226

IIYDRI\lJlIC ASl> COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TUIWOM,I,CIll:-:ES

Also
.,

tan:x,
-

CHAPTER

= ------ - tan 37.87'

0.5115

SIX
AXIAL FLOW STEAM AND GAS TURBINES

New stage loading

tjI

= 0,9 x 0.5115 (tan 59.86'," tan 37.87')

= 0.435

New reaction
) R = 0.5115 (tan,)"9 .86

+. tan.37 .0"7')'

=0.64

INTRODUCTION
section, steam and gas turbines will be considered together, with the
~!l1lI1lrltil.1i1l

that the same theory applies to both types of machines, This

llulIlilalily is valid providing the steam is in the superheated state and

Id'orc behaves approximately as a perfeCll::!<ls. Care should be taken. when

Ctllldition oftne steam falls below the saluration line on the Mol1icr chart
'llw thellry and equations developed in later sections arc not applied in
I (a~(', This would most likely oceur at the low-pressure end of the steam
hille
\illl lIow lurbim:s were lirst built and used successfully by Sir Charles
whclI he instalkd a reaction steam turbine in a small marine vessel for
'.HH Il', 1011. Sinn' t hell development of the steam turbine has bccn rapid and
tile power output at the prescnt time ranging from a few
III MO MW. The (kvclopmcllt of the high outputs is duc in part to
I v,-Iv easy maHer of superheating steam in a boiler and superhcater,
palldllll' it through the turbine to bdow atmospheric.: pressure in the
It'w,n III ('\11 al'l Ille Illllximlltn energy from the stearn.
Ik\',+lnplIll'lI! nllhe il\ial flow ga~ turhine was hindered by the necd to
III it It it 1111'11 (,1100/",11 llnw tal<' a lid (,.lllll'n~sion ra tin from a compressor
ill !Ill' ,til ll''!lIllnnl'ltl 101 IIII' (,olllhu:;tioll pru('css and subsequent
of tile nlt,i\l:,l
hUlI"ll\' till' all Was plnvidL~d hy (,L~ntrirllgal
il!ld lillir HlI ,r,,,11 ,1<1\\ '''tJipn':,-''"IIl':I'. di'\'C!OPId. which. in the
,in.llwlnilflll
tlli

'1',", IIH' 1'1111'1'1

\ wwd ill

dn.'l''lwd hy lhc '1IIhll":

10..11'''1\''1'1 'd ;i!lillh ;\lld

228 BYDRAUUC ASD

AXIAL FLOW STnA~I ASf) GAS TL:RlIIl'ES

CO~Il'R[S-<;mLF FLOW TURHOMM'HISES

for steam-driven propulsion in ships, although gas turbine propulsion \lllll;

arc often titted in the smaller class of naval vessel. Gas turbines an.: universally
used as the pow'cr unit for Jargejet aircraft propulsion, their advantage hl~IH,!
thal they have a high power-to-weight ratio.
The principle of energy extraction from the gus is one of v,r;lldllaIlY
reducing the high-pressure energy by converting it into kinetic energy, Thill
accomplished by passing the gas alternately through rows of fixed and
blades. The kinetic energy or the gas is reduced in the moving hlades, whidi
attm:hcd to the turhine hub. and recovered in the fixed stationary
attal~hed to the casing. This necessitates a gradual density decrease as th,'
moves through the turbine and the blade height therefore increuscs 11\\"lIlh",
the low-pressure cnd, if a constant axial flow velocity is to be m.;"I ...."'1
through the turhine. The stator row is often termed the nozzle row aud
ccrtuin types of steam turbine the nozzle row consists of a set of '-"'"VI'.Illlilli
nozzles spaced around the drum.
Figure 6.1 shows a steam turbine rotor in the bottom half of its
will be noted that the blade height increases in the direction of gas now
two important types of axial flow turbines are the reaction and impuhc
and combinations of each lype may be found in a single turbine. Blade j
arc discussed in Sec. 6.6 hut Fig. 6.2 describes how the velocity alld
vary through impulse and reaction stnges. The overall trend is it ,b'll'''',!
pressure with velocity recovery in the stator row or nozzle ring. A row
blades followed by a set of rotor bhules is considered to be a :,1;\1,(

Fixed nozzle rings

Slator casing

/,,/

Ld

y~. ~Ptll

"/1

,/,./' I

.........".."'t-I'r4:"""""!fr'::"-'f,l~':!-T}?'i

'"

229

Stalor
casing

, Oullet

Rolor

p,~,u"

(b)

(,:2 Pre~~Uf\~ and velocity through impul~c alld rcaction axial now lurhines: (Ill impulsc;

filhlinns through the stage will be examined in detail. The following

,llnptiolls will be made:

tdow conditions will be evaluated at the melln radius unless otherwise

~IHlml.

Hinde In:ight/mc:m radius is small, allowing two-dimensional now theory

In he

\lSl~\1.

velodties arc

:1''':1'0,

ur!lii!t' ';I<ll'e alld velocity triatlgks arc iIIustl'Htcd in Figs 6.3 and 6.4
I hi' mil'l (II lite statnr hindI'S is d..~siglllltcd section 0, inlet to the
ia'ilioll

lUll! Illltld Irol1l Ill\'

"\11,11I1-/01

,."'" I,", \'

I,o~,t\\

"I I "I"

'1",\
II I",

I h! I

rolor

:-a~etioll

2. This numbering system

"I the ,;irlithk:, nu' ';;lIIlC ils In Ihe 1:;lSC of the axiall10w
;\11 lIu\.\' IUll,I;'i !HI' "Wihlllt'd holll fill' ;I\Ial direction and care
IIl~,i)n wlll.n !!ildllW
Ilil ,,"cIllerilllll" IIi whlth It j~; customary
IHi'!P,!IIH 1 I , , \ \ l h ' ; \ W t lOti ..1 hlHIt. Ii1nll<lll
'iub'lnpl"

230

AXIAL !'LOW STbAM AND (J,\S Tl.JRlllNJiS

lIYDRAl:L1(' AND COMI'HFSSIllUi Fl.OW HJRIlOMAClllNFS

231

other as shown in Fig. 6A, from which the energy transfer is given by

t: = U(C xt

C.dl/o

sincc C... 2 is in the ncgative x direction, the w(lfk done per unit mass flow is

Ey = lV/ill = U(C'l + (\~)

= U(W.d + W.o.2 )

(6.1)
(6.2)

If C,II : C1I2 there will be un axial thrust in the flow direction. Hov,.'cver, we
assume that C is constant and therefore
W/m= UCII(tancx, +tan':X~J

~v

"I

.".,UC II (tan/J j +tan/J 2 1

(6.3)

(6.4)

(6.4) is often referred to as the diagram work per unit mass /low and
the diagram efficiency defined as

!t)ciatt~d with this is

Figure 6.3 Velocity triangle, '''I
;lxial now l!HS (or steaml I'll

.
Omgram

. .

CfflC1C1H:Y

S\:lge

Diagram work done per unit mass now

.. _;-_........,
........
Work available per uml mass flow

=U{W.dl WX2)/~n
(6.5)
thermodynamic conditions or the gas through the stage arc shown in
Work dOlle

II,

6.5. where the inlet conditions to the stator arc at lotal pressure POll and
llmlhalpy 11 00 , For adiabatic flow through the stator row or nozzle ring,
'hoI' bUI, owing to irrcvcrsibililics, the Iota 1 pressure drops to {Inl at
\11 olltlel (rotor inlet). Expansion 10 P02 and lotal enthalpy II n2 takes place
rotor rowand, as shown in Eq. (5.6), hOlrel ;::: ho2ro " The work done
mass flow by the gas is given by

W/m = Ir oo
HI /m
i~It!llllln!!,

fr 02

= C,,(To1 _.

= hOI - Ito:'..

