G&E 2013 Reprint

Units 1 and 2.
It incorporates text, case studies, data

and activities to help students and teachers develop an
understanding of the content and skills of Geography, and to
prepare them for success in their VCE assessments.
The accompanying Geography Environments CD-ROM

contains the entire text in PDF format for electronic use in
class or at home.
Also available in the New Perspectives series is Resources

and Perspectives, VCE Geography Units 3 and 4.
VCE Geography Units 1 & 2
G e o g r a p h y T e a c h e r s A s s o c i a t i o n o f V i c t o r i a I N C.
A s s o c i a t i o n
o f
V i c t o r i a
I N C .
geography
ENVIRONMENTS
CH
ER
S
AS
TA
R
SOCIATION
TA AWA
EA
LIA
YT
N G E OG R A P H
VCE GEOGRAPHY UNITS 1 & 2
meet the needs of the VCE Geography 2006 Study Design,
AG
U
ST
RA
Geography Environments has been specifically written to
GEOGRAPHY ENVIRONMENTS
VCE Geography Units 1 & 2
T e a c h e r s
DS
geography ENVIRONMENTS
N
WIN ER 20
1
G e o g r a p h y
ii
CONTENTS
Unit 1: Natural Environments
Characteristics of Victorias forests 65
Chapter 1 Essential skills 1
Case study: Forests of the Otways 68
What is Geography? 3
Changes to Victorias forest environments 70
Applying spatial concepts 3
Case study: Forests of the Strzeleckis 72
Organising geographic data 13
Future of Victorian forest environments 77
Interpreting the instructional wording used in

Geography16
Student-assessed coursework 78
Chapter 2 Introduction to natural

environments 20
The coastal environment and the earths natural

systems80
Characteristics of natural environments 21
What is a coastal environment? 81
A natural system 21
Types of coasts 82
Inputs and outputs 22

Interaction between the spheres 23
The natural processes that shape and change coastal

environments84
Change in natural environments 26
The landforms located in coastal environments 92
Chapter 3 Volcanic environments 30
The nature, rate and scale of natural processes along

the coast 95
Characteristics of volcanic environments 30
Chapter 5 Coastal environments 80
Global distribution of volcanic environments 31
The human activities that shape and change coastal

environments96
Natural processes affecting the distribution of volcanic

environments33
The nature, rate and scale of human activities along

the coast 98
Factors affecting types of volcanic activity 35
The management of coastal environments 104
Volcanic landforms 37
The sustainability of our coast 105
Changes in volcanic environments 41
Case Study: Eyjafjallajokull, Iceland 46
Glossary Natural Environments 110
Impact of the eruption 47

Impacts of volcanic activity 49
Chapter 4 Victorias forest
environments 54
Introduction54
The natural system of forests 57
Geographic characteristics of Victorias forest
environments60
Dynamics in Victorias forests 63
iii
Unit 2: Human Environments
Chapter 9 Yarra Valley: a rural

environment 172
Chapter 6 Introduction to human

environments 114
Geographic characteristics 172
Rural environments 115
Change over time in the Yarra Valley 176
Urban environments 116
Current land use 180
Changing human environments 117
Managing change 185
Chapter 7 Vietnam: a changing human

environment 124
Introduction125
Sustainability in the Yarra Valley 186

The future 187
Where is Vietnam located? 125

The impact of history 126
Glossary Human Environments 190
Vietnams changing geographic characteristics 127
Index 192
Vietnams changing population 129
Acknowledgements 196
Vietnams changing economy 131

Environmental conditions 133
A changing rural environment: The Mekong River
Delta135
A changing urban environment: Hanoi 137
Tourism: a growth industry 140
Changing for the future 142
Chapter 8 Melbourne: an urban
environment 146
Introduction146
In the beginning 146
Physical factors influencing growth 147
At the centre: the CBD 149
Near the city centre: the IMZ 153
Docklands: large-scale change in the IMZ 156
In the suburbs 157
The ruralurban fringe 161
Melbournes future 164
iv
CHAPTER 1
Essential skills
What is Geography?
Applying spatial concepts
Organising geographical data
13
Interpreting the instructional

wording used in Geography
16
Skills and Units 1 and 2

Competency in using geographic skills is
an essential component in achieving the
outcomes of Units 1 and 2. This chapter
covers many of these skills which are
referred to throughout this book.
ESSENTIAL SKILLS
| C H A P T E R O N E |
Essential skills
Key Knowledge and
Skills
Describe and analyse data
Figure 1.1
River valley on the Forgotten
World Highway, New
Zealand (right)
Figure 1.2
Hoodoos, Alberta, Canada
(right)
Figure 1.4
Street parking, Hanoi (below)
Figure 1.3
Satellite image of Tropical
Storm Isidore (above)
Figure 1.5
Vancouver, Canada (below)
Describing the geography of natural and human

environments and the processes that produce them,
can best be achieved by applying and using a range
of spatial concepts. The most commonly used spatial
concepts are location, scale, distance, distribution,
region, movement, spatial association, spatial
interaction and spatial change over time. Many of
these spatial concepts will be familiar to you already.
As a VCE geographer you need to show your
understanding of these concepts which should form
part of your geographical vocabulary. The spatial
concepts are closely related to each other and often
support each other. Throughout this book the spatial
concepts are printed in italics to help you to recognise
the appropriate usage of these terms.
2. Select one figure to observe in greater detail. Use the questions of a geographic
detective to guide your observations of this piece of geographic data.
3. Identify one example of further secondary data, which would help you to better
understand the geography for each of figures 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5.
Strathmerton
Barmah
y
ra
ur
M
Goulb
Echuca
B75
r
Rive
e
Elmore
A300
Greens
Lake
Stanhope
ve
10 km
Kyabram
Shepparton
Mooroopna
A300
Tatura
Toolamba
Lake
Cooper
B75
Ri
Tongala
VICTORIA
Numurkah
B400
urn
Rochester
A39
Nathalia
Moama
B400
Rushworth
Scale
Waranga
Basin
Murchison
Figure 1.6
Shepparton district map
Kilometres
Activities
1. Use Figures 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5. to identify one geographic feature found in
each of these examples of geographic data.
Barmah
State
Park
Rive
79
NEW
SOUTH WALES
pasp
Geography is the study of patterns created by the interaction between natural and
human features on or near to the earths surface. Geography provides the skills to
describe, analyse and explain spatial relationships and informs your usage of these
skills to interpret the patterns created. The observational and research skills of
geographers allow analysis of the world we inhabit.
Geographic data comes in a variety of forms: as maps, satellite images,
photographs, videos, graphs and tables of statistics, text and diagrams. When
presented with a piece of geographic data, look for clues to help you to observe and
understand the knowledge it contains. To become a geographic detective use an
inquiry process or series of questions such as:
What can you observe?
Is it predominantly a natural or human feature?
Identify the features of the geographic data.
Where might it be located?
Where is it in relation to other things?
What is its scale or size?
How is it being used?
What may have shaped it?
Does it appear to be changing?
How might it look in the future?
Geography makes use of data from a wide range of sources. Primary data can be
information that you have collected as fieldwork. Secondary data is collected and
often processed by someone else.
Primary data is obtained personally by going to a location to make observations
and collect information. This primary data may be recorded as maps, sketches,
photographs, GPS logs, numbers of people, cars or density of vegetation, recording
movement patterns and responses to interviews. Primary data collection is limited by
distance from and access to the research location and the time available for multiple
visits to the fieldwork site. It is possible to collect primary data at a local park, beach,
farm or shopping strip, where you can easily gain access to observe and record
geographic data.
The use of secondary data, collected from sources such as the Internet, maps,
textbooks, reports and video footage, allows access to information that may
otherwise have been difficult to see first hand. Secondary data collection allows the
sourcing of global or regional statistics, information collected over a number of years
or data collected at a larger scale than personal collection methods would allow. A
study of the impact of ecotourism on tropical rainforests would take many years to
research by personal fieldwork, but would be possible to achieve using secondary
sources.
Applying spatial
concepts
Cam
What is Geography?
ESSENTIAL SKILLS
Figure 1.7
Sample of scale formats
A39
A300
PHILIPPINES
BRUNEI Bandar Seri Begawan
MALAYSIA
Ngerulmud
Kalabahi Alor
PALAU
Latuna
Labala
Pantar
Lomblen
PAPUA
NEW
GUINEA
Java Sea
Dili
EAST TIMOR
INDONESIA
Savu Sea
Timor Sea
EAST
TIMOR
Pante Makasar
Oecussi
Nitibe
Mutis
Atapupu
Liquica
Maubara
Ermera
Balibo
es
Lo er
v
Ri
INDONESIA
i
mba
Lautem
Baucau
Manatuto
DILI
Mt. Matabia
2368m
Aileu
Mt Ramelau
Maliana
Atambua
Strait
Wetar
Atauro
ait
Str
Suai
2963m
Same
Barique
Fatuberliu
Betano
Baguia
Tutuala
Lospalos
Uato-Lari
Viqueque
EAST
TIMOR
Timor
Kefamenanu
2427m
West Timor
Besikama
Barati
AUSTRALIA
Semau
Timor
Kupang
Sea
N
0
N
1000 km
Scale
Roti
Pepela
100 km
Scale
Figure 1.8
Small-scale and large-scale
Location
Scale
maps of Timor
Natural and human features are located, found or

