the story or main events from a different characters
point of view
Matching with a reading text
Extending notes into written responses
Summarising
Project work
Studying new grammatical structures

GENERALISABLE PROCEDURES FOR TEXT-RELATED TASKS

Adapted from Maley (1998)
1 Expansion
Key criterion the text must be lengthened in some way.
e.g.
Add one or more sentences/paragraphs to the beginning and end of the text.
Add specified items within a text (adjectives)
Add sentences within the text.
Add subordinate clauses within the text.
Write a haiku in full
2 Media transfer
Key criterion the text must be transferred into a different medium or format.
e.g.:
Transfer into visual form (e.g. pictures, graphs, maps, tables, etc.)
Turn prose into poem
Turn a letter into a dialogue
Turn a narrative into screenplay
Turn a story into a diary
3 Matching
Key criterion a correspondence must be found between the text and something else.
e.g.
Match text with visual representation
Match text with title
Match text with another text
Match text with a voice/music
4 Selection/ranking
Key criterion the text must be chosen according to some given criterion.
e.g.
Choose the best text for a given purpose (e.g. inclusion in a teenage magazine)
Choose the most/least (interesting, memorable, amusing) text
Choose the most/least like the original version
Choose words from a text to act as an appropriate title
5 Comparison/contrast
Key criterion -points of similarity/difference must be identified between two or more texts.
e.g.
Identify words/expressions common to both texts
Identify words/phrases in one text that are paraphrased in the other
Identify ideas common to both texts
Identify facts present in one text and not in the other
6 Reconstruction
Key criterion coherence /completeness must be restored to an incomplete or defective text
e.g.
Insert appropriate words

Reorder jumbled words, lines, sentences, paragraphs

Reconstruct sentences/texts from a word array
Remove sentences/lines which do not belong in the text

7 Reformulation
Key criterion the text must be expressed in a form different from the original without loss of essential
meanings.
e.g.
Retell a story from notes
Complete a mind-map
Write a summary
8 Interpretation
Key criterion personal knowledge/experience must be used to clarify and extend the meanings of the
text
e.g.
What does this recall from your own experience?
What images does this throw up?
What questions would you like to ask the author?
What does the text NOT say and might have said?
9 Analysis
Key criterion the text is to be submitted to some form of language focused scrutiny
e.g.
How many tenses are used?
List the different ways in which the word X is referred to in the text
10 Project work
Key criterion the text is used as a springboard for some related practical work with a concrete
outcome
e.g.
Use the text as a centrepiece of an advertising campaign. First decide on the product. Then design the
campaign posters, advertising jingles, etc. finally present the product as a TV commercial.

Bibliography
Chamot, A and M.OMalley (1994) The CALLA Handbook. Implementing the Cognitive Academic
Language learning Approach. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company
Harmer, Jeremy (2001) Principles and Practice in ELT. Longman
Hedge, T (2001) Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. OUP
Maley, Alan (1998) Squaring the circle-reconciling materials as consraint with materials as
empowerment in Tomlinson, Brian ed. (1998) Materials Development in Language Teaching. CUP
Willis, Jane (1998) A Framework for Task-Based Learning. Longman
http://teacher.scholastic.com