(6.6)

T(2 )

(6.7)

for II'/m from Eq. (6.4),

Fillure 6.4 Superimposed vclodty 'ri,lngles

<',,('1'01- T (2 )= UC,,(tan/f l + lan/Ill

be Iloll,d that the work done factor ). is not lIsed in Eq, (6,8). This
a gas 01' steam turbine, !low through the blade passages is
lllirlllS('d to dcu:lcrating. Flow III the compressor and the cried
,UII.lIl'l'\l hIP,. grOWl It in I he fonner arc therefore negligible. For a normal
wltkh (" Co. Ihe slat it lcmpera (lin, drop across the stage equals the
IFI.ll.,'I,.III1,' drup.
Iwl"III' "Ia)',(' IlltalllHnLtl i~H'ntl'Opk: dliciency 11'1l' II is defined us
ill

The gas leaves the stator blades wilh absolu(c vl'lo\i!v ( I ill iillph
by subtracting Ihe blade velocity vector lI, the rt'!;III\'I' vcliwil\ 1'\'( lfli
to Ihe rolor WI is determined. In movinj' anil,,', Ihe 1010' hl:uti
direction is changed, and Ihe presslIl'C' reduced willII' th .. ilb"illoiJ~
decreased and the relative wllwity iIIC/I':!';"', IIII' P.W, kinT',
tangentially at angle fl.! with rclatlVl' velolitv II \'",IOll.lIh
blade speed results in lht: absllllllc I'dodt\' ('! fill'; h ilUIV tllf' Inln
the next stator row at angle rx,_ which In, H 1If1111\:1I
Hjllllh
rcspcctivl'ly. Thl~ 11\'0 vdocil V II ia 111(11'\ ill!' cPIlVnH

(6.8)

AdHal

Il u ,

II

Wilik

dnnc hy Iht' gas

I I

1>;1'11111'1'1\' WOI" 1011('

I" II

232 IIYDRi\ULI( A>':l) COMl'ltESSIIIl.E II.OW TURllOMAClIINrs

ow

,'}iI"t FI

to the work

P."

oul put. It

STh\~'l AI'D GAS" LRIllNrs

233

is defined as
(6.11 )

'11(1 ,) = (11 00 -/i o ::! )!(Jloo - 1t 2,,)

Considering the totaI-to-total elliciency of a normal stage,

JI 'tf

Ii '--"

(/roo-

h(2 )i(l'o{l

= (lr o ..- !l2)/(h o

For a normal stage Co

= C 2 and

\to =

II 02 "}
11 2 ,J

and upon rcarranging

ell'

'1 l11 "' 11 == (h o -/1 2 )/[ (h o -- "2) + (11 2 --Itl..)1 (1l2' - 11 2 ,.1]

(6.12)

Hut consider now the slope of a constant-pressure line on the MollieI' chart
(Fig. 6.S}. Since d/l "" T ds then the slope along a constant-pressure line is given
by

(?h/i's)" = 7'

(6.13)

therefore for a finite change of enthalpy /\11 at constant pressure

A/1~ T~s

Is 1,.-."""'"

,~--'"
U2ss
..

'

,,,.' (I""

02s

..

O~~:~lrl
.........

25

'2'~"""" ..-.-'

(6.14)

, .

-I

,'~...

(I;

l'illure 6.5 Mollkr dmr.

f(lI

through un axial flnw

SkHl1I "!

!'

l'xaminatiol1 of Fig. 6.5 show!'>

lurhinc shll,lt
(Sl< -

s~,,) "" (SI

slsI

IWI'dl.m: ~ubstituting into Eg, (6.14) gives

Thlls
'I;)(),.. To~ ""

'/1<1 II

Too (1

7:12,,/'l~)(})

'/;H) .... '1;\2 "'" Il llt il1~I(JI ... {P01/POO )(~" I )iiJ

(11 2, -11 2.,) ;;;;; ('1'1/'1'I)(1t 1

(6.15)

hI!' both I he stator (nozzle) <lnd hlade rows, dimensionless los!'> cocmllIay be defined in two ways. For the nozzle

6.3 STATOR (NOZZLE) AND ROTOR LOSSI(S

Before considering the 108s(;$ o(~curring in the rotor ilnd stiltll[ I cow'., II \\111
worth while distinguishing bctween two iscllt ropie dlidcncll':; ,(\IIHlIlll\l\
in axiall10w turbine work. The first has already hCI.~11 ddil1nlul hi ((I \)1
the temperature limits arc taken between lntal h:lllp'.;l;11 III I,,;, "lid
dcl1ned in this way, the eflicicncy is thl: [olat'(llIolal dll.wm \ I Ill',
used whcn the kinetic cnergy at the nulkt or (he stal',I' i'. ilillt/td f'" t!1
work. Such a case would hi' the propdlill/., lI11llk nl a IiHhl'It'I I'
inll:rlllcdiatc stagc(,f<llllllltJ'hlagt Itllhw" wlttll'lhe kil\lllP I
Ii
lIsed in Ihe following st:""" TI" .. 1IWI ,Ill, I< II' \' I'. II,, I.. tilll .. '.HI" "nil
\vhich is lIsed whell til(' 1,.;1\ 111/', I, Ilh'[1I .nl' \ \\';1'.11". IlIw 1l!'1

"\

(IJ I

'N

11,,)iO.5Cf

or

pd

YN=(Poo-POtl/(P'11

(6.16)

th" rotor
1t.',JiO,5H'~

(/'"

or

YIt=(Plllrd-P02rd)/(P02l<t-P2)

(6.17)

r or ,:; ill I.he slator and rotor represents the percentage drop of
t., hil'lll\ll ill the blades. which results in a total pressure and static

\,lIu,' III
dlH'

Ip\ d I' 'I' a.'I. ,.... 11\l' 1,,," ks, Typkallllsses arc of Ih\.: order of 10, 15 per
1;111 tn' low." I", \TI Ii Illw v;lllIt,,; of Ilow cot:flkknl.
;,ltll',!illllillV lilt III' 'd",1t- I",." ,IwIIIlWIII:, intn Eq, (6.12l, we gel
\tIll

I1,,11 1\

. , ' / 'Ik"./ji
. . . ".. J
'' /11:/

'II!

I I lilt /I"
i

II . t I:

234

HYDRAULIC ANn C:OMJ>RESS1llLli FLOW TlJRBOMACIIINES

AXiAl. FLOW Slb\:\'1 AND GAS TURlIlNUl

If the exit velocity is not utilized, then following a similar procedure for tht'
analysis, the tolal-tcHitalic cmciency becomes
rl!H-s)

=: 1 + [(R W; + CNq(T:dT1) + QJ![2(h o -112)]} -I

(6. Jill

As a starting point for a calculation, since '1'2 and 1\ are not very ditlcrenL I he
ratio (T2/'T1) is often taken as unity. Typical values of ( are given hy

( = <>.04 + 0.06(1:/100)2
angle (; is I: = ::1: 0 +
for

where the deflection

I: = {;l + fl2 for the rotor.

(Xt

Equation (6.20) applies only fl.)r a Reynolds number of 10'\ based 011 11\l'
characteristic velocity C't at the stator outlet and the characteristic hvdra1l1"
diameter dll defined as
dll

=:

~._~.I"low area at stator_~~~~~.~...

Welled perimeter at stator outlet

With reference to Fig. 6.6,

dll "'" (481 cos (Xl )/[2c~ cos Gil

rand ~nom
r
are the loss coefficients at the new aspc'ct ratio and at an
ratio of 3 respectively.
Also, in Eqs (6.21) and (6.22) I is the blade length. while a Reynolds number
IO~ is slill assumed. Should the Reynolds number not be 10-\ it further
t~lllt'I'el:~li(lt\ may be made as follows. The Reynolds number for the now is given
... 1

Re:::::(2P1sIC1cOiHt:d/[/t(sCOSC(1 + I)]
the stator (nozzle) and

+ I)]

=(2slcosxd/(scOSGi 1 + I)
The ratio of maximum blade thickness to chord ((",:lX/ C) is 0.2 and lhe hLIlli'
aspect ratio (span/chord) based on the axiul chord {I.e. c cos Cl.J is \ 1 'li
conditions other than the above, for instance if the aspect ratio is
the following empirical cq uutiollS may be used:

235

(6.23)

if'l is the loss coefficient at a Reynold:> number of lOS, then at the new
UI:VI1101<is number, the corrected loss coefficient is given by
(2 = (l05/l<e)0.25'1

(6.24)

This empirical method or loss prediction is based on the Soderb~rg

11\)rJ'c:latiorl" and is derived from the analysis of a large number of turblOC
t!hanlctl~ril;tic:s. The cl-ror over a wide range of Reynolds numbers is as low as 3
Nozzle loss coefficients obtained from a largc tIllmber of turbine lests
typically 0.09 and 0.05 for the rotor and stator rows respectively. The totalefficiency is in the region of 90 per cent, the variation with blade
l!Hldllllgund now'coefficient being plotted in Fig. 6.7, where it is seen that low VI
1/' give high stage cflicicncies.

made Loading Coefficient

work capacity of the stage is expressed in terms of a temperature drop
(If blade loading coefficient

For rotors

!l'lllki'L~nt

If = W/mU 2

f'or stators (nozz!t:s)

1+

'1 =

= (,,(1'01

- T(2 )/U 2

from Eq. (6.4) may also he written as

(I + ("0",)[0.933 + (O.02Iccos t.(,,)/II

~I

= (,,(tan {II +- tun/J 2)/U

= (tan{l, + tilnP:>J
I '"' length of blade

.1

(6.25)

cos ! l l - _..

,,

(6.26)

4' is t he flow coefficient.

Illr llllpikation of a low flow coefficient is that frictional losses arc
III 111\, sInge since e'l is low, but for a given mass t10w rate the annulus
W<aH'a Wlltlld be larg~'. Low values of VI imply a small amount of work done
. lind t he t't'fo!'c for a required overall power output, <llarge number of
i', I("tjllll'("d.
'.!'llioIliIlV mdH'.lflill power plants where the specific fuel consumption
ll\lpoll'llllC. :1 blll'.l'di'IlIll'il"l', rclativdy long turbine, of low now
".lIi,I"", <lnd Il,\\, hLIlI,.loil.llllg. gl\'lIIg a hi,dl rrllcicncy, would probably be
IIp\\'!'
IIllIHIH". H'",d III ;111'1'11111 IHIlplihioll hav..: minimum
'null nO!lI'11
jl',lil il"" luO"adn.ltH'n'. llti~ 11IC,IllS using

all.l I!