placed on the earths surface. Each place has an
absolute location and a relative location. An absolute
location is the accurate pinpointing of a specific place.
Using coordinates, an accurate measurement for an
absolute location can be calculated. For example, the
house you live in has a number in a particular street
and suburb. Maps are used to identify a place by
calculating its absolute location, for example, when you
use a street directory with grid squares, a topographic
map with grid references (six-figure) or an atlas with its
parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude. If you
are given the following information about the
location of a city, latitude 37 50S and longitude
145 0 E, using an atlas or online search tool, you
could quickly identify these as the coordinates for the
specific location of Melbourne, Victoria.
The relative location of a place is measured by the
distance and direction from one place to another. For
example in figure 1.6, Echuca, in Victoria (a region),
can be identified as being located a distance of 70
kilometres north west of Shepparton, a distance of 30
kilometres north of Rochester and on the southern bank
of the Goulburn River (a landmark). The use of place
names, landmarks and regions helps to specify the
relative location of one place by comparison with the
location of another.
Scale is the size of something in relation to something

else. On a map, scale is used to represent the
comparative size of the actual region of the earths
surface with the reduced size used to fit the same
region onto a map page. You would be unlikely to find
a piece of paper large enough to draw an actual sized
map of your school. The skills of a cartographer allow
a region of the earths surface to be drawn to a size or
scale, which fits a page or into an atlas. Map scales
are expressed in words, by a line as a linear scale or by
a fraction or ratio. The scale in this sense allows you
to express distance in kilometres and area in square
metres. Examples to show various ways of expressing
scale can be seen in figure 1.7.
A large-scale map represents or depicts a small
region of the earths surface in some detail. If a map
illustrates a larger region but contains less detail it is
called a small-scale map. In figure 1.8 the enlarged map
of the island of Timor would be described as being a
larger-scaled map when compared to the regional map,
which would be considered to be a smaller-scaled map.
Geographers also use scale to describe the size of
a region being studied. A resource or phenomenon
may be studied at a range of scales. A local scale is a
small region, for example a shopping centre or a farm.
A regional scale covers a larger area, for example
Gippsland or Melbournes metropolitan area. A national
scale relates to an entire country. An international
scale allows for a study to extend over the borders of
two or more nations. The Christchurch earthquakes
Distance
Distance is the space between different locations
on the earths surface. If you travel along or pace
the distance using a measuring tape, pedometer or
odometer you can measure the distance between
places. Distance on a map can be calculated by
reference to its scale; it can be also measured digitally
by use of online, mapping measurement tools or
GPS data. This absolute or linear distance is usually
expressed in metres or kilometres. Figure 1.9 illustrates
the road distances between the major cities and
towns in Arizona, USA. This map relies on annotations
to illustrate accurate distances rather than the
interpretation of a scale.
Distance can also be expressed in time, for example
the time that it takes to travel from one place to another,
or the cost or convenience of this trip. Figure 1.10
indicates the time that it takes to cover the road
distance between Melbourne and Sale. This form of
expressing distance is known as relative distance. In
peak hour traffic it may take 30 minutes to cover a
distance of 5 kilometres, whereas the same distance may
only take 10 minutes when the traffic is much lighter.
Distribution
The arrangement of objects or features on the earths
surface is known as distribution. At a local scale,
houses located along a road are described as being
distributed in a linear pattern. At a regional scale
dense forest may be randomly distributed throughout
an area, although it may be spatially associated with
steep mountain slopes. Figure 1.11 (page 6) shows
diagrammatically that the pattern the location of
objects make on the ground can be described as being
clustered, dispersed, linear, radial or random in nature.
Figure 1.6 (page 3) shows that Shepparton is one of a
number of small and medium-sized settlements, which
are evenly dispersed or evenly distributed within the
region south of the Goulburn River.
Fredonia
Page
89
40
72
do
ora
127
40
82
Williams
43
Prescott
Wickenburg
Ehrenberg
54
148
140
120
22
198
Globe
59
27
Florence
Casa Grande
104
Yuma
124
Safford
Tucson
75
Lukeville
101
77
72
10
63
Benson
118
19
Distance in kilometres
Clifton
71
55
114
129
46
97
Show Low
10
77
100
87
76
145
55
58
Gila Bend
187
72
91
PHOENIX
153
133
Holbrook
94
Springerville
110
93
81
40
Payson
17
148
10
145
48
59
95
do
Flagstaff
49
Sedona
31
68
26
84
168
57
30
103
Topock
119
109
126
Seligman
32
29
100
127
69
Chinle
134
Kingman
lor
56
73
l
Co
Grand Canyon Village
Boulder Lake
City Mead
Co
Lake Powell
er
48
Riv
River
of 2011 occurred at a local scale. The impact of

the earthquakes was at a national scale, whereas
the rescue and relief effort was carried out at an
international scale since recovery teams came from
Australia, USA and Japan. The messages of support
and media interest in the earthquake were of a global
scale. The global scale does not have to cover every
location or region on earth, but it covers a significant
proportion of the earth or has representation on or
from most continents.
ESSENTIAL SKILLS
Nogales
77
Douglas
Figure 1.9
0.5
1.5
2 hrs
MELBOURNE
MELBOURNE
The road distances between

the major cities and towns
in Arizona, USA
Dandenong
Dandenong
M1
Warragul
Warragul
Moe
Moe
Morwell
Morwell
Leongatha
Leongatha
Sale
Sale
Traralgon
Traralgon
Yarram
Yarram
Figure 1.10
The time that it takes to
cover the road distance
between Melbourne and
Sale
Distribution patterns are best identified through the

use of geographic media, such as maps, graphs and
Geographic Information Systems data (GIS). A common
technique employed to describe patterns uses the cue
of PQE.
P general pattern
Q quantification
E exceptions
When you first look at a piece of geographic media,
there is generally something that you notice about the
Clustered
Dispersed
Linear
Radial
Random
Figure 1.11
Distribution patterns
Figure 1.12
Topographic map of
Castlemaine
overall pattern of the data. The initial description is of

the general pattern, where most of the phenomenon
is located. For example, most of the worlds tropical
rainforests are located on land which straddles the
equator. Quantification is the adding of statistics to
give specific detail to the general pattern and to define
the pattern more closely. To quantify it is common
to name a specific region or countries and provide
examples of the pattern using statistics derived from
the geographic media. For example, the largest regions
of tropical rainforest are found in South America, Africa
and South-East Asia. The worlds largest rainforest is
the Amazon in South America; it is 4 million square
kilometres in size. There are often instances where
something does not fit the overall pattern, and these

are known as the exceptions. These exceptions need to
be identified, usually by their location or by outstanding
levels of production and quantified. For example, the
Daintree Rainforest in northern Queensland is an
exception to the general pattern, as it is located almost
1500 kilometres south of the Equator.
ESSENTIAL SKILLS
Activities
1. Using figure 1.9 calculate the distance between
Phoenix and Flagstaff
Phoenix and Yuma via Casa Grande
Phoenix and Sedona.
Explain why the last of these calculations may be less accurate than the previous two?
Use figure 1.12 to answer questions 2 to 6 below.
2. Describe the location of Castlemaine in terms of its absolute location and relative location.
3. a. What is the distance and direction by road from Elphinstone to Castlemaine?
b. How long would it take to travel by road from Elphinstone to Castlemaine, if the average speed you are able
to travel is 90 kilometres per hour over this distance?
4. Locate and name a road along which there is a linear distribution of houses.
5. Describe the distribution pattern of the rail system from Castlemaine.
6. Water supply to the area for agricultural purposes is provided at a variety of scales.
Describe the distribution of the water resources.
7. Use your atlas to identify maps which illustrate examples of clustered, dispersed, linear, radial or random
distribution patterns. Write a sentence for each example to describe the nature of each distribution pattern that
you have identified.
Region
A region is an area of the earths surface that contains
one or more common characteristics that distinguish
it from other areas. Regions are classifications most
commonly made by people to define or separate one
area from another area. In some instances there are
clearly definable regions of the natural environment,
such as the drainage basin of the Murray-Darling Basin,
where the direction of water flow determines the
boundary of the region.
There are regions within regions depending on
the scale of the study being undertaken. In primary
school you learnt the eight key political regions of
Australia, when you had to name and map the States
and Territories of Australia. The States are further
divided into regions of local government, which are
even smaller political jurisdictions. Victorias Indigenous
language groups can be mapped as distinct regions
as shown in figure 1.13. Regions may be classified as
having similar physical characteristics such as climatic
zones, vegetation or topography. Regions might have
social similarities such as language, population density,
wealth or religion or political similarities such as a
large proportion of voters in an electorate supporting a
particular political party.
Wadi Wadi
Ngargad
Wiradjuri
Wemba Wemba
100 km
Scale
Yorta Yorta
Baraba Baraba
Waveroo
Ngurraiillam
Jaltmatang
Ngarigo
Fig_01_13_bk1_2011
Wergaia
Djadjawurung
Taungurong
Jardwadjali
Djabwurung
Bindali
Buandig
Wathaurong
Figure 1.15
Kurnai
MELBOURNE
Djargurdwurung
Gulidjan
Gunditjmara
Bidwell
Woiworung
from 3rd edition, November 2005

