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The Brukunga Pyrite Mine A Field Laboratory for Acid Rock

Drainage Studies
G F Taylor1 and R C Cox2
ABSTRACT
The Brukunga pyrite mine was operated from 1955 to 1972 to supply
feedstock for sulfuric acid production in the South Australian fertilizer
industry. Iron sulfide ore, mined by Nairne Pyrite Ltd, was finely crushed
and concentrated onsite with the concentrates being sent by road and rail
to Port Adelaide for roasting. Waste rock was dumped at two locations on
the western side of Dawesley Creek and the tailings pumped to a
valley-fill storage facility on the eastern side. Production of 1.5 Mt
concentrate resulted in 3.5 Mt tailings and 8 Mt waste rock. The site has
been administered by the South Australian Government since August
1977 and a lime treatment plant has been operated on the site since
September 1980.
Environmental issues arising from these operations included:
diversion of Dawesley Creek to accommodate the waste rock dumps;
dumping of low-grade sulfidic ore in waste rock dumps at the angle
of repose immediately adjacent to Dawesley Creek;
exposed fresh sulfide mineralisation in the quarry floor;
tailings storage facility dam wall constructed by upstream up-lift
using tailings and waste rock;
an acid water pond sited on the tailings; and
pollution of natural drainage.
As a result, the minesite rapidly became a source of acid drainage and
potential contaminants (sulfate, Al, Fe, Mn, Cd, Zn, and Ni).
Various Government bodies have been responsible for considerable
effort and expenditure in reducing the flow of acid seepage and
contaminants into Dawesley Creek. Presently an estimated 60 per cent of
seepage from the waste rock dumps, tailings storage facility and quarry is
collected and neutralised prior to discharge into the creek. Tailings have
been covered with waste rock, biosolids, neutralisation sludge and soil
and planted with grasses, shrubs and trees to reduce rainfall infiltration.
Monitoring of water flows, water quality and riparian ecosystems is
on-going. Consultants have been engaged to develop cost-effective
remediation techniques and a five-member Brukunga Mine Site
Remediation Board was appointed to oversee remediation of the site and
liaise with the community. Construction has commenced on the diversion
of Dawesley Creek, and plans are being developed for the relocation of
waste rock back to the quarry benches and upgrading of the
neutralisation plant.
The paper examines operations, environmental monitoring,
remediation, research and community involvement with respect to current
best practice.

INTRODUCTION
After the end of WWII, sources of sulfur for manufacture of
superphosphate were limited and with the prospect of limited
supplies in the future, prices were high. This, together with a
guarantee by the Commonwealth Government to pay a subsidy if
the price of sulfur fell below a certain fixed price, the savings of
foreign exchange and the opportunity to establish a local
industry, led the South Australian Government to encourage and
sponsor the formation of Nairne Pyrites Pty Ltd (Doherty, 1978).
The company was formed in August 1951 and comprised
Wallaroo Mt Lyell Fertilizers Ltd, Adelaide Chemical and
1.

CSIRO, Environmental Project Office, PMB No 2, Glen Osmond SA

5064.

2.

Regulation and Rehabilitation Branch, Mineral Resource Group,

Office of Mineral and Energy Resources, PIRSA, GPO Box 1671,
Adelaide SA 5001.

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Fertilizer Co Ltd, Cresco Fertilizer Ltd with BHP Co Ltd as

quarry and treatment plant operations (Armstrong and Betheras,
1952).
Investigation into a suitable source of pyrite was commenced
by Enterprise Exploration Co Pty Ltd and later taken over by
Nairne Pyrites Pty Ltd. A suitable source was discovered 5 km
north of Nairne, close to the existing rail and relatively close to
Port Adelaide where a sulfuric acid plant was constructed. The
mine commenced operations in 1955 and was shut-down in 1972
when the Commonwealth Government withdrew the Sulfur
Bounty because a supply of relatively low-cost sulfur became
available from Canadian sour gas wells. To support the mining
operations, the township of Brukunga was built by the South
Australian Housing Trust. Today it is essentially a residential
settlement of 220 persons.
Although the company maintained a caretaker staff at the
mine, they were unable to check the gradual deterioration of the
area and the resultant increase in contamination of Dawesley
Creek due mainly to acid rock drainage (ARD). Community
concerns led the South Australian Department of Mines to
commission Australian Mineral Development Laboratories
(AMDEL) to study and propose a solution to this contaminant
problem (Doherty, 1987). Administration of the rehabilitation of
the mine became the responsibility of the South Australian
Department of Mines. Design, construction and subsequent
maintenance of the rehabilitation works was undertaken by the
Engineering and Water Supply until 1998, when responsibility
reverted to the Department of Mines (now Office of Minerals and
Energy Resources, Primary Industries and Resources SA).