236

AXIAL I'LOW STEAM AND (.AS Tl)ItBlNlOS '237

HYDRAULIC A]\;l) COMPIHiSSlIILE I'LO\V TIJ1UlOMACHlt'ES

and substituting for (Ill

2.5

11 2 ) in Eq. (6.27),

R;=; (W; -. W~)/[2(hl)1

= (W~ 2.0 -

"

If it is assumed that the axial velocity

-.

.
~

R = (1'V;2

1.5

C~

+ C.d )]

(6.28)

is constant through the stage then

+ W.d + W'2 - Un
W\I)(I-V,2 + Wxd/[2U(I-f'.<1 + Wx2 )]
W~!}/[2U(U

=(Wx2

f:-,'if

:Co.

Wf)/[2U(C,!

hn2 )]

= C.,(tan/l! -tan/ld/2U

1.0 _

= (jl(tan/J 2 - tan lid/2

(6.29)

Equalion (6.29) can be rearranged into a second form,

0.5

H = (C"tan/J 2 )/2U [(C"tan:z 1)/2U- U/2U]

= 0.5 + C,,(tan 112'- Ian Ct.,)/2 U

o I--L-.......L-..L-..L_-LI.......L_J.---J.----..I_.Lt-L-J.---J.---l_LI-L...-...-.
0.5

1.5

1.0

(6.30)

a third form is given by subslituting for

r/> '" C.lt!

tan fi2

l'illure 6.7 made loadinll cm:fTidcnl versus flow cocllkiclll

= (U + C.'2)/C" = (tan 11. 2 -I-

[JIC,,)

Eq. (6.30), giving

higher values of flow coefficient and blade loading factor to give

compact turbine but also, as a consequence, accepting a lower

R = 0.5 + C,,(tan '1.2 1 VjC" tan (Xd/2U

= I + C,,(tan0: 2 - tan<xdj2U

;1 slllli

(Fig. 6.7).

6.4 REACnON RATIO

The reaction ratio has more meaning in the CHse of an axiall10w lurhiw
for un axial flow compressor where it is usu'llly set at 50 pOl' cenl for the
The turbine reaction ratio ean vary widely from 100 per cellt 10 II,
implications of which are described in this section.
The reaction mtio is

of Eq. (6,29) reveals that for zero reaction, 1/2::= PI and

W2 . The gas conditions through the stage, and the accompanying
VI~IIIII~illv triangles, are shown in Fig. 6.8, where the velocity triangles arc
~kj:'W/'" to the left. Ideally, for reversible adiab<ltic flow, the points I, 2 and
the MoUier chart should coincide, and in th,lt case no pressure drop
in the rotor. Now consider a pure impulse stage where, by definition,
is no pressure drop in the rotor. Figure 6.9 shows the MoUier chart
the pure impulse stage where, for reversible adiabatic now, the points L
2s will coincide, and therefore with isentropic flow conditions prevailing

R Stati,:_cnthalpx drop across rotor

Static enthalpy drop across stage
0=

02,d

= (hi - h2 )/lho - 11 2 )
= (Ill h2l/[(h oo - C6/2)- (li o) (':;/211
But for a normal stage Co ::= ('2 and since hoo ::= II,n
R = (Ill

Remembering that ho1rd

:::::

II} )/(11 0 I

jn t h~' IIlil/le, !IltH

hoJ)

. PI

~/I'
Ii

h021d then
1I

(6.31)

f,lI

23H

AXIAL FLOW STEAM AND GAS TURIlINI:S

tlYDRAUUC A!'Ll COMI'RESSlllLE !'LOW TURIIOMAOllNI,S

239

P"
II
:.

{l,

Is '" 1".,;;:::::::-

.--~-r

Ji
i

Is

.J.-"
2~s
2s

2s

Figure 6.9 Pure impulse stagc

the zero reaclion stage is exactly the same as an impulse stage. However,
when the flow is irreversible, the zero reaction and impulse stages arc IIU!
the same undin fact an increase in enthalpy occurs in the rotor of the impubl'
stage. the implication being that the reaction is negative. For a negallv!'
reaction stage. the tendency will be for Wz < WI' thereby causing dilTusioli
of the relative velocity vector in the rotor and a subsequent rise in prcsstlll'
This should be avoided since adverse pressure gradients causing flow
separation on the blade surfaces can then occur. Figure 6.10 illustrates I ht'
Mollier chart for negative reaction.
With 50 per cent reaction. Eq. (6.30) requires that 112 "" (;(1.//1 .""'1~, AI:,II
C 1 "" W 2 and C 2 == WI' resulting in the symmelrical velocity diagram 01
Fig, 6.11 with equal enthalpy drops in the stator and rotor.
For JOO per cent reaction. Eq, (6.31) gives (XI == (X2 and C, = C 1 Wilh Iltl'
velocity diagram skewed to the right as illustrated in Fig. 6.12. IncJ'(,~a~il\g Ihe
reaction ratio lO greater than I gives rise to diffusion in the stator passage:, ot
nozzles with C 1 < Co. This situation should also be avoided because IIf fhr
likelihood of How separation on the stator blade surfaces (Fig. 6.lil,

t-

:".""..- P~

FIJ,:urc 6.1 t A 50 per cent reaclioll stage

o ,,//~"'/'

/p"

u
Fi~ .. re

6.12 A 100 per cent reaction stage

P.

Ii

"'i~ure

6.13 Stage expansion with reaction more than

100 per cenl

,.5

.<... FE( TO"'I~EACTION RATIO ON STAGE EFFICIENCY

Hr.wltllll and IIlltH/lse hlad ing find usc in dilTcrent types of machines. (n steam
Is

I III hOH", \\ here, III Ihe high-pressmc end. pressure ratios across a stage would
Iiii'll, ItHPlll;.l~ bludillf' j~ alllio~;1 univnsally IIsed sincc there is no
dlHP

in 11ll' -itill'\'

,lIld 111\"ICllll(' 110

lip Ii':ikagr of

till'

steam from

240

AXIAL FLOW STEAM AND GAS TURlUNES

lIYDRAULl(: AND ('OMJ'IU,SSIllLl, I'LOW TlIRIlOMACIIl1"FS

one blade I'OW to the next. At the low-pressure end of steam turbines and
in gas turbines where the pressure ratios arc more modest. reaction blading
is employed. A choice of 50 per \.:cnt reliction means a sharing of the lolal
expansion between the stator and rotor rows.
It was seen in Fig. 6.7 that, for a high lotal-t[).[otal efficiency. tbe blatk
loading factor should be as low as possible, which implies as high a blade
speed as possible. consistent with allowable blade strcsses. lIowever. the
variation in total-t<Hotal efficiency with slight variation in the blade loading
coefficient is very small. this being true for a wide choice of reaction ratio.
[n contrast, the totalto-static efficiency is heavily dependent upon the
reaction ratio and it can be shown that the total-to-static efficiency at a given
blade loading may bc optimizcd by choosing a suitable value of reaction,

6.6 BLADE TYPES

It has been noted in the previous section that steam turbines urc usualh
impulse or a mixture of impulse and reaction stages whereas gas tlll'hIIH".
tend to be always of the reaction type, The pressure ralio of steam tlll'hiIH".
can be of the order or 1000: t but for a gas turbine it is usually no more I ha II
10:!. It is obvious that II very long steam turbine with many reaction stap(",
would be required to reduce I he pressurc by a ratio of 1000: I, and even II
the prcssure drop per stage were made large to reduce the number of stul~''''\
blade tip leakage loss would stilllcad to very inefficient operation. Thcrdnl "
reaction stages arc used where the pressure drop per stage is low alld ;Ihll
where the overall pressure ratio of the turbine is relatively low. as would
the case in an aero-engine. which may typically have only three or 101\1
reaction stages of or near 50 per cent reaction at the mean radIII';
The requiremenl of different types of stages has led to differing design', III
blades for each type. and this section describes some of the pertinent plIlllh
relevant to each design.

6.6. J Reaction Blading

As described in Fig. 6.2, the pressure reduces through succccding slalol
rotor rows, the vclocity being recovered as the prcsslll'c drop~;. ;Ind
necessitates a bladc passage that is convergent towards the uUIlt-I,
Fig,6.14.
For 50 per cent reaction tbe stutor Hnd rotor hlade'; Will Ill' 1111'
whereas zero reaction implies impulse rolor hbdt" Wllh I !l1l,UIl!
cross-sedional area passages and no change in now \'('I"llt\, 1{1';IIIHln
100 pCI' cent implies that the stator blades arc of the "011'.1,1111 ;lIlil 11111
type. It will be noted that the inlet angk III for the r,'acllpJl hl:Hh' 1';
zero while the prorik of lIw back (II flit' hlade h allno',l ItIlC:11 Iht lililli

-----,.,-__

24]

Aimosl straight
Irailing cdge

-'-~at

6.]4 Reactioll blading

Figure 6,15 Shrouded gas turhine reactioll

blades

blade cvolved I:;mpirically in steam turbine practice. and comparisons

hlades designed in the laIc nineteenth century for the first steam
till hun' and those designed by the later aerodynamic theory showed only
a 4 per cent illcrcasc in maximum efficiency. However. efficiency
ht,'l"'''''''~ of only 0.5 pel' cent or less arc noW very import<mt when fuel costs are
lnt II aCCOllllt. Reaclion blading is often shrouded at the tips, especially if
hilldcs arc long, This aids in preventing excessive vibration by tying the
together ami thus changing them from cantilevers to blades fixed at
['Ill h (hg, ld S).