( fig 1.17)
Dadi Dadi
New Perspectives Book 1
Nari Nari
Latje Latje
updated and re-supplied September 2011
Madi Madi
Meru
Movement of wind and waves, Twelve Apostles, Victoria
Boonwurrung
Giraiwurung
Gadubanud
Figure 1.13
Victorias Indigenous
language regions
Figure 1.14
Route network showing the
movement of Easyjet aircraft
0
5W
10W
GERMANY
Paris
N
200
300 km
Vezelay
Scale
SWITZERLAND
Potiers
Atlantic Ocean
FRANCE
45N
Le-Puy-en-Velay
Bordeaux
ITALY
Bay of
Biscay
Sarria
Leon
St-Jean-Pied-de-Port
Roncesvalles
Pamplona
Burgos
PORTUGAL
Arles
Tolouse
Santiago de Compostela
SPAIN
Logorno
Gulf of
Lion
Figure 1.16
Mediterranean
Sea
5E
The route taken by pilgrims

along the Camino de
Santiago Frances
Created new September 2011
100
50
Fig_01_16_bk1_2011
Movement
ESSENTIAL SKILLS
Activities
Movement is the change in location of phenomena,

such as people, resources and ideas, between places
across the earths surface. It might involve the change
in location of goods, services, water, money, energy,
education and technology. Movement can be people
travelling between locations, for example along
roads or flight paths, and it can also be the movement
of water between a rivers source and its mouth.
Movement might follow a purpose-built or pre-arranged
route, such as a power transmission-line, a railway
track, a telephone line, a freeway, a pipeline, a ski run
or a tour-bus itinerary. Movement may also be more
random in nature, such as seeds being dispersed by
the wind, backpackers wandering throughout Europe,
the smoke from forest fires, a locust plague or the
movement of wind and waves (figure 1.15).
Movement is greatly affected by the scale or size of
the material being shifted and the distance between
locations. If there is a direct route such as a freeway
between two locations, a very large volume of traffic
can be moved. If there is only a small car ferry linking
an island to the mainland, the volume of movement
between these locations is limited by the capacity and
frequency of the ferry. Movement is often identified on
a map by arrows showing the direction of flow. Figure
1.14 shows the movement of Easyjet aeroplanes from
Gatwick to destinations in Europe.
1. a. The Camino de Santiago is a trail taken by pilgrims for over 1000 years. Use
figure 1.16 to describe the patterns of movement taken by pilgrims along
the Camino Frances section of the trail. (Camino Frances means The French
Way.) In your description identify the possible starting points in France and
the end point of Santiago de Compostela.
b. Identify the region within which this movement of pilgrims occurs.
c. What is the distance of this pilgrimage if the starting point is Paris, France?
d. The location of the route of this pilgrimage has not changed over time. How
might the actual trail or path have changed?
2. Draw a simple sketch of figure 1.15 and on it clearly label and indicate the
direction of at least three possible examples of movement and two of a possible
change over time.
3. Investigate the way that movement patterns are illustrated in your atlas. Make
note of the methods applied to illustrate movement and comment on their
effectiveness.
Town
Figure 1.17
Car park
Spatial association between

tourists and the Piazza San
Interaction
between car parks
and walking tracks
Interaction at local
fishing spots
Landing of small craft
Driftwood
High tide marks
Marco, Venice
Local beach
Interaction
between
paths and
beach
Figure 1.18
Annotation of a coastal
scene to show spatial
association
10
Figure 1.19
A view of the Ovens Valley in
northern Victoria
Spatial association
Spatial association is the association or connection
that can be made between the distribution patterns
of two or more geographic characteristics. Spatial
association can occur between two natural geographic
characteristics or features of the earths surface.
For example, there is a strong spatial association
between regions of the earths surface that receive
less than 250 millimetres of rainfall annually and the
occurrence of desert environments. Spatial association
can occur between the human activities that take
place on the earth. Most modern cities see a strong
spatial association between the distribution of regions
of highest population density with the occurrence of
high-rise or multi-level apartment buildings. A spatial
association can also occur between the distribution of a
natural geographic characteristic and a human activity.
For example there is a strong spatial association
between high mountains, the frequency of snowfall and
the development of facilities for snow sports.
The area over which a spatial association between
two distributions takes place can be viewed at a range
of scales: local, regional, national or global. Throughout
this text there are many references made to spatial
association at a variety of scales. Spatial association
can be observed when doing fieldwork or identified in
photographs; figure 1.17 shows that there is a strong
spatial association between tourists, signs and safety
barriers to manage tourists, souvenir stalls and the
Piazza San Marco in Venice. Figure 1.18 shows that
there is strong spatial association between the high
tide mark and the location of driftwood.
Spatial association is most readily recognised
on a map or between maps, when two geographic
characteristics are mapped as a distribution in the

same place. The use of map overlays or GIS map layers
can help to identify a spatial association.
Geographers are concerned about the degree to
which a spatial association may exist: they identify
a strong spatial association, a weak spatial
association or say that there is no evidence to show
that any spatial association exists. A strong spatial
association exists when the connection between the
two patterns being described is closely tied together.
An example is that in mountainous regions there is a
strong spatial association between the location of road
and rail links and flatter valley floors. If two factors
are both low in frequency the connection between one
characteristic occurring and the other characteristic
occurring is also described as strong. In Australia
there is a strong spatial association between regions
with very little rainfall and low population densities.
A weak spatial association can be described as
when one characteristic is high in frequency and the
other characteristic is lower in frequency, but the two
characteristics can still be identified at a location. In
Australia there is a weak spatial association between
regions with over 1600 millimetres of rainfall each year
and regions of high population density. To explain this
weak spatial association, there are several relatively
large settlements such as Darwin and Cairns within this
rainfall distribution, but there are places such as the
east coast of Tasmania or Cape York, which have very
few settlements at all. The non-existence of spatial
association refers to when one characteristic is present
but the other characteristic is not present; for example,
there is no spatial association between regions where
rice can grow and polar climates.
Activities
1. Identify two examples of spatial association in
figure 1.18.
2. Use your atlas maps at a variety of scales to
identify and describe four examples of a strong
spatial association and four examples of a weak or
no spatial association.
ESSENTIAL SKILLS
Figure 1.20
Southern Cross Station looking towards Melbourne CBD
Spatial interaction
Spatial interaction is the relationship between
phenomena (such as people, resources or ideas) and
the degree to which they influence each other or the
patterns that they form on the earths surface. Ability
to recognise a spatial interaction often grows from a
study of spatial association, but two things that interact
with each other may not occupy the same space. Most
spatial interaction involves movement. Both movement
and spatial interaction require a shift in location,
linkages or influence between locations. Things that are
located closer together usually have a stronger spatial
interaction between them than anything separated by a
great distance.
An example of two phenomena that are close in
distance having a significant impact or high degree
of spatial interaction between them are Melbournes
Central Business District (CBD) and the Docklands
Stadium, apartment and commercial precinct that
are linked by Southern Cross Railway Station. The
walkway/promenade across the railway line allows
a high degree of spatial interaction between these
locations (this can be seen in figure 1.20). Football
fans, workers from the CBD, tourists and residents are
able to move between the two locations and spatially
interact with each other and the facilities available
in each place. This spatial interaction produces the
consequence of crowding or uneven usage patterns for
this resource. This movement of people especially
before and after a match or concert, or when people
seek access to car parks on work or game days also
involves Southern Cross Railway Station. The rail
network allows for spatial interaction between this
entertainment and commercial precinct and the greater
urban area of Melbourne and beyond.
Figure 1.21
Map of Melbourne, circa
1860s
The intensity of the spatial interaction is usually

described as having a high or low degree of
connectivity. There is a high degree of spatial
interaction between Australia and China, resulting in
the movement of wealth and minerals and with China
influencing and sometimes financing infrastructure
projects within the mineral production regions of
Australia. Australian tourists have a high level of
spatial interaction with warm beach environments
such as Bali, but show a much lower degree of spatial
interaction with cold or inaccessible places like
Figure 1.22
Part of the small town of
Audierne, northern France
11
12
1
Patagonia, South America. This spatial interaction has
resulted in many Australians owning and operating
tourist-related businesses in Bali but not in Patagonia.
The returning tourists may also be influenced to try to
recreate a Balinese garden or seek out Balinese-style
restaurants or art galleries in Melbourne.
documenting the seasonal change of vegetation cover

or the impact of a tsunami on a coastal region, is best
identified through the use of satellite imagery.
Spatial change over time
1. On a simple sketch, clearly identify, through use of

labels and arrows, one or more examples of spatial
interaction in three of figures 1.1, 1.3, 1.16, 1.17,
1.18 and 1.22.
Spatial change over time refers to the degree to which

