SPACE SYSTEMS AND SPACE SUBSYSTEMS - FUNDAMENTALS

Instructor:
Dr. Vincent L. Pisacane

Course Schedule: http://www.ATIcourses.com/schedule.htm

Course Outline:

http://www.aticourses.com/Fundamentals_Of_Space_Systems_Space_Subsytems.htm

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CASSINI-HUYGENS
Interplanetary Mission to Saturn

Saturn surrounded by Rings and 62 Moons

Cassini launched in October 1997 arrived at Saturn June 2004
The mission has been extended through September 2017
Pisacane, 2013

CASSINI-HUYGENS
Trajectory

Planned 21 April
Planned 1 July
Planned 20 June

Planned 1 Dec

Planned 6 Oct
Planned 16 August
@ 1,170 km

Planned 30 Dec 2000

Pisacane, 2013

NEAR
Configurations

Pisacane, 2013

RISK MANAGEMENT
NASAs Approach to Risk Management

NASA identifies two activities critical to risk management

Risk-Informed Decision Making (RIDM)

Selection of alternatives based on assessment of requirements including risk

Continuous Risk Management (CRM)
Systematic identification, assessment, and management of all risks

From: NASA Risk-Informed Decision Making

Handbook, NASA/SP-2010-576 Version 1.0 Apr 2010
Pisacane, 2013

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

NASA Project Life Cycle Reviews

Pisacane, 2013

SYSTEM TESTING
Sample NASA Payload Test Requirements

From: NASA-STD-7002A
Payload Test Requirements

Pisacane, 2013

SPACECRAFT FAILURES
NOAA Spacecraft Radiation Induced Failures May 1998

Data

from NOAA GOES (Geostationary Operational

Environmental Satellite) constellation

Equator-S

failure attributed to latch-up in central

processor as result of a week or more of elevated
relativistic electron (top figure)

POLAR processor loss of 6 hours of data attributed to

single-event upset (SEU) in processor from increased

proton flux (bottom figure)

Galaxy

4 processor failure likely caused, by the

energetic electron environment most likely due to
deep dielectric, (or bulk) charging (top figure)

Space Environmental Conditions During April and May 1998: An Indicator

for the Upcoming Solar Maximum
D.N. Baker, J.H. Allen, S. G. Kanekal, and G.D. Reeves
Pisacane, 2013

FAILURE ANALYSES
Burn-in Tests at Elevated Temperatures

The standard life test for flight hardware parts is the dynamic
(power on) burn-in test
o
o

for 1000 hours (41.7 d) at an ambient temperature of 125 C (257 F)

The Acceleration Factor (Af) is the test time multiplier derived from the Arrhenius
equation for operation at another temperature
E 1
1
A f 1 if Tuse Ttest
A f exp a

A f 1 if Tuse Ttest
k Tuse Ttest

Activation energy (Ea) is an empirical value of the minimum energy required to initiate a

specific type of failure mode that can occur within a technology type
Failure modes include: oxide defects, bulk silicon defects, mask defects, electromigration, and contamination
Typical values of Ea for electronic devices
Acceleration Factors
are 0.5-1.0 eV, typically > 0.7
Equivalent Duration, y
For use temperatures
E
,
a
Table shows acceleration factors and
eV 25oC 35oC
45oC
25oC
35oC
45oC
equivalent durations

Parameters
Ea = Activation Energy of the failure
mode, eV
k = Boltzmann's Constant, 8.617 x
10-5 eV K-1
Tuse = Use Temperature, K
Ttest = Test Temperature, K

77oF

95oF

113oF

77oF

95oF

113oF

0.5

133

71

39

15

0.6

353

165

81

40

19

0.7

938

387

169

107

44

19

0.8

2,492

907

352

284

103

40

0.9

6,624 2,125

732

756

242

84

1,524

2,008

568

174

1.0 17,607 4,979

Pisacane, 2013

FAILURE IDENTIFICATION
Sample FMEA Worksheet Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA)

Typical FMEA worksheet is illustrated below for a spacecraft battery

Failure Modes, and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
System:
Part Name
Reference Drawing
Mission