I"., "",'l'n

IVpf III

l,h,di!lv 11i\'1 ,kvdopnllll',tnllndly hOIll :;h'alll llll"billc practice,

I, I IIi'" v.IUllIV II iiI 111'11':, wen' drawn al lhl' lI\ean radius

/11111'11111

242

HY1>RAUI-W AND COMPRESSIlILl:: HOW TURllOMACIIINf$

AXIAl. FLOW STEAM AND GAS TU/UHNES

of the blades. Because of the tip speed variation along the length of the blade.
inddcl1(.'C angles should ch.l'ngc from root to tip, resulting in a twisted blade.
However, it has been customary to ignore the twisted blade requirement and
to have an untapcrcd, untwisted blade of either 50 per cent rt~action or zenl
reaction (impulse). The loss of efficiency of the straight blades is very sm:i11
for the short blades that are used at the high,pressure end of the turbim:,
But for the much longer blades at the low-pressure end, larger losses call
occur, and blades in this region arc now designed on the frce vortex principiI'
instead of constant reaction ratio. For revcrsible flow through the rotor.
impulse llnd zero reaction blading arc the same.
Impulse blading is employed succcssfully at the high-pressure end III
steam turbincs. The velocity of the steam is increased in the convergent nO/Ill':
row to perhaps 800 m/s before entering the rotor blades and passing throltf!,h
them at constant pressure as in Fig. 6.2b. From Eq. (6.S), we can rcarranpr
(l1~" + !'V~2) as
W..,l

and putting PI

= fl.

+ W"2 =

Wt sin {it

..........,.--/-__

243

Con~tnnl-

-_. area passage

+ W2 sin liz

Fi~ure 6,16

Impulse turbine blades

for impulse or zero reaction,

W.. } + W..,2::= Wt sin/ll(l -+- WR )
,",,(f'. sinex l - UHf + WR)

where WR is the relative velocity ratio Wul \1ll' Substituting Eq. (6JJl
Eq, (6.5)

illln

Diagram elliciency = 2U(C 1 sin XI U)(l + WR)/C:

;;;; 2[( V/C d sin:x , - (U/C t>2]( 1 + H",d
For maximum diagram cnldcncy. differcntiatc Bq. (6.34) with l'l:spnl
(ti/e d lind equate to zero. Then
0= sin:X 1 - 2U/C 1

or
UIe!

;;;; (sin ad/2

Equation (6.35) indicates that the nozzle angle CI. 1 shnultl \11' iI', 1111'11
possiblc. the ideal being 90, However, Ct.! is limited by C'", ~"IIC(: tlw
aI' the smaller ell becomes and thercCore the longer is Ihl' bhHk kn,'.11I
accommodate the rcquired mass now rak. Typical nOllk allgll'" all' IWI
65' and 78". The rotor blade passages art: 1l."lI.dly 01 ('lIp.lillll
symmetrical cross scction, with inlet and outkt ilngles (II ,I" 1/11 mHI
being typical (Fig. 6.16). The centres of l;urvill 1m' l)f I Ill' I' '11\\'\ .111,1 , I!!!'
surfaces of adjacent blades arc tht:n localed ill t lie san", p"llll In r. 'lilt 1',11.;.''''''
passages. Another design of impulse hluding I h:11 II"" Iwell d,,',I"Wd
convergent divcrgt:nt IYpt', This llesh'lI IHI'; kell Iplilld IIwhtl III

thc chances of flow separation on the b~lck convex surface of the blade are
decreasing the radius of curvature or the convex surface. Thc
tilightly convergcnt pllssage aids in prcserving uniform now as the fluid flows
into the bend, lIud although the diverging section causes difl'usion of the
flow, the net effect is beneficial when the turning angles arc large and radii
Ill' blade curvature are small.
h~dtlced by

(1.(.,3

Free Vortex and Constant-Nozzle-Angie Design

was pointed out in Sec. 6.6.2 that free vortex and other design criteria
IIHIY be cmployed for the dcsign of long blades. where constant-angle design

lead to low efficiencies.

As shown in Eq. (5.40), for constant stagnation enthalpy across the
IIf\tWItIS (dho/dr = 0) and constant axial velocity (dC,Jdr = m, then the whirl
VOlnpOIlI.:nt of velocity C., is inversely proportional to the I'mlius and radial
r(Jllllihlillln is achieved, Now if we know conditions at the mean diamctcr
II ';lIhscripl 111 denotes '~lt the mean diameter', then at any nozzle hlade

1',.

(free vortex condition)

244

IIYDI\AUl.lC ANIl ('OMI'I{JlSSIIlI.I' FLOW TURtlOMAClUNES

AXIAL

STEM. AND GAS TURUINES 245

6.8 MULTI-STAGE GAS TURBINES

and at the stage outlet when there is a whirl Gomponelll

tan '';(2

n.ow

= (1'2I1JI'2) tan Cf. 2m

Another design criterion is that of constant-nozzle-angle design where the

nOl,zle angle Ct.l is constant as well as d110/dl' = 0 and dCjdr = O. This Icad~,
to the axial velocity distribution given by

and since Ct.! is constant, then Cal is proportional to C, I as well as dl1 0 /dl'
Therefore

0,

In many cases the change in vortex design has only u marginal cl1ccl on
the performance of the blade while secondary losses Illay actually increase
It is left to Ihe experience of the designer and the results of cascade test daLI
to settle on a purticular type of vortex now.

When the multi-stage compressor was discussed in Sec. 5.3, the polytropic or
small-stage efficiency was made eq ual to the stage isentropic efficiency, and
an initial estimat.e of the expected overall pressure ratio was obtained. In
multi-stage gas turbines a similar procedure could be followed, but since
there are probably only three or four stages at the most, little extra work is
necessary to carry out a calculation stage by stage to determine the
temperatures and pressures through the turbine, the outlet conditions of the
preceding stage becoming the inlet conditions for the following stage. Once
the overall temperature and pressure drops have been established, t1w
isentropic efficiency can be calculated,
The performance characteristics arc usually drawn in terms of the mass
now parameter IIlT/f/po, and efficiency // 1 versus overall pressure ratio POI/PIIII
at differing speeds given by the parameter N,/1)kl . All speed curves arc seen
to be grouped closely together, merging into a single line at a maximum

6.7 AERODYNAMIC BLADE DESIGN

Cascade data similar to that discussed in Sec. 5.1 arc used for modern tlll'hll'"
rotor blade design where the lift and drag coefficients are obtained fWIll lhl'
cascade data curves. Pressure losses can then be determined and an estlll1all\ III
of the efficiency m~ldc. The drag coefficient must again be modified dul' '"
the blades actually bcing.in annular form. Real boundaries exist at the llllh
and tip ,vhilc the ideall10w pattern is disturbed by preceding and follnwlIW
blades. The drag cocllicient is modil1ed by tip clearance loss ('II' aud
secondary f1O\v loss ellS given by7
CDC :=

1U -

IlC~(k('/I,~)

and

Hcre k is the clearance between the casing ami blade tip whik II is takl'll;Pi
for unshrouded blades and 0.25 for tip-shrouded hlades. The par;lIl1clt'l
estimated from a functional relationship of lhe form
" .' [" ( Blade outlet area normal to flow ")2 i( I 111'11 radills '.)
= f
I I
lip radills
,
Blade inlet area normallo flow, / ",

J.