a region has changed its geographic characteristics,
features or patterns over a period of time. Change to
the natural and human environments occurs at varying
rates at different times, and may be considered at
different scales. Some of these changes are made in
the short term, such as the number of people sitting in
the stands during a football game or the movement of
cars through an intersection. Long-term spatial changes
can occur more slowly, such as the development of a
meander on the Mekong River or the changing height of
the Himalayas.
Spatial change over time can be identified through
a variety of geographic media such as photographs,
satellite images, archaeological digs or radiometric
dating to establish the age of geological landforms.
Different editions of an atlas, a street directory or
a topographic map of the same region can reveal
significant change.
In figure 1.21 the old map of Melbourne shows that
the style, accuracy and content of maps has changed
over time. If you compared this 1860s map to one in
the most recent street directories or atlases, you would
discover that although some features remain the same,
many have changed and many new features have been
added.
The local environment may experience changing
land use, clearing of indigenous vegetation, building of
dams and reclaiming of coastal land. The development
of features of the human environment may include
the building and decommissioning of transport routes,
the expansion or decline of settlements and the
development of agricultural infrastructure. Figure 1.22
(page 11) is part of Audierne, a small town on the
Brittany coast of northern France. Its character has
been preserved by only permitting new and renovated
buildings to be in the style of the past. Preserving
examples of the old landscape is evidence of how this
town has changed through time. A series of maps or
photos can readily identify change over long periods
of time. Short-term spatial change over time, such as
Activities
2. Compare figure 1.21 with a modern map of

Melbourne in an atlas or street directory. Identify
and describe four examples of the spatial change
over time.
3. Describe an example of spatial change over time
that has occurred within your local community
within your lifetime.
Organising
geographic data
location, scale, distance and distribution. Geographic

characteristics include natural features such as
topography, natural vegetation and climate, and human
features such as dams, plantations, buildings and
roads.
As a geographer you interpret evidence in such
a way that you are able to describe and explain the
geographic characteristics of a location. A geographic
characteristic is something that helps to identify a
place as being the same or different to another place.
The geographic characteristics of the Tidewater
Glacier, seen in figure 1.25, are the features and
To make sense of what is a large, complex and often

seemingly chaotic world, it helps to use organising
concepts to focus your views and to provide a framework.
Describing geographic
characteristics
Geographic characteristics are features and influences
identified in the natural and human environment which
can often be described using spatial concepts such as
Figure 1.23
Climate graph (left)
15
200
10
150
100
50
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
Temperature C
Identify and describe the

geographic characteristics
of environments.
Analyse and explain data
about the geographic
characteristics of
environments.

Rainfall in millimetres
Figure 1.24
Figure 1.25
Regional map (left)
The Tidewater Glacier
Whitehorse
Haines Junction
Carcross
Fraser
Teslin
Lake
Skagway
Haines
Scale
Admiralty
Island
Angoon
Petersburg
Sitka
Pacific Ocean
Hyder
International boundary
Highway
Railroad
Ferry
140W
Cruise ships
Wrangell
Baranof
Island
Prince
of Wales
Island
55N
Figure 1.26
Ketchican
Prince Rupert
135W
200 km
N
0
Juneau
Fig_01_24_bk1_2011
Yakutat
13
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Rainfall in millimetres
Temperature C
Average rainfall and temperatures in

Juneau, United States of America
-5
ESSENTIAL SKILLS
14
influences that can be identified in that environment.

These include its location, height, the distance over
which the glacier travels, its topography, the roads and
trails which may allow access, and the distribution and
density of snow and ice, and whether it is advancing or
retreating.
s
urist
o
t
r
n
me
sum etchika
0
0
0
10, day in K A state capita
l city
per
with no road acce
ss
sts!
Gold, salmonP, fore
Figure 1.27
urch
Russ ased from
ia in 1
Winter avera
867
ge m
aximum
s of -2 degre
es Celsius
temperature
Early settlers hut

Figure 1.30
Collage of headlines relating to this location
Activities
1. Use the clues included within figures 1.23 to 1.30
to identify the regional location and describe its
natural and human geographic characteristics.
Figure 1.28
Wilderness
2. Select a region from a different continent to

compare with the region you described in
the activity above. Use the Internet and your atlas
to collect a range of geographic data to illustrate
its geographic characteristics. Test your data on
other members of your class to see if they are able
to identify the specific location of your region from
the geographic characteristics you have provided.
Describing and interpreting

graphs
Figure 1.29
A first peoples
totem
Graphs can also be described by using the PQE method

(see describing distribution patterns on pages 5 to 6).
Identification of the general pattern shows that you
understand the graphed relationship. You might identify
significant pieces of quantification, such as, for
example, from a population profile of Vietnam, that 65
per cent of the population are under 30 years of age.
This quantification shows that you understand the
scales on the X and Y axes of the graph and
strengthens your answer. An exception may be that
(again using a population profile) there are many more
females than males between the ages of 20 and 30
years. This is not a general pattern but an anomalous

piece of data or an exception to a general pattern.
A simple acronym to help with the interpretation of
graphs may be the use of SALTS.
Scale (as in a consistent scale on each axis), Axes
(both clearly labelled), Legend (when there is more
than one data set illustrated by the graph), Title (with
a clear wording which reflects the relationship being
graphed) and Source (or producer of the data being
used).
Identifying geographic factors

Human activity and natural processes can be
classified or viewed in terms of geographic factors.
These social, historic, economic, environmental and
physical, political and technological factors (known
by their acronym as SHEEPT factors) are responsible,
or partially responsible, for determining the
characteristics of natural and human environments and
the ways that we might view them.
Social factors
Social factors are the features and values of
particular societies. They include attitudes, religion,
language, work skills, cultural norms, population
structure and ethnicity. Religious influences on a
society may encourage large families. Gender norms
within a society may result in most farm work being
traditionally undertaken by women in Africa or by men
in Australia or North America.
Historic factors
Historic factors are evident when past actions
or thinking may have influenced the present
characteristics of a natural or human environment. The
road patterns that dominate many cities are inherited
from past access decisions, and often built to fit the
less frequent, horse-drawn transport of its time.
Economic factors
Economic factors are the activities linked to the
creation and spending of money. Employment,
income, costs of goods and services, balance of trade,
government and non-government spending are all
economic factors. An economic factor may impact
on the natural environment in terms of economic
rationalism. If a national park has a monetary value
placed on its existence, a government might try to sell
or lease its assets to provide for the cost of upkeep.
ESSENTIAL SKILLS
Environmental and physical

factors
Environmental factors are the characteristics
of a natural or human environment. The natural
factors are often referred to as physical factors,
and include the shape of the land, drainage, soils,
indigenous vegetation and climate. A human, highly
built environment such as New York City may have
little about it that is identifiably natural, except its
topography, coastline and atmosphere. General
features of the human environment include structures
such as roads, buildings, mines, farmland and wind
farms.
Political factors
Political factors are the work of individuals,
government agencies and non-government
organisations which shape natural and human
environments. Political influence can protect an
environment, as easily as it can destroy it. Policy,
legislation, planning permission, election promises,
trade deals and protest activities are all political
actions that can greatly influence the state of the
environment. Political factors have had a great
influence on Vietnam (Chapter 7), for example.
Technological factors
Technological factors show the global influence
of developments in science, engineering and
communications. Our ability to be able to do things
and to think and act to promote sustainability is
underpinned by technological developments. Can
you think of several ways our towns and cities would
function differently without electronic technology?
15
16
Activity
Interpreting the
instructional wording
used in Geography
The following instructional terms are commonly used
in Geography examination questions, as fieldwork and
practical task instructions and for class activities. Use
them as a check to help you to understand the meaning
of terms and how to approach a particular task.
Analyse
Show the essence of something by breaking it down and

critically examining the relationship between each part.
Classify
Make clear or simplify facts, opinions, issues or arguments.
Compare
Show the similarities and differences when you compare two

events, theories, features or processes.
Contrast
Show the differences between two or more processes, features

or things.
Describe
Say what something is like by using information from available

data.
Discuss
Investigate to show whether you understand a situation and,

where appropriate, both sides of an issue or event. Include the
strengths and weaknesses of the available data.
Evaluate
Weigh up and interpret a statement, viewpoint or situation.
Explain
Give reasons why a situation exists or a process occurs.
Identify
Establish the nature of a situation by distinguishing its features

and naming them.
Justify
You will be expected to use examples or find sufficient evidence

to show why (in your opinion) a viewpoint or conclusion is
correct.
loss of habitat, poaching, government instability and pressure
Outline
Summarise the main events of a situation.
from landless local farmers to clear land for crops. Even
Predict
Suggest what may happen based on evidence gathered.
with a rapidly increasing local population, the prospect for
Quantify
Use numbers or statistics to describe a phenomenon.
the survival of the gorillas is improving as this region moves
Rank
Arrange factors or elements according to their importance.
Suggest
Present a hypothesis about a particular situation.
Figure 1.31
Mountains gorillas in Rwanda. Rwandas famed mountain
gorillas have been trapped in a war zone for many years but
they have managed to survive. There have been incursions
into their park by armed rebels, human spread of disease,
toward a fragile peace. Despite initiatives such as improved