THE BRUKUNGA MINE

The Brukunga minesite occurs 50 km east of Adelaide in an area
of rolling hills of the eastern Mount Lofty Ranges. Host rocks are
the Talisker Calc-siltstone of the Cambrian Lower Kanmantoo
Group, consisting of a metamorphosed phyllite with calc-phyllite
interbeds (Gravestock and Gatehouse, 1995). Sulfide-rich bands
are common in the lower part of the formation particularly in the
Nairne Pyrite Member, which hosts several small-scale
base-metal deposits.
Iron-sulfide mineralisation occurred as three steeply-E-dipping
conformable lenses separated by waste beds. Each of the 15 30 m thick ore zones consisted of iron sulfide-bearing muscovite
schists and gneisses with minor lenses of calcsilicate and quartz
plagioclase metasediments. The waste zones consisted of quartz
plagioclase granofels and minor calcsilicate granofels, muscovite
schists and gneisses. The lenses outcropped as ferruginous
gossans with weathering to a depth of 18 m (La Ganza, 1959).
Mineralization was pyrite and pyrrhotite with minor sphalerite,
chalcopyrite, galena and arsenopyrite, sources of arsenic,
cadmium, copper, zinc, antimony, lead, nickel, tin, barium,
cobalt, manganese and sulfate (Burtt and Gum, 2000a and b).
Mining was undertaken by quarrying into the eastern flank of a
hillside which forms the western side of a valley traversed by
Dawesley Creek, a tributary of the Bremer River, Today, the
quarry is approximately 1800 m long (N-S) and 150 m wide and
consist of an exposed foot-wall and main bench with two deep
slots excavated to access deeper ore (Figure 1). Waste rock was
placed in two large dumps on the western side of Dawesley

Cairns, QLD, 12 - 18 July 2003

93

G F TAYLOR and R C COX

Creek and a much smaller dump on the eastern side (Figure 1).
Material containing more than five per cent sulfide was regarded
as ore and processed on site. The concentrates were transported
by road to Nairne and thence by rail to Port Adelaide where they
were converted to sulfuric acid and then superphosphate for SAs
agriculture industry. Tailings were deposited in a valley-fill

storage facility on the eastern side of Dawesley Creek (Figure 1).

The surrounding countryside has been largely cleared of native
vegetation and supports grazing, dairying and other pastoral
industries. The climate is essentially Mediterranean with cool
wet winters (600 mm annual rainfall) and warm-hot dry summers
(pan evaporation 1100 to 1400 mm/annum).

FIG 1 - Brukunga Mine Site layout and Sampling locations.

94

Cairns, QLD, 12 - 18 July 2003

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Tailings storage facility

As mining operations progressed there was insufficient space

between the mine and Dawesley Creek to dispose of the waste
rock. Consequently two westerly intrusions of the creek were
buried and the creek diverted to accommodate the Southern
Waste Dump. The buried channel is both a source of water
flowing into the waste rock and a conduit for acid seepage
seeping back to the existing channel.

Waste rock dumps

There is approximately 8 Mt waste rock deposited in two main
dumps (Figure 1) with the Southern Dump being the largest. A
small Eastern Dump is reported to contain little acid-generating
material whereas the two major dumps average two per cent
sulfide as pyrite (Blesing et al, 1974). Rainfall infiltration has not
been measured directly, but seepage data (EGi, 1995) suggest an
outflow of 38 Ml/annum or in excess of 50 per cent of incident
rainfall, despite some surface compaction by vehicular traffic.
Some of this seepage is undoubtedly due to the former sections
of Dawesley Creek buried under the southern dump.
Monitoring of temperature profiles and pore gas oxygen
concentrations (Bennett, 1994) suggested a sulfate generation
rate of 400 tonnes per annum whereas measurement of seepage
rate and sulfate concentrations indicates a sulfate generation rate
of 1000 tonnes per annum. Part of the seepage is collected in
sumps located at the toe of the dumps, but some of it finds its
way around and into Dawesley Creek. Waste rock from the mine
has been used elsewhere on site, notably in construction of the
tailings dam wall and to fill surplus neutralisation sludge dams at
the back of the tailings storage facility. EGi, 1995 estimated that
65 per cent of ARD on site is generated by the waste rock
dumps.

Exposed quarry bench

The remainder of the three iron sulfide lodes are exposed on the
quarry bench and the two deeper slots. This is subject to aerial
oxidation, rainfall, seepage from the 70 - 85 m high western
highwall of the quarry and flow through Days Creek which all
increase the volume of contaminated water and have resulted in
some minor ponding on site. The exposed walls have oxidised
and are covered by dark red-brown iron oxides, whilst the ponds
are surrounded by a number of evaporative mineral precipitates.
The rocks of the walls and benches have low permeability and
the estimated 15 per cent contribution to total sulfate generation
is more likely to be from sheet wash and drainage to Dawesley
Creek via Days Creek and ephemeral channels.

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Annual Rainfall and Seepage for Brukunga

120000
100000

seepage
rainfall

80000

1000
900
800
700
600

60000

500
400

40000
20000

300

rainfall (mm/yr)

Diversion of Dawesley Creek

Approximately 3.5 Mt tailings averaging 1.8 per cent sulfide,

mainly as pyrrhotite, are held in a valley-fill storage facility on
the eastern side of Dawesley Creek. This TSF abuts the southern
end of the Brukunga township.
The starter dam wall was built from soil and rock directly onto
the natural valley floor. It was subsequently raised 12 levels
using the up-stream beached-sand method and by 1967 a height
of 35 m has been reached. The downstream slope of the dam wall
was armoured using waste rock, some of which was potentially
acid generating.
Initial toe seepage from the TSF was estimated at between
80 ML/a and 100 ML/a (AMDEL Report No 1015) and this was
reduced by treatment and removal of the acid-lake to 40 ML/a by
1991. Closure of precipitate drying dams in 1998 and 2000 and
the establishment of vegetation has further reduced seepage to 34
ML/a in 2001 (Figure 2). The TSF accounts for approximately
25 per cent of total sulfide generation with seepage due to
rainfall infiltration, valley flow and discharge from a spring
buried beneath the tailings.