Hence for the turbine

II

eDT = ep

(from cascade lIat:l} I ('," I

('Ii';

Further informatinl\ on blade ik!,ip,lI 111;1\' hI' ultliliwd It","

texts. detailed design pl'Ot'l't!lln", hClllg "11"'1\1<' Oil' ""'lW ..( till" tHll,h

II

""~_tf"'(l";' ('IpIIH'!fIJ'dh

In

'Vlr;!,.f

illl\\'

~Ui,': llpldHt

t'lItIH~i', IiH

246

AXIAL FLOW STEAM A)oo;D GAS TURUlNES

HYDRi\UUC A:-;n COMPRESSIBLE t'LOW TURIJOMAOUNES

247

turbine closely follows the ellipse law

mTb;2!P()I = k[ I -- {Pon/POI)2] 1i2

(6,39)

where k is a constant

EXERC[SES
The following constants should be used, except where otherwise stated:
Specific heat of turbine gas at constant pressure, Cp = I 148 JjkgK
Ratio of specilic heats, "I = 1.333, gas constant R = 287 J/kg K

One-stage

0,2

O'--_ _.l...._ _. J -_ _--l._ _-..l_ _

1.0

1.5
2.0
2.5
Overall pressure ratio. P'll/POII

3,0

Figure 6.18 Multi-st'lgC characteristics of an axial flow gas turbine

Illass nOw value (Fig, 6.17), This is the choked condition and is causee! hI
velocities in the nozzle or at exit from the rotor becoming sonic.
Since the mass now characteristics arc grouped so closely together, C\LIl
towards the lower pressure ratios. a mean curve through all the speed \;mVC, h
often drawn and taken to be representative of that turbine. The isenll
efliciency remains within a narrow baJ1d for a wide range of prCSSllll: L\t I' Pi
(once choking has occurred) and speed, implying that the gas lurhillC ,;
very l1exiblc machine as far as matching to u compresscr is conccflwd, th'
compressor as we have seen in Sec. 5.9 being very sensil iVl: In 011
conditions. Therefore, if the compressor design speed is differellt from i
turbine design speed. the turbine efficiency will be litlle challged h,,"!
maximum value when running at the off-design specd. This Ilolhilll\
operation is duc to a wide range of im:ic.lence lingle heilll',
without incurring high rotor blade pressure loss codficicnls .Ilhl
observed from cascade data.
Finally for this section, Fig, 6.18 shows t he Cn~('t of il\CIC;dl1j' till'
of stagcs. The limiting mass flow for the sillgle-st.II',I' I mhllH' Ih'lil".
pressure mtio just in excess of 2. and is dUl~ to choking ill lhe !.Iallll ",'"n"
The choking pressure ratio increases. however, wilh an 1111'11""';1' lilliit' flllllll".'f
of stages, but 1'01' a givcn prcsslire rail ... lhe 'malluwllIl' ':lI'I\('lt\ {ntH"l
decreases as the number of stage', 111111'.1'.(',1 he illl VI' till lh,

6.1 An impulsc stage (11' a steam turbinc is designed for a nozzle isentropic enthalpy drop of
:'i8 kJ/kg with a mass now rotc of 0,3 kg/so The steam leaving the nozzle enters the rotor blnde
passage at an angle of 75" measured from the axial now direction and has its relative velocity
by 5 rer ~ent in the blade passage. If the blade speed is In m!s and the velocity
coefficient of the nozzle is 0.98, determine:
(al the blnde inlet angle,
(b) the power dcvclopcd,
(c) the tangential thrust on the blades nnd
(d) the sInge diagram efficiency,
Assume that the binding is symmetrical.
6.2 A single-whecl impulsc stcarn turbinc has cquiangular rotor blndes thut develop 3,75 kWand
!lwduce a torquc in the disc of 1.62 Nm at a mean radius of 132.5 mm. The rotor receives 0.014 kg/s
stcam fwm nozzlcs inclined at 70 10 the axial direction and the stealll discharges from the
,vhccl ehambcr in an axial direction. Find:
(a) the blade anglcs,
(Ill the diagram efficiency,
te) the end thrust on the shaft and
(ill the langcntial thrust on the blades,
II 50 pel' cent reaelion stcam turbine running al 450rpm develops 5 MW and hilS a steam
IlllW rate of 6,5 kg/kWh. At a particular siage ill the l'xpansioll the absolute pressure is
at a stearn dryness fraction of 0.94, If the exil angle or lhc blades is 7()', measured f!"Om
lIxmt now direction, and the outlet relalive velocity of the I\team is 1J times the mean blade
filHI the blade height if the ratio of f\ltnr hub diumeter to blade height is 14,
In a tel'll reaction gll~ turbine, the bl:ldc speed at the mean diameter is 290 m/s. Gas lellyeS the
rillg al an angle of 65" to the axial direction while the stage inlel stagnatiolliempt:raturc is
K, The li.llowil1g prcssurc~ were measured at the various locatiOnS:

linn I. ('nl I y. ,tap-nation pressure

IIlI II Itl ('\II, ';I ;I!~nali"n

prl'ssure

Il\INk nil, .\lill il' pfllS'Olnc

f\LHlfnl f'll. ')liltie IHt~"S\lI\~

400kPa
.'190 k I'll
200 k I'a
IXX k I'a

"""'''''''''111,,1 IIii' 11'''1'1111'''\' ",IlI.lnnll<lll .. r \'\'1''1',11,,>, at

<11'11'111/1111" ,I ... ,,\;11"

",I;.!

f"

'nlid ,ilkit'll, \

entr y and exit dthe silige ;\I'C the same,

248 HYDRAUliC AND COMI'RE.'iSJIlLl! !'LOW TURUOMACHlN(S

AXIAL l'LO\V STEAM AND GAS TL'Rm:-';ES 249

Ieallcs the stator bhuJcs at all angle of 65' to the axial direction. Calculate:
I.IJ the blade loading c1.1dlident, .'
(b) the rotor blade rclativc flow angles,
(e) the degree of reaction and
(tlJ the tot;d-t,Hotal and total-to-stark efficiencies.
6.6 A smul! axial flow gas turbine with equal stage inlet and outlet velocities has the
design data bascd on the mean diamcter:

Inlel slugnlllion tcmperature, Too

Inlet stagnation pressure, Poo
Axial How vc!tldty (collstant through stage), C
Mass flow, m
Blade spt.'Cd, V
NllZzle effiux. IIngli:. Cl J
Gas stage exit ungle, Clz

foHowill~

11001<

Mass tlow, m
Inlet st;lgnationlempcllllurc. 'J;w
Inlet stagnatioll pressure, roo
'l\:mpcraturc drop, ('I~", - 'I;,,)
Iscntropic cfficicnl,:Y, Jl w tI
Mean bladespced. V.,
Rotational speed. N
Outlet velocity, C 1

30kg/s
1225K
800kPa
160K
0.9
330mis
I5O()Orprn
390m/s

Calculate:
(a) t he blade height lind radius ratio of the anllulus,
(b) the llxial velocity al nozzle exit if Ilow in the nozzle is iscntropic and
(.:j the ink:1 rellUivc Milch number lit the rotor hh,,!c root radius.

350kPa
260m/.
I R kg/~

350m!s
6W

12'

SOLUTIONS

Calculate:
(al the rotor blade gas angles,
(bj thc degree ,,1' reacHon, blade loading coefficient and power output and
(c) the (owl nozzle throat area required if the thrmlt is situah,:d at the nozzle oulkt ;tml
nonlc loss coefficient is 0.05.

Exercise 6.1 (a) A nozzle velocity cocOleicnt was defined in Eq. (3.7) and in
terms or enthalpy mny be redefined as
C, "" ~~.~~al nozz!~<~_,:l()city
Ideal nozzle velocity

6.7 A single-stage ax.ial flow gas turbine with eonvcrgent nozzles Ims the following d:lI<1

across the nozzle, /roo == hOI' and since no work is done in the nozzle,
Inlet stagniltion temperature, 1;)0
Tnlel stagnation pressure, P""
Pressure ratio.lloo /P02
Stage stagnation tempcraturc drop. (Tno - Ttd
Mussfiow./Il
Mean blade speed, (J
Roliitiollul speed, N
Flow cocllicient, <p
Angle ofgas leaving stage. (ll

1150K

C2
11 0 <I_II = III

420kPa
1.9
150K
25 kg/s
340m!s
15000rpm

<<>

in the steam chest at entry to the nozzle, Co is negligibly small compared

and therefore

ci = 2(h

0.75

If the axial velol,:ily remains eunMant and the gas velocities at inlet a III I IJlll1\'1 all
determine at tin: meun radius:
(a) the blade loading coefficient and degrec of rcaction.
(b) the gas angles.
(0::) thc rcquireLl noule throat area,
(d) the annulus area at nozzle inlet and outlet amI at rotOI IIUI"'! \'
0.11:, ,u,,1
(el the height and radius ratio of the illltlulus at the ;dlOW lotil tiln,',

6.10 The data below apply t.. 'I sifl",k-"l,W<' ,1\1;11 lI.. w I'll\ I"floilll
theory. The oullct vdodty ie; ilxial ilild lh,' lullllli<' I', ,jhllUlo'd willr
through Ih" stagt',

C2
!

(' I '

12"

6.11 Usitlg the duta ofexercise 6.7, if the turbine is offn'e VoIlC\ dr;oIl'Il,llll,1 t)"
and {II at the root and tip of the rotor blades and the relativt'lvfadl 111111I1"'1 iii
tip and rool.
6.9 Once again using the dilla of cxerds.:s 6,7 and (\,~, lithe tl,""!'" I'. 11">,,,1 "h
llllgle, cillculate the ;lIlgle fil at the blndc '001 alltl tip. Mid 11111 pall' th"H' \\11 Ii

1 -

h2 )

ideal nO:lzlc velocity will be when the l10w through the nozzle is isentropic,
is when (11 0 lid:;;: (hl) - "to) Thus ideal Ci == 2(h o hls)' Actual nozzle
C t =(58 x 10 3

2) 112 0.98

= 333.8 m/s
Jhe vdocil~ diagrams of Figs 6.3 and 6.4
('"

C I cos IX I

ll1Xcos75
X6A I\l/s
,I

1/ I 11'"

(',

~,ill(XI

\ \ \ H ',Ill
I.' '

/'\

250 HYDRAULIC A:-;D COMI'RF$SIBUi FLOW n:RROMACHlNES

AXIAL FLOW STEAM AND (JAS TURlllNES 251

1

Whence

= J6.3 x- ")I0.