education, increased tourism and rangers patrolling the
forests borders, park authorities still find protecting the
gorillas an ongoing challenge.
1. Which factors have been responsible for

threatening the future survival of the mountain
gorillas?
2. Rank these factors in your order of importance.
Justify your ranking.
3. Explain which factor/s may be the most successful
means of protecting these gorillas into the future
and why.
ESSENTIAL SKILLS
17
18
Unit 1
Natural
Environments
19
Chapter 2 Introduction to natural

environments
20
Chapter 3 Volcanic environments 30
Chapter 4 Victorias forest

environments
Chapter 5 Coastal environments 80
54
Areas of Study
1. Characteristics of natural
environments
2. Changes in natural environments
Outcome 1
On completion of this unit the student
should be able to describe the geographic
characteristics of at least two natural
environments, and explain how they are
developed by natural processes, including
extreme natural events.
Outcome 2
On completion of this unit the student
should be able to analyse and explain the
changes in natural environments due to
natural processes and human activity.
20
I N T R O D U C T I O N T O N AT U R A L E N V I R O N M E N T S
Introduction to
Natural Environments
Geography focuses on the spatial distribution of natural
phenomena and the interaction of humans with the
natural world. By studying Geography we endeavour
to understand and explain the natural world in which
we live, and the natural environments found there. The
photographs in figure 2.1 show some of the earths
many thousands of natural environments. You can
probably think of quite a few more different natural
environments.
The natural environment of a particular location is
made up of all the natural components and conditions
found there, Non-living components such as landforms
Figure 2.1
Some of the earths natural
environments
of mountains and valleys, water features such as

rivers, geological features such as rocks and soils,
as well as the atmospheric features of sunlight
and heat, rain and snow, make up the physical part
of the environment. Living things, such as plants,
animals, fungi and bacteria, make up the biological
part of the environment. It is the inter-relationship of
these features that produces the variety of natural
environments that you will examine in this unit. People
also have a special role in a natural environment and
this, too, will be discussed.
| U N I T O N E | N AT U R A L E N V I R O N M E N T S | C H A P T E R T W O |
Characteristics of
A natural system
natural environments A system is any ordered, interrelated set of things. A
In this unit you will investigate the geographic
characteristics of natural environments. You will
discover that there are many different natural
environments on earth. Some are dry with very hard
soils. Some are wet with very thick soils. Some
environments are hot while others are cold. Some
are hilly while others are flat. Some are regularly
inundated with water while others are on high, rocky
ground. Some have rivers of water, while others have
rivers of slowly moving ice. Some are influenced by
their coastal locations. Some are heavily forested,
while others are sparsely vegetated.
These geographic characteristics of natural
environments can be grouped into broad categories
such as climate, topography, natural vegetation and
soils. These characteristics in different combinations
help determine the uniqueness of locations across our
planet like the ones in figure 2.1.
major natural system is made up of combinations of

geographic characteristics of four components: the
biosphere, the lithosphere, the atmosphere and the
hydrosphere. These are referred to as the four spheres.
The earths four spheres
Gases surrounding
the earth
The biosphere is the part of the earths atmosphere,

hydrosphere and lithosphere that contains and
supports living and non-living organic matter.
The lithosphere is referred to as the earth. It
comprises the strong, rigid parts of the earth, as
well as the liquid rock of lava and loose sand and
soil.
The atmosphere is composed of the gases
surrounding the earth. It is commonly referred to as
the air above us. The lower layer, the troposphere,
extends about 8 kilometres above the earths
surface, and is composed of nitrogen and oxygen.
Within this layer, most living things exist.
The hydrosphere is composed of the water
components of the earth, such as oceans, lakes,
rivers, groundwater, glaciers, snowfields and icecaps.
Rocks, minerals
and soil
Figure 2.2
The earths four spheres that
form natural environments
Living and non-living

organic matter
Water components
21
22
Where these spheres meet there is a series of

surfaces. The connection between the four spheres can
be shown as a diagram, figure 2.2.
The relationships between these spheres produce
a particular natural system. For example, the forest
environment in figure 2.3 is the result of the hot
and humid weather and climate (atmosphere)
providing sufficient moisture (hydrosphere) to allow
plants (biosphere) to grow densely from the ground
(lithosphere). It is possible to identify different natural
systems within this large system: within the crowns
of the trees, another at the base of the trees and yet
another within the leaf litter and upper layers of the
soil at ground level. Within each of these natural
systems, the relationships between the spheres will be
quite different. There may be higher moisture content
in the leaf littler, or it could be quite dry. The amount
and type of animal, bird and insect life in the crown
may be very different to that at ground
level. Therefore the geographic
characteristics of each
natural system will
be different.
A tropical rainforest
Inputs, components and
Inputs and outputs

A natural system is not simply a collection of parts or
components from different spheres. A natural system
functions because of a combination of inputs, processes
and outputs that interact with each other together with
the components that make up the natural system. The
inputs to any natural system come from one or more of
the spheres, and the processes that operate do so as a
result of the interaction between them.
The following key terms should be understood in any
study of a natural environment.
Inputs. Items or forces that enter the system, such as
wind or precipitation.
Components. The material things that make up a
natural system. These can be best defined in terms of
the four spheres. Components can be considered to
be specific, for example an environments vegetation,
rocks, water and air.
Processes. The methods of operation or types of
actions within a system by which energy or matter are
moved into, around or out of a system; for example
weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition,
evaporation, photosynthesis.
Outputs. Matter or energy leaving the natural system,
such as the sediments carried by a river, or water
vapour ascending into the atmosphere above an ocean.
In figure 2.4, inputs enter an area and interact
with the components to generate processes, which
in turn can influence other components to create the
outputs that leave the system. The shape of the land or
landforms, such as mountains, valleys and plains, are
some of the outputs created by processes in natural
systems. Other outputs, such as sediments and water,
might become inputs for another system. For example
sand that is washed on and off an off-shore bar of a
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
Inputs enter the area and interact with the components to generate processes which,
in turn, can influence other components to create the outputs that leave the system.
outputs
Pr
Inputs
o c es s es
Components
Pr
o c es s es
Mat ter is recirculated or recycled
Outputs
coastal system is being recycled by the process of

wave action. The sand is both an input as it is washed
onto the bar, and an output as it is washed off the bar.
In a desert system the input of wind from the
atmosphere enters the region and interacts with the
rocks of the lithosphere. This input helps the process
of erosion to occur, with the rocks blasted by sandladen wind. Much of the sand will be blown out of the
region (as an output) but some is blown and deposited
(process) within the region as a sand dune. At a later
time, even this sand could be moved out of the region
by natural processes.
Activities
1. Look at the natural environments in figure 2.1 on
page 20. What features distinguish them from each
other?
2. Which is the odd one out in each of the following
collection of words about inputs and outputs?
a. atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, erosion,
lithosphere
b. weathering, erosion, deposition, evaporation,
rocks
c. mountains, plains, rivers, valleys, deltas.
3. Select one of the environments shown in figure
2.1. on page 20. Make a sketch outline of its main
features. In one colour label each of the four
spheres. In another colour, label where different
processes are likely to be taking place. With a third
colour, label specific features formed by processes
that are outputs. Complete your work with a title
and a key.
Interaction between
the spheres
The interaction that occurs between the spheres of
natural systems makes the earths natural environments
dynamic. The processes that occur between the
spheres are always operating.
Interaction in a natural system refers to the
connection between two or more components, as a
result of the processes that operate between them. The
extent to which all spheres interconnect will depend
on the environment being studied. As geographers, it is
important to explain why differences occur where they
do, both within and between natural systems.
A study of oceanography would be dominated
by the hydrosphere; geology is dominated by the
lithosphere. A coastal system, however, would involve
interaction between all spheres: waves (hydrosphere),
beach or coastline (lithosphere), wind, rain and heat
(atmosphere) and dune plants (biosphere). The coastal
system would have inputs from one system to another
with processes of interaction. For example, there could
be erosion caused by the interaction between moving
water and the land.
A desert system, as in figure 2.5, would be
dominated by three of the spheres. The atmosphere
Figure 2.5
A desert system, central
Australia
23
24
involves the sun that creates the energy to influence

weathering, wind action and the low, unreliable rainfall.
The lithosphere is significant as vegetation is sparse
and landforms appear bare. The plants and animals
of the biosphere interact with the lithosphere and the
type of input from the hydrosphere. Plants and animals
are highly specialised, being adapted to the heat and
lack of water. The hydrosphere appears to be almost
non-existent because of the low rainfall. However, it
is critical in allowing life forms to exist and probably
plays a very significant role in weathering and erosional
processes. During rare periods of heavy rainfall water
can become part of the major processes of erosion
and deposition, as well as the revitalisation of the
biosphere.
Energy and cycling of matter
Figure 2.6
The cycling of matter
Energy is the ability to do work. In order for processes