Date
Sheet X of X
Compiled by: XXXX
Approved by: XXXX
Potential Effects of Failure Mode

Item

Function
or
Requirement

Potential
Failure
Modes

Potential
Causes
of
Failure
Mode

Battery

Provide
adequate
relay
voltage

Fails to
provide
adequate
power

Voltage
drops to
zero

Local
Effects

Battery
plates
shorted

Intermediate
Effects

Instrument
not
functional

End
Effects

Mission
Aborted

Detection
and
Mitigating
Factors

Test
battery
prior to
launch

O
c
c
u
r
r
e
n
c
e

D
e
t
e
c
t
i
o
n

S
e
v
e
r
i
t
y

0.5
+
0.3
X5
=
4

RPN

Actions
Recommendations

Responsibility

64

XXX

XXX

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RELIABILITY, AVAILABILITY, MAINTAINABILITY, and SAFETY

Derating Introduction

Derating increases the margin of safety between operating stress level and actual

failure level for the part, providing added protection from unanticipated anomalies

Derating is employed in electrical and electronic devices, wherein the device is

operated at lower than its rated maximum power dissipation, taking into account
Case/body temperature
Ambient temperature
Type of cooling mechanism

When derating, the application engineer applies a recommended derating factor

bases on the part specifications and operating environment

For microcircuits, major derating factors are

Supply voltage
Power dissipation
Signal input voltages
Output voltages
Output currents

Pisacane, 2013

RELIABILITY, AVAILABILITY, MAINTAINABILITY, and SAFETY

Calculating Reliabilities

Series redundancy

Reliability Rs of the series chain is given

by
n
Rs Ri R1R2R3 Rn
i1

If all components have the same

reliability then Ri = R and
Rs Rn

Parallel redundancy

The reliability of a parallel configuration

if only one device is needed is
Rs 1 1 Ri 1 1 R1 1 R2 1 Rn
n

i1

If all component s have the same

reliability then Ri = R and

Rs 1 1 R

Pisacane, 2013

CELESTIAL MOTION
Principal Motion of the Celestial Ephemeris Pole

(more accurate number is 25,780 yrs)

(average of 50.26 sec of arc per year

or 0.1376 sec arc per day)

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COORDINATED UNIVERSAL TIME (UTC)

Variation in the Length of Day 2/2

25

From: http://www.ucolick.org/~sla/leapsecs/dutc.html

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REFERENCE SYSTEM
Geometrical Transformation Between GCRS and ITRS

Figure shows transformation between terrestrial (ITRS) to celestial (GCRS) taking into
account (1) Pole Movement, (2) Earth Rotation , (3) Precession and Nutation

GCRS= Geocentric Celestial Reference System

ITRS = International Terrestrial Reference System
CIP = Celestial Intermediate Pole, instantaneous Earth spin axis
CTP = Conventional Terrestrial Pole, reference pole in ITRS (now average of pole positions from 1900 to 1905)

Modifiedfrom:ESA,http://navipedia.org/index.php/Transformation_bet
ween_Celestial_and_Terrestrial_Frames

Pisacane, 2013

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL
Geometrical Representation of Spherical Harmonics
Pn,m(Cos q) Cos m(l l n,m) has
(nm) sign changes or zeros 0 q p (latitude of 180 degrees
2m zeros in interval 0 l < 2p (longitude of 180 degrees)

m=0
no longitudinal
variation

n = 2, m = 2

n m and m 0
Tessarae (Tiles)

n = 3, m = 3

n=m
no latitudinal
variation

n = 5, m = 0

n = 4, m =3
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TRAJECTORY PERTURBATIONS
Mars Global Surveyor Aerodynamic Braking

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ROCKET PROPULSION
Specific Impulse vs Thrust

Grayed area are

realized
characteristics

NH3 = Ammonia
N2H4 = Hydrazine

From: http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/images/CR-1845.gif
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ROCKET PROPULSION
de Laval Nozzle