11'-'1'= 322.4 - 173

Exercise 6.2 {al rn the velocity diagram of Fig. 6.4. eil = C 2 since dischl.lrge
from the wheel chamber is axial. Then Wx2 = U at the mean radius.

il

149.4
86.4

111 == 60

Torque = mr(W,'2

x2

w:=
.< 1

86.4
cos 60'

3.75

I72.8 m/s

Now

172.8
= 164.1 m/s

c
since {J l = /32

+ W'l
tan 7010

= Wd

til

873.3

= 164.1 sin 60'"

= 142.1 m/s

tan 70'

= 317.9 m/s
Wxl = 873.29 - 306.7

From Eg. (6.2)

H'7m = U(W'2 + W'll

= 566.6 m/s

Power developed

= OJ

x 173 (142.1

+ 172.8)

"" 16.3 kW
=:

(c) Tangential thrust

10 3

== 306.7m/s

= 0.95 x

= 1+'2 sin {II

U = _..
0,()[4 x 873.3

Therefore

1.62
0.1325)(""0..-.0-1-4

whence

=---

~il'2

at the mean radius

From Eg, (6.2)

11'1 =Ca(cOs{J t

W2

+ W"d

= 873.3 m/s

(b) Relative inlet velocity

:=

0.975

Therefore

= WXt/C

333,8 x 0.3

= 149.4m/s

tanfJ,

_._~--_.~

: : :. m(W~l + Wx1 )
:::::. O.3( 142.1 +- In.X)
94.47 N

566.6
317.9

til = 60.7"

;=

fi,

From Elj. (6.5)

(d) Diagram efficiency

Work done per unillll;tss lIow

Work available per 111\11111;10;'; flow
IV/m
("

WT

(hi r\ 1:;0 IIPIll tilt' vdndt v

di;Il~I'i1 illS

or, ,I

W... l"

Ii/l\' I Il/.j)'

II t \

III

C.:

252

AXIAL FLOW STEAM AND liM, TUR81NES 253

llYl>RAULlC AND COMI'RlOSSlIILE FLOW TlJRIlOMACHlSES

Equation (6.5) gives the diagram efficiency as

Substituting

.
.
U(W,l2 + Wd)
DIagram
efficIency""
,.,.,--_._,..-

, 0.445 x 2n x 450(1411
C = --...---.".-,.,,,-,

21')

"

"1 1 -

= 306.7 x 873.3 x 2
0

2x60

"" 157.3 II mJs

863700

But the area of the annulus of now == nll(])h + 11), i.e.

=0.62

A == 15nIJ 2

(c) If there is an axial thrust C,O i: Cal

C.'.,2

Now lise steam tables, at a pressure of 85 kPa. At saturation the specific

volume of the steam is 1.972 m 3/kg. At a dryness frat:tion of 0.94, then

W'\'2

Specific volume of sleam

tan {12
U
tan {J2

(U =- ~YX2 since C2 is axial)

111""

= tan60.T

5 X 103 X 6.5
3600

== 9.03 kg/s

= 172.1 mls
Axial thrust = m(C"1 .- Ca2 )
(Eq. (1.23) in axial direction)
=0.014(317.9-- In.l}
=2.04 N
(d) Tangential thrust on blades ~ m(Wx2

+ W"I)

/11=

C"ll

where tl is specillc volume

l!

Therefore
_157.311 x 15nl1 2
9.03 1.85

(Eq. (LDII

whence

= 0.014 x 873.3

hJ = 2.254

= 12.23N

10- 3

II = 0.131 m
~.lt~~e height

Exercise 6.3 From the velocity diagram (Fig. 6.4)

W 2 = UU

It:Xl~rcise

6.4 The condition of the gas through the stage is shown in Fig. 6.8 for
reaction where it is noted that there is no temperature (or enthalpy) drop
through the rotor.
hlf' zero reaction

== 1.3 U cos 70"

==0,445U m/s

from Eq. (6.27)

Now
reND

at

60
2rrNU)"

= 0.1 ~L!,l

/t~ro

C.,:: W z cOs {1 2

U==

= J.972 x 0.94
= 1.85 mJ/kg

Now mass flow ratc

306.7

Now

+ Il)

Ihe IllC;1l1 dlallH'h'1

,'\1>.0 in Ihe rolor

from Eq. (5.6)

+ iI)

(,0 .'

II

II,

254

,\XIAL FLOW STliAM AND GAS rUJUlINES

HYDHAlJUC AND COMPRESSmU: FLOW TtJRIIOMACHlNES

m,Ly be rearranged in terms of temperature differences

stage

U~

q= c; + C~l

To - T 2
11th Il

= (To ..- T2 ) + (71 --

= 263.25 2 + 15.5 2

1'2)

= 69540m 1 /s l

and so the problem resolves itself into all evaluation of the above temperature
differences.
Through the nozzle row '{~o:= TOJ and at a poinl

T l = Tnl (

PI
.

Thus
T.(I

)()'-lln,

T~
~

c~
.... - T
2C'p
1

= l '00 -

1100 -

C?:~~~8) -931

POI

::=:

200)(1.:\3.\ -1)/1 ..\3.\

)90

= 138.7K

= 1100 ( ....

= T2

i:: = (:(~Or-l)iY

=931 K
C~=2Cl,(1~ll- T 1)
=2x 1148(1100-931)

188)0.25

= 1100 ( -~S"
400

T~

= 388024
""

'1'1

Using isentropic relationships

Then

CI

since

=910.8 K

622.9 m/s
Therefore

Now
Cal

'1'2

= C 1casal

'1'2",

= 622.9cos65"
= 263.25 m,is
= C, ~il1c(\

t}1(t

= 622.9 sin 65'

= 564.5 m!s

I)

138.7
= 138.7+ 20.2
::=:

Therefore

WX1

O.lP3

Exercise 6.5 (a) From Eq. (6.26), the blade loading coefllcient is

= CXI .- U
= 564.5 290

1/1

= <jJ(tan If I + tan /J 2)

_e

=ql(tanal

= 274.5 m/s
bUI

Now

ill

(hi:-; case

C,,2:= W"2 - U

'12

= 274.5

",,1.394

290

(hI

15.5 lll/S
The negative sign indicates that Ihere i~ a wlml v<'I ",II v III
direction [0 blade motion.
Since the stage is normal. I'., ( '" ,Illd ;1'\,,\11111111' 1"1"\>1111 /

nli'

hOIll

tlw velocity ldangles

lilO/I..

llbl'ddh'

+ tana2)

= 0 since at outlet the flow

l/J = 0.05 tan 65"

and since we have zero reaction then W,. = 1'1",). So

('..2

910.8

Substituting for these lcmpcmlure difTercnccs gives

and
Cxt

= 931
= 20.2 K

I iii

is axial. Therefore

255

2S(i I-IYORAlII,1C ,\ND COMPRESSIULL !'LOW TURllIlMAClIll'ES

Blade outlet angle

tan III

~I

= 4)

and

and from Eq. (6.6)

tanf!2

1.394
0.65

Iro - h 2 = U(C.<1 + C'2)

=UC.d
=:: ue" tan C(l

tanS?"

Blade inlet angle

(c)

II2 = 57"

AXIAL ROW SlEAM AND GAS TUJUlI:-I'S

fJ,

= 31.2"

Therefore upon substiluting

From Eq. (6.30)

'I

R "" 0.5 + O.5ql(tun {1 2 tan Cl:d

;:: 0.5 + 0.5 x O.65(tan 57" -- tall 65)
Degree of reaction = 0.303
(d) Equation (6.lt'O gives the total-lo-total efficiency in terms of the nO'//h'
and I'Otor loss coefficients:
_ (' 1
tlt(t.t) -

1(111

tlt(HJ "'"

'

'Il(t'sl'= (

0.909

~K

lu2
n 2

C2) -

+ (,N
\. ('2(
.1.
.. , 'J' 21"/' 1) '
0

1 +------2(11

_ "1)
0

(t + 'RSCC21{~2~
,~SCC.~:_~+ I)
2 tan (Xt/q)

= (1 + ()'o8~?sec2 5?"_+ O.0654s~~265"

= {II + {12
= 31.2" + 51'

=0.799

2 tan 65'/0.65

R8.2"

(':xcrcisc 6.6 (a) From the velocity triangles (Fig. 6.4)

= 0.04 + 0.06 ( ' l~(;,

Cxl

88 ?)~

Cx2

and nozzle loss coefficient

= 0.04 + ()'(l6,(
:.=,

0.0654

= C"talHil
= 260tan 60'
= 450.3m/s

=0.0867

= 260 tan 12"

61 )}

:'" 55.26m/s

. ,

rOil

= C" lan(X2

I kiln'
H"I

e"
4 ',oJ

Also

IV';

._',

=0"+65'
=65"

Therefore from Eg. (6.20), rotor loss coefficient

(N

65'(:!il I'll) - 1

Equation (6. t 9) gives the total-to-static efficiency with Co = CII

= (;(0 + r:t,

=:

CR

= 90.9:).~;

For the rotor row

I:R

I + 0.O~~?~:C2 57" ~~ . ~654 sec

2 tan 65"/0.65

Putting 1'2/1'1 = I,

Using the Soderberg correlation of Sec. 6.3, for lhe stator (noZl.le) row
I: N

= ('

CR wi + (NCf(12/'I'd) .1
2(h -11

(since Co =( 2 )
(no whirl at exit)

( ',,' M't 1/1 .