200
100

19
7
19 5
8
19 8
8
19 9
9
19 0
9
19 1
9
19 2
9
19 3
9
19 4
9
19 5
9
19 6
9
19 7
9
19 8
9
20 9
0
20 0
0
20 1
02

During mine operation, the company was forced to provide

alternative water supplies to landholders adjacent to Dawesley
Creek when acid drainage contaminated their water supply.
During 1972, complaints were received concerning dead fish in
Lake Alexandrina, the discharge point of the Bremer River, and
concern was expressed over the long-term effect on the important
Angas-Bremer Irrigation areas (Smith and Hancock, 1992).
Although this catchment hosts a numbers of old mines
(Kanmantoo, Bremer, Kitticoola, Aclare, Wheal Ellen and
Strathalbyn; Both 1990) and the outcropping 100 km long Nairne
Pyrite Member, environmental attention is focussed on the
Brukunga Mine.
There are a number of factors which have resulted in the
Brukunga minesite being classified together with Rum Jungle,
Mt Lyell, Captains Flat and Mt Morgan as major sources of ARD
in Australia. Each of these factors is discussed below.

seepage (kilolitres)

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

FIG 2 - Annual seepage from toe of the tailings storage facility

together with annual rainfall at Brukunga.

Ponding on tailings surface

Following closure of the mine, the TSF became a major source
of acid seepage into Dawesley Creek. To prevent this, the
seepage was collected at the toe and pumped to a
storage/evaporation pond at the back of the TSF. This resulted in
recycling and concentrating of the seepage liquor.
After studies by AMDEL into the best way to treat the acid
conditions a lime neutralisation plant was commissioned in 1980
to eliminate the accumulated acid water and to treat seepage
collected from the TSF and the mine site. The plant produces a
neutralisation sludge consisting of gypsum with hydroxides of
heavy metals. After thickening the sludge is pumped to holding
ponds at the back of the TSF where excess water either seeps
into the tailings or evaporates.

Soil and water contamination

There were no baseline studies of surface or groundwaters or
downstream soils prior to mining at Brukunga. Contributions to
soil and water contamination from other potential sources eg the
upstream Bird-in-Hand gold mine (1881intermittent to 1937) and
a considerable strike length of the mineralised Nairne Pyrite

Cairns, QLD, 12 - 18 July 2003

95

G F TAYLOR and R C COX

Member were unknown prior to mining. Current monitoring

program results (Table 1) record the mine site contribution to the
contamination of the waters of Dawesley Creek. Comparison
with waters in the Creek upstream of the mine (Dawesley u/s
Peggy Buxton; Table 1) record a marked decrease in pH and
significant increases in acidity, sulfate and trace elements levels.
Although not included in Table 1, cadmium concentrations
immediately below the mine ranged from 0.0004 mg/L in August
winter dilution 1997 to 0.2 mg/L in February 1998 summer low
flow. Average winter and summer values exceed the
recommended ANZECC Water Quality Guidelines for livestock
watering by two and ten times respectively. Concerns raised by a
local landholder alleging possible impact of cadmium on 1993
calving rates led to PIRSA commissioning a detailed
retrospective desktop study (McLaughlin and White, 1999).
In 1992 a resident of Brukunga raised concern for the presence
of white crystalline precipitates beneath a house in the township,
which resulted in studies by SA Housing Trust and SA Health
Commission determining the salts to be mixtures of magnesium,
iron and aluminium sulfates. An health risk assessment
concluded that elevated levels of some elements did not cause a
measurable health risk but contact with the salts should be
minimised by remedial actions such as covering with mulch,
lawn, or paving.

Cover materials
Both neutralisation sludge from the plant and biosolids from
waste water treatment plants are used as part of the on-going
rehabilitation of the minesite. Both contain elevated levels of a
variety of heavy metals and concern was raised that they may act
as additional sources of contamination of water in Dawesley
Creek. PIRSA engaged Australian Water Technologies to
undertake an investigation of the use of biosolids and
neutralisation sludge to determine the potential for heavy metals
and nutrients to move off-site.

Noise, dust, odours

The waste lime used in the neutralisation plant sometimes
releases a faint acetylene smell when the pulp is freshly agitated.
The odour is perceivable only when standing in close proximity
to the lime tank.
Wet sludge from residential septic tanks is used on the TSF.
The sludge arrives in 8000 L tankers on an average of 35 loads
per month. To eliminate any odour, noise or dust problems, or
traffic disturbance to Brukunga residents, cartage occurs on
weekdays only and enters the site prior to the township. The
sludge is spread thinly amongst trees and rapid drying of the
sludge reduces any odour. Biosolids from SA Water
Corporations waste water treatment plants have been mixed with
imported soils for rehabilitation. Deposition and spreading is
conducted only when climatic conditions are favourable.
Noise generated by vehicular traffic is restricted to daylight
hours only. The neutralisation plant which operates on a 24-hour
basis in winter is powered by electric motors which minimises
noise levels. The occasional use of diesel motors is conducted
during daylight hours and is short-term in duration.
In April 2000 an asphalt seal was applied to the compound
yard to reduce dust derived from vehicle movements. At the
same time, Watts Road leading to the compound, was sealed to
the entrance gates. Much of the delivery traffic is routed onto the
site through a gate below the TSF and out of sight of the
township Vegetation of the TSF and other parts of the site has
minimised dust derived from formerly disturbed or bare surfaces.