The function of the nozzle is to convert the

chemical-thermal energy produced in the
combustion chamber into kinetic energy

Thrust is the product of mass time velocity so a

very high gas velocity is desirable

The nozzle converts slow moving, high pressure,

and high temperature gas in the combustion

chamber into high velocity gas of lower pressure
and temperature at the nozzles exit

De Laval nozzles consist of a convergent and

divergent section

The section with minimum area is the nozzle throat

The nozzle is usually made long enough and the
exit area large enough to reduce the high pressure
in the combustion chamber to the ambient
pressure at the nozzle exit to create maximum
thrust

Typical DeLaval nozzle

T = temperature
p = pressures
v = speed
M = Mach number
From: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_engine
Pisacane, 2013

LAUNCH FLIGHT MECHANICS

Available Launch Inclinations in the United States

37

114

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COLD GAS PROPULSION SYSTEMS

Typical Cold Gas System Implementation
Service valve

Gas Regulator
P

GN2

Filter

Burst Valve
L
L

Access Port
NO Pyrovalve
normally open

NC

Latch Valve

Latch Valve
Check Valve, arrow
direction of flow

Pyrovalve
normally closed

L
P

Pressure Sensor

Temperature sensor

Typical cold gas thruster

Propellants
Air, Carbon Dioxide,
Helium, Hydrogen,
Methane, Nitrogen, Freon
Pisacane, 2013

LIQUID PROPULSION SYSTEMS

Messenger Spacecraft Dual Mode Propulsion
Illustrates the Messenger spacecraft
propulsion system with 17 thrusters
Bipropellants Hydrazine (N2H4)
and Dinitrogen Tetroxide (N2O4)
Monopropellant Hydrazine (N2H4)

S Wiley, K Dommer, L Mosher, Design and development of the

Messenger propulsion system, AIAA, PRA-053-03-14 July 2003
Pisacane, 2013

TRANSFER TRAJECTORIES
Apollo 13 Circumlunar Free-Return Trajectory

CSM Command Service Module,

DPS Descent Propulsion System
EI Entry Interface
GET Ground Elapse Time
LM Lunar Module
MCC Mid-Course Correction
PC Pericynthion (closest point to moon)
S-IV4B Saturn IVB
SM Service Module
TLI Trans Lunar Injection

JL Goodman , Apollo 13 Guidance, Navigation, and Control Challenges AIAA

SPACE 2009 Conference & Exposition, Sept 2009, Pasadena,, AIAA 2009-6455
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OVERVIEW
Attitude Control Schematic

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ATTITUDE KINEMATICS
Quaternion Mathematics 1/2

Addition and subtraction

Elements are added or subtracted

Q 1 Q 2 q1,1i q1,2 j q1,3k q1,4 q2 ,1i q2 ,2 j q2 ,3k q2 ,4

q1,1 q2 ,1 i q1,2 q2 ,2 j q1,3 q2 ,3 k q1,4 q2 ,4

Multiplication

Not communicative, Q1Q2 Q2Q1

Multiple each component
Q 1Q 2 q1,1i q1,2 j q1,3k q1,4 q2 ,1i q2 ,2 j q2 ,3k q2 ,4
where

time
s

Equivalent quaternions

Reversing signs on all 4 elements yields an equivalent quaternion

Q = Q

Pisacane, 2013

ATTITUDE SENSORS
ADCOL Two-Axis Digital Sun Sensor System

Two-Axis Digital Sun Sensor System

No of measurement axes:
2 each sensor)
Number of sensors
5 typical per electronics
1 to 8 sensors can also be used
Electronics selects sensor that has
sun in field of view

Heritage

Many systems flown with 1 to 8 sensor

heads per processing electronics

Parameters

Field of view: 64 x 64
Note: 4 steradians (full sphere)
coverage can be achieved with 5
sensors.
Accuracy: 0.25 (transition accuracy).
Least Significant Bit Size: 0.5

http://adcole.com/two-axis-dss.html

Sign bit
Most significant bit
Least significant bit
Interpolating bits
Pisacane, 2013