ISO

100 I IIIi'.

+1)

257

258

HYDRM:UC AND COMPIWSSlHl.E FLOW TURaOMACHISl!S

Therefore
111

= tan

= tan

cr:

AXIAL FLOW STEAM AND GAS 'nJRIHNFS 25 )

'

Power output
W
I )

e~~~~)

=3185kW

(e) From velocity triangles

=21.1"

C 1 = C"sec:>:l

= 260 sec 60"

= 520m/s

Also
W..,2 ==

= mU(C xI + ('x2)
= 18 x 350(450.3 + 55.26)

u + C.<l

=350 + 55.26
== 405.3 m/s

To find the area of the nozzle throat we must find the density
Eq. (6.16) the nozzle enthalpy loss coefficient is

Therefore

_1('W~2)
{J 2 = tan--

e,l

"
<ON

or
T

= tan 1 ( 405.3)
260

'T\..l

le l
2

'I

0.05 x 0.5 x 520 2

[. =
1148

1-

= 5.89 K
Now in the nozzle TOI = 1~)O. That is, if the flow in the nozzle is adiaballl,
then the stagnation temperature is constant. Now

(b) From Eq. (6.29), reaction

=;

C/l'l-

T.

= 57.3"

T 1 = TOI

(tan{l2'- tan/Jd

Ci

2C

520
= 1100 --.-----

260
5'7 r
?'
_ x.150(tal1 . -tao_1.I)

=.,

2 x 1148

=982 K

= 0.435

Therefore
Tl~

Blade loading coefficient is given by Eq. (6.26)

Thus

~I

[Note: Another dctinitioll for blade leading cocllkktll Ihal is u"cd I~j
'/~2)/lU2, which has a numerical valli\.' twin' l!l,,( ..,

= Cp(Too

"'" 982 - 5.89

= 976.1 K

[100

= (TOO))'!ll'

PI

./\",

=( 1100)'1
976.1

Eq. (6.26).J
Thus

:::: 1.61

I/J

260

= 350 (t1ln ::1.I"j

Ian 57,1')

350
1.61

1.44

(II' J l\

1)

AXIAL FLOW STEAM Al'D GAS TURlllSES 261

260 HYORAUUC ANi) COMI'RES....IJlLE FLOW nJRUOMACIIlJ'ES

Therefore

Then
PI

Pl=RT;

tan 57.1 c

= 2><~j5 (1.49 + 2R)

217x 10
287 x 982

whence reaction
R == 0.414

=0.77 kg/m 3

Mass now rate

(b) Solving the above simultaneous equations for tan

m=pjAjC 1

AI ==

18
0.77 x 520

tan II.

= 2Ip('" -

Nozzle outlet area;: 0.045 m2

-

P. gives

2R)

2 x 0.75

1.49 - 2 x 0.414)

Exercise 6.7 (a) Substituting the data into Eq. (6.25) for the blade loading
coefficient
I/J =~~pFOl __ 1i)2)

V"

Then

tan IX I = tan PI

1148 x ISO

=-340 2

+-

4>

= tan 23.8') +

= 1.49
From the turbine velocity di<lgrams

I
0.75

= 60.6"

Vie" = tan {1 2 -- tan '::x 2

or

1
tan/J 2 = + tana l
1
=

0.75

(el The nozzle throat area requires the density at the nozzle throat and tbe
absolute velocity at that location. Since we have a simple convergent nozzle,
the nozzle throat is at plane I in our notation.
From the velocity diagrnm

+ tan 12"

ell! = V(P
= 340 x 0.75
= 255m/s

fJ 2 = 57.1"
From Eqs (6.26) and (6.29),
1/J=(tanIJ 1 +tan!JI}

and

and

IP

R =2 (tan P2 - tan II.)

from which

255
l'O~

60.6'

') 1'1 ') lII/~i

262 HYDRAULIC ANO CO~H'RL..%JllLlj ROW TlJRROMACIIINI;:S

AXIAL ROW STEAM AND GAS TURUlNES 2fl3

Now
T1

TUl

:::::::

=. Ci
~ .

2el'

25
0.9 x 519.5
~.,~

== O.0534m 2

519.5 2
2 X 1148

(d) Annulus area at plane I is

= 117.6K
From Eq. (6,16)
T - T
I

C2
_,'1'1,1

2C p

Is -

==

=--~

25

0.9 x 255

0,05 X 519.5
2 x 1148

Annulus _~~a Al

= O.I~~m2

A similar procedure is followed for locations 0 and 2. Now

== 5.87 K

and

255

Co == C 2 =----."..
cos 12

But

== 260.7mjs

and

therefore
T 1 == 1150 - 117.6
;:::; 1032.4 K

q
2C p

and hence

=29.6K

1'1.= 1032.4- 5.87

== 1026.5 K

260,7 2
2 x 1148

:::::'h

T0=

T.

00

C~
,;;-c
-'1'

From isentropic relations between two points

P00
PI
PI

:::.

(T. )
T"
00

""".'.0

i'IIY

""" 1150- 29.6

1)

== 1120K

.'

== 420( I026.~)4
1150

= 266.6kPa
Thus density

lt20)4
1'0=4")0 _.,
- ( 1150

== 377.9kPa
272.X
2}{7

10'

IO.UA

O,9kg/m '

NllZl.k throat area

III

f'n

Po
U'/;l
l/Il ,I

Ill'
1\'0

264 IIY[)I\AllUC Ai'lD (,OMf'I\I'SSIHLI' FLOW TliR!iOMACHll'ES

AXI,\L FLOW STl'I\M ANI> GAS Tl1RIIlNI,S

Annulus area

265

25

= 0.704-;-255
=:

25
1.1 77 x 255

= 0.0838 m

O.139m 2

(e) If 11 is denoted as the blade height and, is the huh radius while R is the
tip radius, then if the mean radius condition is denoted by subscript III
rrND

:=-...... m
_..

60

'm

At the stage outlet

'1(J2

= 1~)() =:

(Too - TId

D =

1150 - 150

In

= 1000K

340 x 60
..'It x 150{)0

= 0.433 m

and

Now annulus

q
l '2 = 'r.02 -2(;

Ufea

'p

= 1000 - 29.6

Then

AN
60U m

= 970,4 K

h=--,

Then

= 0.735 A
and so

But
P02

= POo ( 1'02)
--POO,

Also

420

= 1.9
=

211.1 kPa

Then

P2 = 221.1
=::

G;~;J

196.1 kPL\

Hence
196.1

and so

Excrdsc 6.8 At the root

r

X /0.1

II, = .,---,.".",
~
2S7 x 970.4

AI t1w tip

= 0.704 kg/m.l

Thl'Il'lIlI'C

=:

'm - (hI2)

N "'" 'fl' + (11/2)

Therefore annulus area

1/1
1"( '"

tUII

266

AXIAL JiLOW STEAM ANO GAS TURUlNIJS

HYDRAULIC AND COMPRESSIBl.E ROW TURDOMACIII:"ES

and

( R) ; ; : 1.185
rm

lanIJl=(r~,) tanC(lm-(~) U
I
I
'm 1 CIt

=0.764
( ~)
'm ~

( ~-)
1m

267

At the lip

( R)

= 1.236

tan/l 21l = r m

For free vortex design Sec. 6.6.3 shows that at the root

1.236

Um
Ca' +

(rR

m)

tan ::x 2 '"

tan 12'

=0.75
- - +1.236
--

= 1.23 tan 60.6~

(Xlr

= 65.5

and

tan:X2r =

(r;

tan 60.6" 1.181

Lan {IIR ='''-''-,-- - - -

{/l R =:.. =- 4.0

)2 tan 1;(211\

= 1.31 tan 12'

:>'.2r

At the root

== 15.5"

tan 12 0.764
=--+ -_.._-

tan fJ2

At the tip

0.764

tan IXIR

0.75

U81

= O.847lan 60.6'

0.75

{12r = 52.3';

~B. =_~~:~~
and

and

Lan IJ 1

= 0.809 tun 12'

'''1.2R = 9.~

tan ,:t,21l

0.81

0.81

0.75

=48"

To lind the relative gas lIngles. from the velocity triungles. at

tun {to"'" tan 1;(, +

= t_~~ 6~~ _

:IIIV !HllltP;

Summarizing the results:

U
C"

:XI

and
tunfll = tan "1.1

At tip

56.4'

AI !'I."I

65.5"

-4.0'
48.0"

ISS

52.3'

60.6'

23.!!"