Municipal impact
Not all contamination of Dawesley Creek is attributable to the
Brukunga Mine. The headwaters of Dawesley Creek are adjacent
to the township of Woodside with discharge from its Septic
Treatment Ponds being released to the catchment. An antiquated
common septic system, built at Brukunga in 1956, enabled
effluent to overflow into Dawesley Creek leading to odour and
turbidity and surface frothing. From 2000 the town sewage was

TABLE 1
Representative water quality from mine sources (range of values shown).
Parameter
(mg/L) except pH

Mine cuts

Tailings

Dawesleys u/s
Peggy Buxton

Dawesley d/s
(KAN 2)

Waste dump
R/O and Seep

2.5
3.0

2.3

7.5

3.0
4.5

2.5
3.0

4000
8000

7000

200
1000

4000
6000

SO4

5000
10 000

8000

80
100

1000
2000

6000
9000

Fe

1000
2500

4000

1.5

10
30

200
600

Al

400
800

50

<1

25
200

700
1000

Cl

300
1500

250

400

500

100
200

Ca

200
500

450

50
60

100
300

200
300

Mg

200
500

300

40
60

50
100

200
300

Na

200
1200

200

450

300

100
400

Mn

20
40

150

0.1

5
20

30
50

Zn

30
50

15

0.005

15

20
50

pH
Acidity

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pumped to the Mt Barker STP, thus reducing local odour and

contamination of Dawesley Creek. The creek is also subject to
the impacts of any waterway through agricultural land
increased nutrient levels from fertilisers and animal wastes and
suspended solids.

Summary
An annual Environment Protection Authority site licence
established the accepted monitoring requirements in 1996 and
requires regular water monitoring and reporting, and the
development and revision of an Environmental Improvement
Program for remediation work conducted on the site. These are
discussed separately below.

MONITORING
Monitoring of various parameters falls into two categories:
ongoing and short-term/information gathering. The objectives of
an on-going water monitoring program, contained in Condition
100-1 of the EPA Site Licence No 10577, are:
1.

Determine the annual and seasonal lodes of heavy metals

entering Dawesley Creek from the site by measuring the
stream flow and the concentration upstream and
downstream of the site.

2.

Determine the extent of impact of the site (the zone of

impact) on Dawesley Creek and the Bremer River by
undertaking a biological (macroinvertebrate) monitoring
program every three months.

3.

Determine the temporal and spatial variations of pH and

heavy metal concentrations within the zone of impact by
undertaking a monthly sampling program at a selection of
fixed sites within the zone for the purpose of assessing
compliance with the water quality guidelines for the
protection of aquatic ecosystems as given in the Australian
Water Quality Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Waters,
1992.

Impact of acid drainage from the Brukunga Mine on the

ecosystem of Dawesley Creek is assessed by quarterly
macroinverterbrate monitoring using a standard sweep net
(250 mm mesh) using the standard method for edge habitat. The
results are presented as species richness, which is a measure of the
diversity of the macroinverterbrate community. A large number of
species indicates lower stress on the environment. Figure 6 shows
the mean and standard deviation species richness for six sites for
the period 1996 - 2001. Figure 7 shows the temporal variation in
species richness at three of the sites. Figure 6 clearly shows the
impact on ARD on Dawesley Creek downstream of the mine. The
average value at Peggy Buxton Road is less than that in Nairne
Creek due to eutrophication by run-off from grazing land and
discharge from a wastewater treatment plant in the headwaters of
Dawesley Creek. Temporal variations (Figure 7) indicate
improving conditions with a gradual increase in species richness
since 1996 at each of the three sites, with an increase throughout
the year downstream of the mine
Water in the collection ponds below the tailings dam wall,
together with the seepage water from the TSF is monitored on a
quarterly basis.

Depth to water table

Early concerns about the stability of the tailings dam wall led to
the establishment of seven monitoring boreholes in the
22-hectare surface of the TSF. The depth to water is monitored
monthly and the data graphed to show temporal variations. Over
the long term, the depth to water has increased indicating a
continual drying of the tailings, demonstrating the success of the
rehabilitation strategy. The bores located along the front edge
and in the middle of the TSF show no significant seasonal
variation whereas those located at the shallow upper end of the
valley show a rise in winter and a fall in summer.
In 1996, an electrical and electromagnetic survey of the TSF
was conducted (Buselli and Hnang, 1996) which indicated
sources of fresh water at the SE corner of the TSF and another on
the northern edge. The latter coincides with a presumed
freshwater spring.

Water quality

Ecology

Data collected from the monitoring program are collated in an

annual report by PIRSA for the EPA. Some data from the 2001
program are reproduced below to illustrate load, temporal and
spatial variations, and impact as measured by species richness.
Figure 3 shows that there are significant quantities of sulfate,
aluminium, cadmium, manganese, iron, nickel and zinc from the
mine site in Dawesley Creek. The loads vary from year to year
but do not correspond directly with the water flow.
Water samples are taken monthly at eight locations one
upstream of Brukunga and one in Nairne Creek as controls and
six others located in Dawesley Creek or influenced by its flow
down to the Bremer River. Samples are analysed for pH, TDS,
conductivity, Cu, Fe, Pb, Mn, Al, Ni, Cd, Zn, Cr and sulfate.
Figure 4 shows improvements in pH, sulfate and cadmium levels
downstream from the mine (Site 2) for 2002 compared with the
averages for the previous four years 1998-2001. During the hot
and dry summer months, pH is at its lowest (3 - 3.5) and the
contaminant levels at their greatest. In the latter half of the year
dilution from winter rains results in increased pH (4 - 4.5) and
contaminant levels drop to values, which approximate to the
ANZECC guideline for livestock. Figure 5 shows monitoring
data for the same three properties at Site 12, which is in Mt
Barker Creek below the confluence of Dawesley/Mt Barker
Creeks. These show a dramatic improvement in pH (7.5 - 8) with
little variation throughout the year (except for September 2001)
when there was very heavy rainfall. Sulfate values are
significantly lower than immediately below the mine and are
consistent throughout the year. Cadmium values are an order of
magnitude lower but are highly variable throughout the year.