INTRODUCTION
Function and Components of Spacecraft Power System

Power system functions

Supply electrical power to spacecraft loads

Distribute and regulate electrical power
Satisfy average and peak power demands
Condition and convert voltages
Provide energy storage for eclipse and peak demands
Provide power for specific functions, e.g., firing ordinance for mechanism
deployment
Ensure power to critical loads during critical phases and spacecraft anomalies
Ensure power for mission duration

Primary Power
Source

Energy
Conversion

Power
Regulation

Power
Distribution
Power
Regulation

Critical
Loads
Non-Critical
Loads

Energy
Storage
Power
Regulation

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SECONDARY BATTERIES
Candidate Technologies

http://www.clyde-space.com/products/spacecraft_batteries/useful_info_about_batteries/secondary_batteries
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SOLAR ARRAYS
Solar Array Construction

Cells connected in series to achieve

desired voltage
Cells connected in parallel to achieve
desired power
Arrays organized to minimize current
loops that result in dipole moment

Pisacane, 2013

OVERVIEW
NEAR Spacecraft Spacecraft Communication System

From: RS Bokulic, MKE Flaherty, JR

Jensen, and TR McKnight, The NEAR
Spacecraft RF Telecommunications System,
Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Vol
19, No 2 (1998)

Transponder unifies a number of communication functions - receiver,

command detector, telemetry modulator, exciters, beacon tone
generator, and control functions
Diplexer is a device that can split and combine audio and video
signals
Pisacane, 2013

ANTENNAS
Typical Parabolic Antenna Pattern

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LINK ANALYSIS
Example Link Analysis
Transmitter power

20 W

+13.0 dBW

Spacecraft cable loss

1dB

1 dB

Antenna boresight
gain

76.76

+18.9 dB

EIRP

30.9 dBW

Antenna beamwidth

3 dB

3.0 dB

Space loss at 10o

elevation @ 3000 km

1.58 x 1016

162.0 dB

Pointing error, 0.1 BW

0.12 dB

0.12 dB

Atmospheric loss

0.1 dB

0.2 dB
K-1

4.0

dbK-1

Receiver G/T

1000/400

Boltzmann constant,
k

1.38x10-23
JK-1

+228.6 dB J1K

Bit rate

106 bps

60 dB s

Receiver Eb/No

Spacecraft antenna diameter = 1 m

Frequency = 1 GHz
Pointing error= 1/10 beamwidth
Receiver gain = 30 dB
Receiver system temperature = 400K
Bit rate = 106 bps
2

Df
1 1x109

Gboresight
76.76
0.70
8
3
x
10
c

4 prf 4 p 3 106 1 109

16
Ls

1
.
58

10

3 108
c

12
12 0.1 q3dB
Ll q 2 q2i dB
0.12 dB
2
i
q3dB
q3dB
2

38.2dB

1
a
a
Eb EIRP L s L Other Losses GRA 20 0.8 76.76 0.5 1.58 1016 0.97 0.63 1000

683 38.3dB
23
6
N0
kRb
T
1
.
38

10

10
400

s
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THERMAL ANALYSES
Analysis Process

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MULTILAYER INSULATION
Gold and Black MLI

Gold Thermal Blanket

Outer layer is of a second surface mirror material with

high reflectivity and high emittance
Consists of multiple layers of silver coated Kapton film
that gives it a gold color
Except outer layers, all are perforated to allow entrapped
air to escape during launch and separated by a Dacron netting
Edges are finished with a tape prior to sewing
Individual blankets held together and to spacecraft by
dacron Velcro

Black Thermal Blanket

Black thermal blanket is used on the shade side of the
spacecraft
Identical to the gold blanket except for the outer layer
generally Kapton filled with carbon powder
Outer layer has a higher absorptance and lower
emittance than the gold Kapton
This layer is also electrically conductive because of
carbon fill
Grounding outer layer to the spacecraft frame dissipates
any charge build