to take place within a natural system, there needs to be
a flow of energy between components. The energy of
water running across the ground flows from the water
to the land, and is used in the process of erosion. The
energy of wind blowing across the ocean generates
waves, which are an indication of the energy flowing
in the water. The flow of energy through ocean waves
gives them the ability to do work. When the waves
approach the coast, this energy is released as crashing
surf, and waves gain the ability to erode cliffs and
beaches. Pages 11 to 12 examine the effects of this
process of spatial interaction in greater detail.
through a forest system
The energy within a system provides the power to

carry matter through the system. Erosion produces
matter such as rock particles and sand from coastal
cliffs, for example, and the water transports and
deposits this matter in the ocean. It may be deposited
as a sand bar or transported out of the system. This
movement of matter through a system is known as
cycling of matter.
Figure 2.6 shows a typical forest water cycle. There
are inputs of water into the soil from rainfall and the
river. Water is transported throughout the soil layer and
also enters the groundwater layer below the soil. The
roots of the trees absorb water, which then travels up
the trunks into the leaves, and out through microscopic
holes in the leaves as water vapour or transpiration.
During heavy rains and floods, there is a major input
of water, resulting in greater infiltration into the
groundwater. Some water flows out of the system via
the river. Transpiration and river flow are the outputs.
In a river system sediments can be deposited in the
river itself in times of low-energy flow. When there is
high-energy flow, some or all of the sediments will be
eroded and transported to another location, which may
be out of the river system. Through the processes of
erosion, transportation and deposition, the sediments
are being cycled through the system.
In desert regions, wind-blown sand (matter) can be
deposited as a sand dune. During a windstorm some of
this sand is picked up, blown and deposited elsewhere,
thus cycling the matter through the desert system.
Rainfall
Transpiration
Evaporation
Input from
floods
River
Runoff
Infiltration
Uptake by roots
Water table
Groundwater
Soil
River red gum
Yellow box
Cypress pine
Flood
Flow of water
In a beach system, sand can be blown or transported

from the beach inland to add to sand dunes. Another
time this same sand may be washed back or blown
back to the beach. Sand can be transported out to
sea, deposited as a sand bar and then washed back to
its place on the beach. Matter that is returned to its
original place in the system is said to be recycled.
The natural processes affecting the above natural
systems change the landforms and hence the landscape
of a region. Changes occur to environments within
these natural systems. In a river system, erosional
processes can undercut a riverbank, causing slumping
and widening the river channel. Over a long period
of time rivers, like the one in figure 2.10 on page 26,
can wear down rapids and waterfalls to a more gentle
gradient.
Activities
1. Produce a diagram of a natural system showing the
various inputs, components, processes and outputs
that would help describe one of the environments
in figure 2.1 on page 20.
2. Describe how energy can take different forms and
do different things in:
a. a desert environment
b. an ocean environment
c. a river environment.
3. Use examples to explain the difference between
cycling of matter and recycled matter in a natural
system.
4. Movement and spatial interaction are two spatial
concepts. Discuss with another class member how
each of these concepts could be seen to bring about
change in each of the natural environments shown in
figures 2.7 and 2.8.
Figure 2.8
Wild elephants in Southern
Sri Lanka
Figure 2.7
Part of New Caledonias eroding coastline
25
26
2
Change in natural
environments
Natural changes
Figure 2.9
Weathering of granite
boulders at Squeaky Beach,
Wilsons Promontory. This
is a long-term process that
produces a spatial change
over time at a local scale.
Natural processes involve the breakdown of rocks

through weathering (see figure 2.9), the erosion,
transportation and deposition of materials by running
water (figure 2.10), or by the sea, ice and or the wind.
Natural processes also include ecological processes,
such as the development of soils, plant life and
all their linked life forms including insects, birds,
reptiles and other creatures. Natural processes have
produced an immense number of natural environments

including wetlands, deserts, mountains, coasts, oceans,
meanders, deltas, rainforests, grasslands and coral
reefs. The distribution of some of the earths major
landforms developed by natural processes and the basis
of its natural environments is shown in figure 2.11.
If changes to inputs occur, the natural system will
begin to make adjustments to balance these changes.
The operation and appearance of the natural system and
the environment it produces will begin to change. New
features may be identified and a new set of processes
may become dominant. In other words, change has
taken place in the natural system and environment.
Figure 2.10
Waterfalls in southern Sri Lanka
Figure 2.11
The distribution of some of the earths major landforms
Most natural processes take many decades,

sometimes millions of years, to substantially change
the characteristics of an environment. Others, like those
associated with hazards such as cyclones, floods or
earthquakes (see figures 2.13 and 2.14) can bring about
change more rapidly.
As a result of the continual processes that operate,
a natural system is always undergoing some form of
change. These changes to natural systems vary with
time and space. Some changes can be observed over
the length of time and within the space that fieldwork
is conducted (see figure 2.12). Examples include the
spatial interaction between sea water and the coastal
cliff face and the movement of sand in the swash zone
on a beach face, or the rise of a river within a few
hours.
These minor spatial changes over time within a
natural system reflect an adjustment to the energy
available. During periods of low rainfall, rivers
discharge a small volume of water held within their
bed and bank. After heavy rainfall, the extra energy
from the increased water flow can cause erosion of the
rivers banks.
Other changes can only be explained in terms of
geological time. Some changes are caused by the
slow movement of the earths plates and take millions
of years to produce substantial change. Southern
California today has a warm and dry climate, but the
part of southern California west of the San Andreas
Fault is being carried northward by the movement
of the Pacific Plate. In ten million years that part of
California will have moved a thousand kilometres to the
north, and the climate that region experiences will be
cooler and wetter than at present.
Other long-term changes can be caused by variations
in the earths climate. During the last Ice Age, which
ended approximately 8000 to 12 000 years ago, the
earths climate was colder and wetter.

Thick, slow-moving ice sheets covered
large parts of present-day land and
sea masses nearest the poles. Since
then, the earth has become warmer
and drier, although there have been
short sequences of colder and wetter
periods. As a result, the earths
environments with their plant and
animal life have also changed.
Change can occur at different
scales as well as at different times.
The level of a small creek or river
can rise rapidly after heavy rain in a
local region. Local floods and possible
destruction of fish and bird habitats
may result (figure 2.14). However, this
flooding may have little impact on the
larger river system into which it flows.
Widespread heavy rain over a larger
region on the other hand can overwhelm river systems
and bring flood waters to areas where the amount
of rain was low. The movement of flood waters from
southern Queensland for example, may take several
weeks to reach further inland to Lake Eyre or further
south to the Menindee Lakes of New South Wales and
the Murray River.
Figure 2.12
After long-term erosion and
weathering, together with
compaction due to human
foot traffic, London Bridge on
Victorias south-west coast
changed dramatically in a
few hours in 1990.
Figure 2.13
Natural hazards can change
an environment in a short
period of time (right).
Figure 2.14
Floodwaters near Bridgewater, January 2011 (left). Flood waters
have great amounts of energy that can move soil, rocks, undercut
the banks of rivers and creeks in a short period of time.
27
28
Changes due to human activity
Figure 2.15
A new housing estate
near Berwick changes the
existing natural system.
The control of water by building dams across rivers

together with the construction of irrigation
channels and drains has allowed people to alter
regions with plains
and long, growing
seasons into intensely
cultivated farmland.
The Ganges Plains of
northern India and the
Irrawaddy River Delta
of Burma (see figure
2.16) are two
examples. In these
regions, the natural
drainage networks
have been modified
and little of the
original vegetation remains. In Australias

Murrumbidgee region of New South Wales, the
natural environments of trees, grasslands and
wetlands were converted by European settlers in the
1840s to grazing land and later into a combination of
grazing land and dryland crop farming. The
availability of irrigation water became more
widespread after the 1950s and has led to further
changes to the natural systems of the region.
The series of adjustments to change made by any

natural system is an indication of the system trying
to balance fluctuations in energy and inputs between
processes and outputs. The state of balance or stability
within a natural system is referred to as its dynamic
equilibrium. However, because a system is constantly
adjusting, a true equilibrium in never achieved.
There are many thousands of examples where people
have caused changes to natural environments by
changing the components and even the process of
natural systems. For example, a forest or grassland can
be changed into farmland or a new suburban housing
estate in just a few months or a few years. You can see
this process of change occurring in figure 2.15.
Some other large-scale and small-scale changes to
natural environments by human activity include:
Desertification, the process by which regions

experience increasingly arid conditions, has been
particularly noticeable in the Sahel region of Africa.
This process is most probably a combination of
several factors, some natural, some human: natural
climate fluctuations, increasing size of cattle and
goat herds eating the sparse vegetation, as well as
the continued collection by people of wood from
trees and scrub for fuel.
Figure 2.16
Part of the Irrawaddy River Delta, Burma
In the largest urban areas, air pollution is a

common characteristic. Gases emitted by
industrial processes and motor vehicles do not
occur naturally. One World Health Organization
estimate is that Cairos (Egypt) atmosphere
is so polluted that exposure to it all day is an
equivalent of smoking a packet of cigarettes a
day. Airborne pollutants may remain suspended
in the atmosphere for a long time, be carried long
distances and drift towards the ground, often as
acid rain, or fall to earth near the emission site as
ash or soot. Air pollution has a health as well as
an aesthetic impact, and contributes to changes in
natural environments.
At a local scale, pollution of rivers, lakes and