12,0'

57.\"

AI

II1Cilll

radius

().w'

61.2'

But
Bbde ;ulltk-, at ..II Ii' I pllints can be calculated to give the blade geometry

Therefore substituting fol' U and

tan fl.,

(';."

t;\ n

111'1'1

it.

I' il'l
.Ialll:",

(,"

tlh'

whlll\'

Iflill! 1".. 0'1

~'Pilll

to !

W.

("fif.c/l l

268

AXIAL FLOW STEAM ASD GAS nJlUIJNI~"

llY()Ri\UI.lC ANl) COMI'RI.S51lHF FLOW n;RIIO.\lACl!INES

At the root

269

Then

255 sec fllr

"'" 255 sec 48'
== 381 mls

~Vlr"=

de"l
_.....
dr

= dC xl cot:Xl
dl'

Equation (5.37) therefore becomes

Also

C;l + C_dC~l
. 2 (Xl dCl
0=
+ Cd col
'......

C I' = C" S(.'C (Xl'

== 255 sec 65.5'
==615m/s

dr

xl

ell'

Thus
BUl

= 1150-

+ cot 2 a. = sin 1'a 1

615 2
2 x 1148

dC xl
-"C'

-8111

dr

~l--

C.'l

I'

Integrating

=985K

loge Cd =

Thus Mach number

sin~al log"r

+ const

(see Sec. 6.6.3)

31.\1

(1.33 x 287

or

Hi
(M Lfol), == (-.RT,tr\.,
i' . I rIO,
=--"..".. ,.-,

. 2 .

:=

. . :.._.

Now if IX. is constant and tana l =

therefore

'--"A~1'

X 985J1'~

Mach number at root"", 0,664

C.<I/e" then eXl is proportional to C,,;

At the mean radius C"m "" 255 m/s and rim = 0,2165 m. a l = 60.6". Therefore
const :: 255 x O.216S,ilt'b(),(;'

At the tip
W'l = 255.7 m/s

"'" 79,83mjs

=460.8 mis
Till = 1057.4 K

('Ill

At the root

Al tip, Mach number

79.83
:=

It witl be noled thal the higher Mach number occurs al the hl'H.le

I."o(

(0.2165- O.08/2F7~9

= 297,77m/s
Thus

f:xcrcisc 6.9 The radial equilibrium equation is giwli by hi

dll o
dl'

C; I- C
r

de't cdC"

., dl'

In plane 1, cillo/elI' "" 0 as bdorc and al:-;(\ if 'x,

I all

'I,

j;'\ 1\

\,
ill

" til'
I~. u,n"tilll!

11,.n

7,97.77
\,10

10K

IUi1

AXIAL FLOW SUAM AND GAS Tl:IlBI~t:S

270 HYDRAULIC AND COMPIU'$SIBLE FLOW TURBOMACIlINES

From isentropic relationships

I,m /1.,= tan ai' - T

..
ti',

T02",)Y/IY"ll

P02

= tan 60.6 -

(~l"

1.08

= ~l," = const)

Poo ( ..-.
Too

= 800(1047.2)4
1225

{i., = 40';'
At the root {J I, = 40'

= 427.3kPa

Now

At the tip

'['-1'
2 -

, "al R - (

::::

r trn

= (1225 _. 160)-

79.83
...
..
(0.2165 + 0.08/2)0.7 S9
,

-"C

~p

79.83
+ h II12)0' B9

(C ) _

()2

.,,-~ _----.~--

=998.7K
Then

= 224.2m/s
So
A.
'l'R

= 224.2 (" m )
340

!.)4

= 427.3(99~ ..

1065

224.2( 1 )

=--340

U8

:=

=0.559

tan fJ I R = tan Ct. R -

:=

P2
P2= wr;

1
--

330 x 10 3
287 x 998.7

<I'R

=-".. .

1
tan 60.6 -.--.

(Itt R

0.559

(Xl In :=

cOllsl)

= 1.153 kg/mol
Fm!ll continuity

11tH = - 0.81"
At the /1 1 =

330kPa

and

-- 0.81'
30
1.153 x 390

Exercise 6.JO (u) From Eq. (6.9)

~7

AI

160

lll<~an

0.0667 m!

radills

-- 0.9

177.771\.
Therefore
/~,

...,

In
"H'!/K

I III

11110

(,0
'If

390 2
2 x 1148

271

272

IIYORAVLlC AND COMI'RFSSlRLE FLOW TURDOMACUlNF.S

AXIAL FLOW STEAM AND GAS TUIUlIl'ES

273

Then

Blade height
.,

AI.
Ir=,--

lnr",

0.0667

==

=O.0506m

= 590.4I11/s
Now

Radius ratio

.,It = Too ._;'

Cf

r m + hl2

R
r

198
COS 70.4'

=211" x ().Il

2(1'

= r:t:-~ 11/2

590.4 2
2 x I t48

= 1225-~--

0.21 + 0,0253
= 0.2i=- 0.0253
= 1.27

= 1073 K
Using isentropic relations

(b) An iterative procedure must be followed to determine C,,\, This is set out

T,

PI =Poo ( -,~)O

below. The continuity equation must be satislied; therefore at the nozzle oulkt
station 1,
Al = const and Cn , = const
m=PICuIA\

II

since Poo = Po I

= 800( !_073)~
1225

As a first guess let

) _Poo
II - RJ~o

= 470,9kPa
Thus

800 x 10 3

PI

PI ==R-i~

=287 x 1225
= 2.27kg!m 3

Then
30
CII! =---,
2.27 x 0.0667

= 198m/s
Now remembering that

))'/h

("'2

== 0,

from which
1148 >.: Ifill
110, I'IH

'1

lOA'

'~"""~.~--'''''''~

= 1.529 kg/m 3
This value is now used in a new ilcration until
table in set up below.

Cui and PI

do not change. A

1.53
2')4
62.1

144
312.:1
60.67

1.42

62H.:1

637,6

1.42
316.7
60.34
640

470,9

1053
436.6

1047,8
428,2

1.5;\

1.44

1,42

111'r<llillll

1148 x 160= 330 x 1981"n')'1

470.9 x 1()3
287 x 1073

2.27
200.2
70.2
590.4
1073

10464

426
1.42

(,

274

IIYDRAlILlC\NO COMI'RESSIBJ.I' FLOW TlJRIIOMACJII:\ES

At nozzle outlct axial velocity

CHAPT!'I,

SEVEN

C". =316.7m/s

(e) To find (1\.'1 1,<1),- where subscript /' refers to the root radius,

RADIAL FLOW GAS TURBINI:S

r
rm

0.21 - 0.0253
0.21

= 330 x

U
r

= 290.2 m/s
At the root

u
= 1148 x 160 ._ 290.2
290,2

7.1 INTRODUCTION

= 342.7mjs
Then

The inward flow radial gas turbine is used for applications where the flow nile

= 316.7

+ 342.7

I,V l = 466.6 m/s

Acoustic velocity
(/1

== (j'RT1)W
"" (1.333 x 287 x 1046.4)112

= 632.7
466.6
='

632.7

Relative Mach number at rool -::;, 0.74

is very low, for example turbochargers for commercial (diesel) engines and ftt c
pumps. They arc very compact, the maximum diameter being about 0..' III
Speeds arc high, ranging from 40000 to 1800000 rpm. They arc usually of fill'
90 type, the blades being perpendicular to the tangent at the rotor ollkr illkl
periphery, and the gas after entering in the radial direction exits axi;t1ly ;11
outlet.
The turbine and its es~entiHI parts are shown in Fig. 7, I, when' II',
similarity to the centrifugal compressor is noted, the difference being Ihal Ihr
gus flow is in the opposite direction. Figure 7.1 shows that gas enters the :;CII ill
casing, the cross-sectional area of the scroll decreasing as the gas pil'."\'"
through it. This keeps the velocity at entry to the nozzle vanes (:on51"nl ;1: 11h'
gas is gradually drawn ofT on its circumferential path. The nozzle v;\lle:, ,11\
converging to increase the kinetic energy of the gas and they sct the gil', ;lllgic
for lmlry into the rotor. This angle is usulllly about 70'" (measurcd fnllli fill'
radial dircction) but the vanes can be pivoted to allow for adjustnwIII olfhl'
now allgle as the load changes. In some designs, there may he no valles al ,Ill.
hilt II passage similar to that of the V<lllelcss diffuser of Fig. 2.17 is filled
(Fig, 7.2). A vanell'ss space exists betwccn the outlct tip of the ValW~ and the
fOlol', this space being. utilized by the gas for further now adjustllll'1l1 ;llld
,lidillg ill the rcdudioll of vibratory disturbances within the 1mbilll'.
fhl' loin!, which is usually lllallUfacturcd of cast nickel alloy, Ita', hl;ilk.
Jllll! ;lIe 1'111 \'('d II' dlallgl' thl' flow ("'lin the radial to lhe aKial din'cltllli Ill('