Gold is multilayer insulation of

Cassini spacecraft; from
NASA

New Horizons spacecraft

http://www.boulder.swri.edu/pkb/ssr/ssrfountain.pdf
Pisacane, 2013

DESIGN PROCESS
Overall Development Flow Chart
start
Launch Vehicle
Constraints

Conceptual and
Preliminary
Design

Critical Design
Fabrication
Integration
launch

Preliminary Launch
Loads

Launch Vehicle
Dynamic Model and
Forcing Functions

Spacecraft
Dynamic
Model

Coupled Launch
Vehicle and
Spacecraft Dynamic
Analysis

Spacecraft Dynamic
Response
Loads
Acceleration

Spacecraft Structural
Configuration

Preliminary
Spacecraft Structural
Design

Functional
Subsystem/Payloads
Requirements

Preliminary Natural
Frequency
Constraints

Thermal Analysis
Structural Analysis
Finite Element Model
Dynamic Analysis
Stress Analysis
Thermal Distortion
Assess Margins

Temperature
Distribution

Fabricate Spacecraft
Structure

Spin Balance and

Environmental
Testing

Pisacane, 2013

STRUCTURAL CONFIGURATIONS
Structural Categories

Structural

components are categorized by the different types of requirements,

environments, and methods of verification that drive their design
Primary structures are usually designed to survive steady-state accelerations and
transient loading during launch and for stiffness
Secondary and tertiary structures are usually designed for stiffness, positional
stability, and fatigue life

Secondary structures:
Primary structures:
body structure
launch vehicle adapter

appendage booms
support trusses
platforms
solar panels
Antenna
Extendibles

Tertiary structures:
brackets
electronics boxes

Pisacane, 2013

INTRODUCTION
Space and Ground Based Systems

Reliability, complexity, development costs, and operational costs are affected by

the partitioning of the computational load between the space and ground segment

From Wertz and Larson

Pisacane, 2013

COMPUTER COMPONENTS
Typical Spacecraft Computer Schematic

Figure is a simplified block diagram of a spacecraft computer system

One or more processing units have access through bus structures to

Read only memory, random access memory, and special purpose memory
Mass storage
Input/output ports to spacecraft subsystems and payloads
Spacecraft communication system
Numerical coprocessor to carry out floating point arithmetic faster

From Pisacane, Fundamentals of space systems, Oxford University Press,

2005
Pisacane, 2013

FAULT TOLERANCE
Summary Fault Tolerant Techniques

NMR = n-modular redundancy

ECC = Error Correction Coding
RESO = RE-computing with Shifted Operands; computation carried
out twice - once with usual input once with shifted operands
Self-purging = each module has a capability to remove itself from
the system if faulty
Recovery blocks = Uses the concept of retrying the same
operation and expect the problem is resolved by the second
or later tries

Pisacane, 2013

SPACECRAFT PROCESSORS
RAD6000 Processor

Characteristics

35 Mbps at 33 MHz
Radiation Hardened 32-bit RISC
Super Scalar Single Chip CPU
8K Byte Internal Cache
Simplex or Dual Lock-step (compares CPU
operations)
Low Power 3.3 Volt Operation
72-bit (64 Data, 8 ECC) Memory Bus
Variable Power/Performance
Independent Fixed and Floating Point Units

Radiation Hardness6 Levels

Total Dose: 2x10 rads(Si)

Prompt Dose Upset: 1x109 rads(Si)/sec
Survivability: 1x1012 rads(Si)/sec
Single Event Upset: 1x10-10 Upsets/Bit-Day
Neutron Fluence: 1x1014 N/cm
Device Latchup: Immune

From Lockheed Martin Federal Systems RAD6000 Radiation Hardened 32-Bit

Processor
atc2.aut.uah.es/~mprieto/asignaturas/satelites/pdf/rad6000.pdf

COP = Common on-chip processor interface

FPGA = Field Programmable Gate Array
HMC = Hardware Management Console
RS232 = Serial binary single ended data connector
VME bus = VersaModular Eurocard bus

Dual Lock Step

A technique that achieves high
reliability by adding a second
identical processor that monitors and
verifies the operation of the system
processor
Pisacane, 2013

INTEGRATION AND TEST PROCEDURES

Integration and Test Procedure

From Spacecraft Computer Systems, JE Keesee

ocw.mit.edu/courses/aeronautics-and.../l19scraftcompsys.pdf

Pisacane, 2013