In addition to the species richness monitoring there has been

monitoring of algal activity, benthic diatoms, freshwater shrimp,
aquatic fungi and microbial communities by ANSTO, Flinders
University and University of Adelaide (Markich and Wojcik,
1999; Markich, 2000). The results are in agreement with the
macroinverterbrate monitoring. Much of the data generated by
this three-year monitoring has been utilised by the ANSTO code
AQUARISK (Twining et al, 2000) to quantify the ecological risk
to aquatic species in Dawesley Creek. There was good agreement
between the impact quantified using the code and field
observations.

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Groundwater hydrology
The groundwater hydrology of the quarry, areas to the west and
waste rock dumps has been assessed on several occasions (AGC,
1989; EGi, 1995). Hydrology is controlled by the structural
geology of the area, which consists of competent quartzites and
metasiltstones dipping to the east at 60. There is some fracturing
and jointing at a different orientation. EGi (1995) concluded that:

the permeability and transmissivity of the sequence is low;

groundwater movement is probably controlled by vertical
fractures;

bedding planes may also have an influence;

storage coefficients are probably low; and
the fracture system is heterogeneous and is difficult to map.
This suggests that there is little seepage of contaminated
groundwater into Dawesley Creek.

Cairns, QLD, 12 - 18 July 2003

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G F TAYLOR and R C COX

FIG 3 - Calculated annual load of contaminants in Dawesley Creek. Note: chromium, copper and lead were not graphed because a high
number of samples are recorded as being below the detection limit of the analysis technique. Using this data can result in high calculated
loads that are not real.

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7.0
6.0
5.0

M ax i mum
Lower l i mi t A NZE CC gui del i ne f or i r r i gat i on pH 4. 5

pH

4.0

A v er age

3.0
2.0

M i ni mum

Wi nt e r
Summe r

1.0
0.0
Jan

Concentration (mg/litre)

10,000
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Nov

Dec

Summe r
Maxi mum

Aver age

Mi ni mum
Wi nt e r

1992 ANZECC r ecommended gui dl i ne f or l i vestock 1,000 mg/ l i tr e

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Concentration (mg/litre)

0.25

0.20

Summer

Maximum

0.15
Average

0.10
Winter

0.05

0.00

Minimum

1992 ANZECC recommended guidline for livestock 0.01 mg/litre

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

FIG 4 - 2002 results against four year average Dawesley Creek as it leaves the Brukunga Mine site (a) pH, (b) sulfate and (c) cadmium.

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G F TAYLOR and R C COX

12.0
10.0

pH

Upper l i mi t A NZE CC gui del i ne f or i r r i gat i on pH 9. 0

Summe r

8.0

M axi mum

Wi nt e r
A v er age

6.0

M i ni mum

Lower l i mi t A NZE CC gui del i ne f or i r r i gat i on pH 4. 5

4.0

Concentration (mg/litre)

Jan
10,000
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Sep

Oct

Nov

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Summe r
Maxi mum

Aver age

Mi ni mum
Wi nt e r

1992 ANZECC r ecommended gui dl i ne f or l i vestock 1,000 mg/ l i tr e

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Dec

Concentration (mg/litre)

0.25

0.20

Summer

Maximum

0.15
Average

0.10
Winter

0.05

0.00

Minimum

1992 ANZECC recommended guidline for livestock 0.01 mg/litre

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Dec

FIG 5 - 2002 results against four year average Mt Barker water downstream of the Brukunga Mine site (a) pH, (b) sulfate and (c) cadmium.

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FIG 6 - Dawsley Creek system-mean and standard deviation species richness six sites: 1996 - 2001.

Soils and stream sediments

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

A program of soil and stream sediment sampling was undertaken

along the Dawesley-Bremer catchment to determine the extent
and magnitude of potential heavy metal contamination (Burtt and
Gum, 2000a and b, 2001). The study was undertaken to answer
concern raised by various persons fearing an accumulating slug
of metals downstream of the mine. Arsenic, cadmium, copper
and zinc were found to be consistently elevated above ANZECC
(1992) guidelines and required further study whereas antimony,
lead, nickel and tin were occasionally elevated. The majority at
the contamination is confined to the top 20 cm of the soil profile.
At the junction of Mt Barker Creek and the Bremer River,
contamination was found to a depth of 1 m. At this site, mixing
of acid water with alkaline water of Mt Barker Creek precipitates
the heavy metals. Downstream of this site, heavy metal
concentrations in soils quickly drop to background values.
Precipitated heavy metals are deposited in stream sediments and
point bar deposits, which are reworked during flood events
resulting in sporadic deposition further downstream. The initial
study identified elevated Cd in soil at Langhorne Creek, which
was followed by more detailed sampling of soil and vegetation.
Soil metal values were found to be below detection or at
background levels, except for some sites in close proximity to the
Bremer River.
Another small soil sampling program was conducted in
response to an alarmed local resident on an area located behind
residences in Brukunga and adjacent to Dawesley Creek (Burtt
and Gum, 2001). The area contains varying amounts of
introduced fill, which has been spread and covered with
introduced topsoil and vegetated. Apart from three slightly
elevated arsenic values, no concerns were identified.