coastal areas by urban stormwater, or runoff from
buildings, streets and footpaths is caused by
major flows during and following rain. Stormwater
that is not treated before it enters waterways
can contain litter, dust, soil, oil and grease from
roads, garden waste and fertilisers, chemicals and
excess nutrients from animal faeces. This pollution
can kill fish and other aquatic animals. It can
lead to a build-up of toxins in these creatures, or
entangle them, as well as cause unsafe recreation
conditions for people.
As a natural environment changes, its plants and
animals must adapt to the changes or become extinct.
Slow changes give living things time to adapt by the
process of evolution over many generations. Fast
changes, such as clearing of vegetation and replanting
it with exotic species, usually do not give living things
time to adapt, so they must move elsewhere or become
extinct. Human activities can disrupt the processes
that are pushing a natural system towards equilibrium,
Processes then adjust to attempt to achieve a new
equilibrium in the changed environment.
Sometimes natural processes produce natural
environments that discourage human activities. Cold,
steep and/or dry places are generally hostile ones to
many human activities. Some of these places remain
with little, if any, human activity and are considered
as wilderness areas. However, if these wild places
have a valuable resource, such as a mineral, a tourist
attraction or a defence location, human activities can
increase and subsequently change the geographic
characteristics of a place. Many of Australias mining
centres, such as the Pilbara of north-west Australia
or western New South Wales, are located in regions

generally considered hostile to people. The lure of high
wages helps makes these places more attractive to
people.
Questions arise from the fact that changes caused
by people to a natural system do alter the systems
operation. Should people interfere with natural
systems? Should human interaction with a natural
system be restricted? And if so, by whom?
In the following chapters of Unit 1 you will be
considering several examples of natural environments.
You will analyse in greater detail the operation of
these. They will provide you with a structure for
considering other natural environments, and the nature
of change caused by the interaction between natural
processes and human activities over space and time.
Activities
1. Use specific examples to show the link between change in a natural system and:
the energy within the natural system, and
human activity.
2. a. For each of the following, give an example from the text of a natural
environment that has changed:
very rapidly

very slowly
over a small scale
over a large scale.
In each example identify the processes involved and the outcomes.
b. Discuss in class other examples of natural environments that have
changed, and then produce a further set of examples that fit each of the
categories in 2(a).
3. What is meant by the term dynamic equilibrium? Why is a true dynamic
equilibrium never reached?
4. Discuss how human activity is able to change the features of a gently sloping
plain, as in figure 2.16, as well as a location with hostile climates or steep
topography.
5. To what extent could the floodwaters in figure 2.14 alter the processes of a
natural system in;
the short term of several weeks
the long term of several years.
6. The area in figure 2.16 is now largely a human-controlled environment. What
evidence is there of natural environment components and processes remaining?
29
30
VOLCANIC ENVIRONMENTS
Volcanic environments
Outcome 1
On completion of this unit the
student should be able to
describe the geographic
characteristics of volcanic
environments and explain how
they are developed by natural
processes.
Outcome 2
analyse and explain the
changes in volcanic
environments due to natural
process and human activity.
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Geographic characteristics
of volcanic environments
Distribution of volcanic
environments
Natural processes and
factors that create volcanic
environments
Figure 3.1
The interaction of natural systems in volcanic environments, Mt Merapi, Indonesia, 2010
Characteristics of volcanic
environments
Throughout history volcanoes have held a fascination
for people. For hundreds of years an environment may
be dormant and then suddenly become transformed into
a spectacular and often devastating eruption. Although
vulcanologists have improved their knowledge of why
and how volcanoes erupt, they are still unable to predict
the timing of an eruption and its immediate effects.
Geographers are interested in the how and the why of
volcanic eruptions, together with the impacts on both
the people and the environments which surround them.
A volcano is a natural feature formed when molten
material, known as magma, rises up from deep within
the earth and erupts onto the surface or is ejected, if in
a mostly gaseous state. Once the molten material flows
onto the surface it is then known as lava. Typically, a
volcano has a conical shape and a crater (as shown in
figure 3.1) but this is not always the case. The various
types of volcanoes are discussed later in this chapter.
The underlying cause of volcanic activity is the
structure of our planet which is shown in figure 3.2. The
thin outer layer or crust is broken into a mosaic of

oceanic and continental plates (see figure 3.4). Beneath
the crust lies the mantle, the upper portion of which
provides the source of the magma. The mantle beneath
the crust can, over a period of thousands of years, flow
like a very viscous (sticky) liquid as a result of the
increase in the earths temperature with increasing
depth. Huge convection currents generated by
differences of temperature in the mantle cause the
tectonic plates to move at a rate of from
2 to 60 millimetres per year. Volcanic activity occurs as
a result of this movement of the earths plates.
Volcanic environments involve relationships between
all four natural systems as shown in figure 3.1. Volcanic
eruptions are dominated by the lithosphere. The nature
of the magma affects the type of eruption and the
material erupted, which in turn influences the shape of
the land and the type of soil that will develop after the
eruption. The drainage of an area, the hydrosphere, can
be totally disrupted by an eruption, and the plant and
| U N I T O N E | N AT U R A L E N V I R O N M E N T S | C H A P T E R T H R E E |
Figure 3.2
Convection currents move
semi-molten material in the mantle
The structure of the earth

Asthenosphere
Upper mantle
Lower mantle
Outer core liquid iron

and nickel
Inner core
made of iron
Lithosphere
Oceanic and continental crust
Global distribution
of volcanic
environments
animal life of its biosphere destroyed. Large eruptions

will throw gases and ash into the atmosphere. This
can have an impact on local and global climates,
by reducing the amount of solar radiation reaching
the earths surface, lowering temperatures in the
troposphere and changing atmospheric circulation
patterns.
The distribution of major volcanic features is shown

in figure 3.3. There is a strong linear pattern to this
distribution with a particular concentration of volcanic
features around the Pacific region which is known as
the Pacific Ring of Fire. The distribution of volcanic
features has a strong spatial association with the
distribution of the earths plates as shown in figure 3.4.
Figure 3.3
The global distribution of
major volcanic features
Eyjafjallajokull
Avachinsky-Koryaksky
Katmai
EUROPE
Teide
Mount Rainier
Mount St Helens
ASIA
Vesuvius
Etna Santorini
Unzen
Sakurajima
Deccan
Plateau
Pacific
East African
Rift Valley
Nyiragongo
Kilauea
Hawaiian Islands
Paricutin
Popocatepetl
Ocean
Nevada del Ruiz
Ulawun
Krakatoa
Merapi
Chimborazo
Indian
Ocean
Montserrat
Mt Pele
Galeras
SOUTH
AMERICA
AUSTRALIA
Aconcagua
Tristan da Cunha
Ruapehu
N
Ruapehu
Atlantic
Ocean
Mauna Loa
Toba
Equator
AMERICA
Fuji
Mayon
Pinatubo
AFRICA
Columbia
Plateau NORTH
Major active volcano

Pacific Ring of Fire
Plateau
5000 km
Equatorial Scale
ANTARCTICA
31
32
It is in the vicinity of the plate boundaries that most of

the earths major earthquakes, volcanic activity, and
folding and faulting of rocks occur.
The distribution of active volcanoes may change
over time. The term active usually refers to a volcano
which has erupted during the last few hundred years.
For example, although mainland Australia currently has
no active volcanoes, between 5 million and
10 000 years ago, the eastern part of the continent
experienced widely distributed volcanic activity. In
Victoria, active volcanoes died out over 7000 years
ago. Figure 3.3 shows the current distribution of
active volcanoes worldwide. Volcanoes that have not
erupted for up to 10 000 years are considered dormant.
Extinct volcanoes are ones that have not erupted for
more than 10 000 years.
Activities
1. Describe the distribution of the major active
volcanoes shown in figure 3.3.
2. Refer to figures 3.3 and 3.4 and read the following
statement: Volcanic features have a strong spatial
association with plate boundaries.
a. Provide two pieces of supporting evidence for
this statement.
b. Provide two pieces of rejecting evidence for this
statement.
c. Suggest reasons for your answers to both (a)
and (b) above.
3. The earths tectonic plates may be either oceanic or
continental crust. The continental plates extend into
the oceans, as they include the continental shelves
surrounding the continents. Name and locate two
examples of each type of plate.
4. Research the name and location of a volcano which
is considered dormant and one which is considered
extinct. Include the date when each last erupted.
Figure 3.4
Distribution of the earths
tectonic plates
Plate margins
Direction of movement
Eurasian Plate
North
American
Plate
Juan de Fuca
Plate
African Plate
Arabian
Plate
Rid
ge
San Francisco
San Andreas
fault line
Indian
Plate
Philippine
Plate
Pacific Plate
Caribbean
Plate
Cocos
Plate
Australian
Plate
Nazca
Plate
South
American
Plate
N
0
5000 km
Equatorial Scale
Antarctic Plate
Scotia Plate
Mid Atlantic
Equator
Natural processes affecting the distribution