Oxidation rates
The oxidation rates within the waste rock dumps and TSF were
determined by ANSTO (Bennett, 1994) using temperature and
pore gas oxygen concentration profiles. The results show that the
waste rock dumps are well aerated and oxidation is occurring
throughout the dumps. The calculated sulfate generation rate is
400 tonnes per annum for each dump and that this will occur for
at least another 300 years. Oxygen measurements in the tailings
indicate that oxidation is occurring in the top 3 m and the
oxidation rate is limited by the oxygen supply rate.

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Since closure of the mine in 1972, there have been many

measures to reduce ARD and improve the quality of water in
Dawesley Creek and stabilise and rehabilitate the 123 ha of
disturbed land. During the 1970s AMDEL conducted extensive
research for the SA Department of Mines on seepage
remediation which led to the installation of a water treatment
plant, seepage collection sumps and pump back system, covering
and revegetating the tailings and dam wall, minor works on the
waste dumps, installation of a dewatering well in the highwall,
spreading of sewage sludge and neutralisation sludge and
infilling of sludge dams.

Water collection
Acid seepage was originally collected at the toe of the TSF and
returned to a 15 ha acid lake at the top of the tailings dam, for
evaporation. The lake added to the seepage from the foot of the
dam wall and increased contaminant load. Seepage from the
mine site is collected at the base of the rock dumps, in eight
sumps along the west bank of Dawesley Creek and surface
run-off from the quarry is collected and pumped to the retention
dams. Calculations show that approximately 60 per cent of the
seepage from the minesite is collected for treatment in the
neutralisation plant, the remainder enters Dawesley Creek. To
improve interception of acid seepage, the sumps were deepened
in 2001 and probes reset to keep collection points nearer to dry.
The tweaking of seepage collection wells is ongoing and is
thought to be the main factor in the decreasing contamination
levels monitored in water leaving the mine site.

Neutralisation plant
A neutralisation plant was commissioned in September 1980 to
treat the acid seepage and to eliminate the 15 ha acid lake located
on the tailings. The design capacity of the plant is 20 kL/hour but
during periods of high flow it is operated at 30 kL/hour with a
consequent reduction in efficiency of the thickener tank. This
means that more water is pumped to the sludge holding ponds,
and more unsettled particles go the clarifying pond. Lime sludge
is obtained as a waste product from the production of industrial
acetylene gas. Lime is added at a rate to achieve a pH = 9 in the
thickener to ensure precipitation of the majority of dissolved
metals, particularly cadmium and manganese.

Cairns, QLD, 12 - 18 July 2003

101

G F TAYLOR and R C COX

FIG 7 - Species richness and pH.

102

Cairns, QLD, 12 - 18 July 2003

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THE BRUKUNGA PYRITE MINE A FIELD LABORATORY FOR ACID ROCK DRAINAGE STUDIES

Sludge from the plant is pumped to evaporation ponds at the

back (east) end of the TSF. The dried sludge (mainly gypsum
with some iron oxyhydroxides) is then used as cover material
throughout the site. The number of evaporation ponds has been
decreased over the past four years by backfilling with waste rock
from the Northern rock dump. This has led to a reduction in the
quantity of acid seepage at the toe of the tailings dam wall.
Treated water is clarified in two ponds and released into
Dawesley Creek at a near neutral pH.

Rehabilitation of the TSF

Rehabilitation of the TSF commenced with trial plantings by
AMDEL in 1976. Waste rock and gravel and untreated sewage
sludge were applied directly to the tailings. This was sown with
grasses and 18 different species of native trees and shrubs and
treated with lime and fertiliser, but not watered. Subsequently,
the TSF has been completely covered with waste rock, soil,
neutralisation sludge and biosolids, and planted with grasses and
a variety of native shrubs and trees. This has been done
progressively, involving local school children in the planting of
tube stock in June and July. The tube stock is watered for three
years and applications of septic sludge provides nutrients and the
microbes for soil development. Revegetation has been very
successful with trees now well established and some regenerating
from seed.
The rehabilitation of the dam wall commenced in 1993 with
progressive dozing in 1994 and 1995 to reshape and contour the
wall followed by covering with soil and biosolids. Success of the
TSF rehabilitation is measured by a reduction in seepage from
the toe of the dam wall and by an increase in depth-to-water in
the tailings, which is attributed to the establishment of an
evapotranspiration cover. Other factors such as the formation of a
network of hardpans 1200 mm below the tailings surface,
reduced lateral flow into the tailings, a reduction in the number
of sludge ponds on the surface and potentially a reduced flow
from the spring have contributed.

Rehabilitation of waste rock dumps

No effective rehabilitation of the two main rock dumps has
occurred mainly because of the ruggedness and steepness of the
sides. Some upper surface compaction has occurred due to
vehicular traffic. Vegetation of the dumps was trialled in the
1970s by seeding with pinus radiata from a helicopter. Apart
from scattered pines (which can tolerate low pH environments)
the trial was unsuccessful and these two dumps remain
essentially bare. Small quantities of sewage sludge deposited
over the side, mainly as a convenient location for the disposal of
wet sewage sludge in winter, have resulted in grassing of small
areas. It is difficult to assess the effects as the area covered is
very small compared with the extent of the heaps.
The much smaller Eastern Dump (Figure 1) has been
completely covered with neutralisation sludge, soil and biosolids,
self seeded with grasses and planted out with tube stock.
Although this revegetation has been successful, there is no
monitoring to assess infiltration rates, oxidation rates and
seepage characteristics.

Rehabilitation of quarry faces

Present efforts are directed at rehabilitation of small areas of the
quarry site. As all surplus sludge ponds on the TSF have been
backfilled, the neutralisation sludge is now deposited on the
quarry bench at the southern end. The sludge has been heaped to
form regular shaped bunds, which are topped with soil, mulch,
pea-straw, biosolids and horse manure. The first tube-stock was
planted in June 1999 to retain precipitation, reduce surface

6th ICARD

erosion and to improve the aesthetics of the site. The trees have
established well in the gypsum sludge and will form a partial
screen for the exposed high foot wall of the quarry.
In May 2001, the old metallurgical plant site was spread with
imported soils, horse manure and sown to pasture grasses. In
June 2001, Urrbrae High School students planted out the area
with tube stock. Results to date have been encouraging.
An area on the east side of Dawesley Creek affected by
seepage from the retention pond was rehabilitated by installation
of a French drain and planting with eucalyptus tube-stock. A
recent application of pea-straw resulted in surrounding grass
cover and provided a boost in growth of the trees, which had
been stagnant for several years.

RESEARCH
The Brukunga minesite has been the focus of a variety of
research by post-graduate students from local universities and
ANSTO, CSIRO, AWT, and AWQC. Four major studies were
undertaken to assess the environmental impacts of the mine and
rehabilitation measures (McLaughlin and White, 1999; Schultze,
2000; Australian Water Technologies, 2000, Burtt and Gum,
2000a and b, 2001) each of which is referred to above. The study
by McLaughlin and White (1999) was in response to alleged
infertility in livestock on pasture downstream to the mine.
Because of concerns raised by some local residents for the use
of biosolids and neutralisation sludge around the site, Australian
Water Technologies were commissioned by PIRSA to examine
their impact on the environment. In particular, they were
requested to examine their erodibility, solubility and potential as
a source of heavy metals. AWT (2000) found that there is
minimal risk of any heavy metals contained in the sediments
used in rehabilitation contaminating water in Dawesley Creek.
Over time the water holding capacity of biosolids may decrease
as organic matter decomposes, which may lead to greater
erodibility.
Other research has been related to post-graduate studies or as a
contribution to larger studies such as oxidation rates in sulfidic
minewastes (Bennett, 1994) or the development of an ecological
risk assessment protocol for aquatic ecosystems (Twining, 1999,
2000). In addition to the work of ANSTO and CSIRO, there have
been numerous studies of the impact of contamination including
cadmium and zinc in soils (Nardecchia, 1997), aquatic fungi
(Wojcik, 1999; Edwards, 2000) algal esterase (Regal et al, 1999),
benthic diatoms (Sincock, 2000) and freshwater shrimp
(OBrien, 1999). Studies directed at the remediation of ARD and
minesite rehabilitation include the role of sewage sludge in
reducing ARD (Girdham, 1994), use of sulfate-reducing bacteria
to remediate ARD (Elliott, 1995), the use of a rotating biological
contactor to remediate ARD (Wilde, 1995) and the development
of hardpans/cement in mitigating ARD (Agnew, 1994, 1998).
One student (Haibo, 1994) examined the environmental
management practices at Brukunga and concluded that at the
time, they were unsatisfactory.
PIRSA is presently sponsoring three research projects: the
development of a porous reactive wall to remove contaminates
from acid water (Masters, Uni SA), ecotoxicology of the mine
site (PhD, Adelaide Uni) and the application of hyperspectral
remote sensing to AMD monitoring (PhD CSIRO).

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM

As part of License No 10577 issued by the EPA, PIRSA is
required under condition 100-20 to submit an Environmental
Improvement Program (EIP). PIRSA has just completed a
revision of the plan (PIRSA, 2002), which is intended to cover
three-year period until 31 December 2004.

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G F TAYLOR and R C COX

Within the revised EIP are three major new initiatives to

improve the water quality in Dawesley Creek. These are:
1.

diversion of Dawesley Creek;

2.

additional lime treatment capacity; and

3.

relocation of waste rock.

The program is budgeted to cost $26 M over a ten-year period.

Diversion of Dawesley Creek

To achieve significant short-term improvement in water quality
for downstream water users it was recommended that flow in
Dawesley Creek be diverted past the mine site by construction of
large diameter pipe and open channel conduit. The diversion, at a
budget cost of $2.6 million will enable the mine site, ie the
source of pollution, to be essentially isolated from the creek flow.
The diversion conduit will carry normal creek flow,
particularly summer flow, which becomes highly concentrated
due to the low rainfall and high evaporation rates experienced
through summer. A proportion of the acid pools that form along
the original creek bed will be collected and pumped to the
retention ponds for lime treatment.
During winter significant dilution occurs due to the increase in
run-off from winter rains, which can reduce contamination levels
to those acceptable for livestock use. Completion of the diversion
project by winter 2003 and continued operation of the existing
seepage interception pump-network are expected to result in a
significant improvement in water quality in Dawesley Creek.

Additional lime treatment capacity

The Second Stage major initiative is to tender for design and
construction of a second lime treatment plant at a budget cost of
$2.5 million. This will effectively double the peak treatment
capacity from 30 KL/h to 60 KL/h, enabling the additional
winter pollution captured from the mine site to be treated and to
meet high demand at other times of peak flow.
The second plant is to be designed and installed over a
three-year period from 2003 to 2005. It is planned to locate the
plant adjoining to the existing plant for logistic reasons
associated with sludge handling and to consolidate plant
supervision. Operation of a second plant will significantly
increase operating costs for the site from $650 000 to around
$800 000 and hence this is seen mainly as a holding situation for
implementation of the third stage initiative.
Before a commitment is made to proceed with the construction
of the second plant a review of monitoring results for Dawesley
Creek will be undertaken. Favourable monitoring results
observed in winter 2001 indicate that small tweaking of the
pump collection system has reduced pollution levels. Additional
improvements achieved by the operation of the creek diversion
may be sufficient to reduce pollution to satisfactory holding
levels for downstream water users.

Relocation will create separation between dump and creek-line

enabling more effective seepage collection to be implemented.
The import of limestone marl is to provide in situ alkaline
conditions to neutralise continuing acid reactions. The
compaction of the dump will enable the surface to be shaped at
1:3 slopes and dressed with quarry rubble for planting out with
vegetation. A trial dump should be constructed to determine the
effectiveness of this solution prior to full commitment.
On completion of rock relocation the amount of seepage will
be reduced to a manageable amount with the majority of acid
collection occurring from the sand-tailings dam. Water
neutralisation will be wound back and the planting of vegetation
and maintenance of property will become the dominant
preoccupation for care of the 123 ha site.

Community consultation
The township of Brukunga is surrounded on three sides by the
123 ha minesite. Its present population is 220, most of who
commute to other centres of population for employment.
Agriculture and rural living is the main activity within the
catchment, few rely on Dawesley Creek with water sourced from
property bores and dams and roof catchment for household use.
A technical committee, the Brukunga Taskforce was
established in July 1999 in response to heightened public
concern following a directive issued by the EPA requiring
signposting, issue of notices to landowners and the publication of
warnings regarding contaminated water in Dawesley Creek. In
May 1999, the Deputy Premier and Minster for Primary
Industries, Natural Resources and Regional Development
established the Brukunga Mine Site Remediation Board
(BMSR). This Board superseded the Taskforce and is structured
to ensure strong community involvement and ownership in
decisions. Its first objective is to achieve a water quality in
Dawesley Creek that is suitable for domestic consumption, stock
and primary production purposes.

BMSR Board activities

The Board has met on a regular basis since February 2000 and
invites the public to attend meetings on a quarterly basis to
discuss and respond to items of interest. It organises letter-drops
to local resident regarding progress with initiatives. Residents
were invited to a walk-through inspection of the site of the
diversion project. This was followed by a special meeting to
discuss the preliminary alignment for the creek diversion and
hear any concerns.

BMSR Board newsletter

The Board produces a public newsletter Lets Talk and to date
has produced seven issues. The Board maintains a circulation list
of landowners, interested persons, political and scientific
organisation for the forwarding of newsletters. Copies are also
left at the local store.

Relocation of rock dumps

Informal liaison

The Third Stage major initiative is the relocation of the

eight-million tonne rock dumps, containing an estimated two per
cent sulfur, away from Dawesley Creek and the blending of
introduced limestone marl during compaction in the old quarry.
The budget cost of the project is $21 million and is planned to
occur over a period of seven years.
It will be necessary to establish that rock relocation can be
successfully performed and that the proposed technique will have
the desired affect of halting acid seepage. The proposal will
require re-evaluation before commitment is made to such a high
cost proposal.

Various technical and professional visits are made to the site

including visitors from South Africa, Japan and PR China. Site
visits have been included in major conferences in Adelaide:
Minerals Council of Australian Environmental Workshop,
Australian Geological Convention and International Dam
Conference. The site is used extensively by local universities and
some secondary schools for instructional purposes.
Project Officers from PIRSA Rural Solutions consult with
property owners downstream of Brukunga and negotiate on
behalf of PIRSA Minerals Resources Group for the installation
of fences along the creek, the aim of which is to exclude

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Cairns, QLD, 12 - 18 July 2003

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THE BRUKUNGA PYRITE MINE A FIELD LABORATORY FOR ACID ROCK DRAINAGE STUDIES

livestock. Inspection tours of the site have been conducted for

small groups of local and interested residents including two local
Landcare Groups.

Aboriginal heritage
The mine site lies within the traditional lands of the Peramangk
Aboriginal people and Brukunga is an Aboriginal word meaning
place of hidden fire. Brukunga is highlighted in Aboriginal
mythology in the story of Tjirbrukes travels and on his death his
body became the hill of iron pyrites (Harris 2002).

COSTS
The cost for operating the plant (neutralisation plant, sumps, sump
pumps) and maintaining the 123 ha Brukunga site for 2001 - 2002
was $650 000. This included salaries of two site personnel and
engineering support ($150 000), EPA licence ($12 900), water
monitoring program ($67 300), power consumption ($25 200),
waste lime and flocculant ($77 800), neutralisation sludge
relocation ($85 700) and overall maintenance ($205 300).

CONCLUSIONS
The Brukunga Pyrite Mine operated when little was understood
about the environmental impacts of AMD. Consequently, mine
planning, operations and decommissioning resulted in a number
of environmental issues which contributed to acid generation and
contamination of Dawesley Creek. Over a period of nearly three
decades, State Government departments have undertaken a
variety of measures to reduce the impact of AMD on Dawesley
Creek, with apparent positive outcomes. Recently, with the
assistance of the community, more effective measures have been
developed and a diversion channel is under construction.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Primary Industries and Resources SA provided much of the
information for this paper and gave permission for its
publication. Peter Grindley has continued to collect and maintain
data about the mine, wastes and Dawesley Creek. His knowledge
has been invaluable to those responsible for the management of
the site and the many visitors to it.

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