of volcanic environments
Plates consist of either continental crust or oceanic
crust. The continental crust is older, thicker (35 to
75 kilometres), lighter (mainly granite) and cannot
sink. Continental crust extends beyond the present
coastline to the edge of the continental shelf of each
continental mass. The oceanic crust is younger, thinner
(less than 10 kilometres), heavier (mainly basalt), can
sink (be subducted) into the mantle and is constantly
being destroyed and replaced. These differences
account for the variations in the level of both volcanic
and earthquake activity at plate boundaries, and the
variations in landforms. Figure 3.5 shows that the
plates may move towards each other, away from each
other or simply move past each other.
The level and type of volcanic activity are
determined by the direction of the plate movement
and whether the plates are oceanic or continental.
The oceanic plates consist mainly of basalt, which
originates from the rising magma in the upper part of
the mantle, beneath the ocean ridges as the plates
pull apart. Where the oceanic plate is subducted under
the continental plate, the molten material, magma,
consists of three different materials: some from the
upper mantle directly above the descending oceanic

plate, some from the partial melting of the oceanic plate
itself and some from the lower part of the continental
shelf. This results in the volcanic rocks formed under
continental plates being far more complex than the
volcanic rocks formed under oceanic plates.
A comparison of figures 3.3 and 3.4 shows that
there are two regions where volcanoes occur that
are not related to the plate margins. In Africa there
are a number of volcanoes located within the East
African Rift Valley system. Scientists speculate this rift
valley system may result in a splitting of the African
continental plate, as the plate is slowly pulled apart
over millions of years. A series of active volcanoes
extend along the floor of the low-lying valleys where
the new plate margin may be forming, which could
eventually produce two new continents separated by a
new ocean.
The second region is the Hawaiian Islands, located
in figure 3.6 (a). At this location magma, driven by a
particularly strong convection current in the mantle,
rises and erupts through a weakness in the crust which
is referred to as a hot spot. The active volcanoes on
(a) Divergent plate movement constructive margin
Types of plate movement
(c) Convergent plate movement collision margin

e.g. Indian Plate into Eurasian Plate
e.g. Pacific Plate and Antarctic Plate to south of Australia

Rift valley
Figure 3.5
Mid-oceanic ridge
Formation of fold mountains
Oceanic crust
Oceanic crust
Continental crust
Continental crust
Crust
Crust
Mantle
Magma rises into rift-valley floor
Mantle
(b) Convergent plate movement destructive margin
(d) Movement of plates past each other conservative margin

e.g. along San Andreas fault line, California USA
e.g. Pacific Plate under Eurasian Plate to east of Japan

Oceanic trench
Continental crust
Transform fault
Volcanic
eruption
Oceanic crust
Crust
Crust
Magma
rises
Mantle
Oceanic crust melts due

to friction and heat from
mantle
Direction of plate movement
Mantle
Earthquake focus as pressure builds
33
Mauna Loa
Hawaii
Kohala
Mauna Kea
Hualalai
300
Mauna Loa
Kilauea
00
20
Activities
00
10
1. Refer to figures 3.4 and 3.5. Suggest an additional

location, other than those given in figure 3.5, for
each type of plate movement.
Pacific
Ocean
Kilauea Active volcano
Lava flow
N
0
Rift zone
20 km
From 3rd ed Sept 2005

( fig 1.2.6a)
Kahoolawe
the island of Hawaii have formed over this point under

the floor of the Pacific Ocean, away from the margins
of the Pacific Plate. As this process continues, a
volcano develops on the sea floor. Eventually it builds,
rises above sea level and forms an island. With the
continuing movement of the Pacific Plate westward,
the island will move off the hot spot and volcanic
activity will eventually cease. A new volcano will be
formed over the next weakest place on the crust, as
shown in figure 3.6 (b). The island of Hawaii is the
most volcanically active island of the chain, and the
youngest, while volcanic cones on Oahu are older and
dormant.
re-supplied August 2011
Niihau
HAWAIIAN
ISLANDS
Oahu
Molokai
Maui
Lanai
Kauai
Fig_03_06a_bk1_2011
34
Contour interval 500m
Scale
2. a. Using figure 3.6 (a), draw a cross-section

from east to west across the island of Hawaii
through Mauna Loa, annotating the location of
lava flows.
b. Suggest how this cross-section may change in
shape due to future lava flows.
Figure 3.6(a)
The location of the Hawaiian Islands and Hawaiis active
volcanoes
Chain of islands progressively

older the further away from the
hot spot, as the Pacific Plate moves
north-westwards
Kauai, the oldest
island with
dormant volcanoes
Oahu
Molokai
Maui
Pacific Ocean
Island of Hawaii with

active volcanoes
Ocean
Crust
Mantle
Convection current
Magma source
Figure 3.6(b)
The formation of the
Hawaiian Islands
Factors affecting types of volcanic activity

Types of eruptions
The most well-known type of volcanic eruption is one
which occurs from a central vent in the earths crust.
The magma is ejected from the crater or upper end of
the lava tube which feeds the magma from the upper
portion of the mantle to the surface. The ejected
material accumulates around the vent to form what we
recognise as a typical volcano. Solid material, rather
than lava, may also be ejected from volcanoes as rock
fragments, varying in size from ash to large blocks
known as pyroclastic rocks. Vent eruptions happen all
over the earth near any type of plate margin where
volcanic activity occurs.
Alternatively, magma may be ejected via a narrow
crack called a fissure. Fissure eruptions occur where the
plates are pulling apart, as at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
(see figure 3.4) and the East African Rift Valley. The
crust may gape open in a long, narrow, vertical crack
through which magma is forced. Usually there will be
multiple eruptions along the fissure. Volcanic cones
can also build along these fissures. The volcanoes
in Iceland, Teide in the Canary Islands in the North
Atlantic Ocean, and the island of Tristan da Cunha in
the South Atlantic Ocean have all been formed in this
Hawaiian
Icelandic
e.g. Mauna Loa, Hawaii
e.g. Laki, Iceland
Peleean
e.g. Mt Pelee, Martinique
Strombolian
e.g. Paricutin, Mexico
Lava
way (refer to figure 3.3). The summit craters of the

volcanoes on the Hawaiian Islands (see figures 3.6(a)
and 3.6(b)) are also situated on a fissure zone.
Figure 3.7 illustrates the different types of eruptions
classified on the basis of the degree of explosive
activity. The difference in the degree of explosiveness
depends on the viscosity of the lava and the amount
of gases. Within the magma chamber there is usually
a great deal of gases, often under high pressure,
depending on how viscous the magma is. The lower
viscosity usually associated with basaltic lava results
in less explosive eruptions. The higher viscosity,
associated with more granitic magmas, results in
more viscous lava which is harder to force through the
volcanic vent, leading to a more explosive eruption.
It is, however, the gas content that determines the
degree of explosiveness. A more viscous magma with a
high gas content results in a more spectacular eruption.
As the magma approaches the surface, there is less
pressure on it, which allows the gases in the magma
to expand. This forces the whole mass of magma and
gases to move up the vent faster, until it explodes clear
of the vent as liquid rock and gases. In any eruption,
Krakatoan
e.g. Krakatoa, Indonesia
Vesuvian
e.g. Mt Vesuvius, Italy
Ash, rocks and/or gases/dust/steam
Vulcanian
e.g. Sakurajima, Japan
Figure 3.7
Types of eruptions
35
36
Figure 3.8
The eruption of Mt Yasur,
Tanna Island, Vanuatu,
July 2010, had a Volcanic
Explosivity Index of 2.
the activity will pass through a series of phases, so

that an actual eruption can be labelled as a particular
type only at a particular time. It is therefore difficult to
label a whole eruption episode as one particular type.
In conjunction with viscosity, another factor
influencing the type of eruption is the variation in
the chemical composition of the magma. Silicon and
oxygen are the fundamental elements of almost all
rocks on the earths surface, and volcanic rocks are
classified chemically on the basis of how much silica
they contain. Basalt, for example, has a lower silica
and acid content resulting in less explosive activity
compared with rhyolite which has a high silica and acid
content meaning a more explosive eruption is likely.
The size of a volcanic eruption is measured by the
Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) which ranks the size of
the eruption from 0 to 8 according to magnitude.
Types of volcanic materials

The two main types of rocks ejected from volcanoes
are lava, which is rock in liquid form, and pyroclastic
rocks, which are ejected as broken, solid fragments.
Depending on its composition, lava flows at different
speeds. The less viscous basaltic lava can flow at
speeds up to 30 kilometres per hour. As it rises, the
lava cools, becomes more viscous and flows more
slowly. A crust will form on top of the cooling lava.
This crust can be a thin, skin-like layer over the liquid
lava, which will eventually pile up giving the lava a
ropey appearance known as pahoehoe. Another type of

crust that can form is a rather thick, rocky surface layer
consisting of loose blocks of solidified lava, which is
known as aa.
Solid material that is ejected into the atmosphere is
called tephra and is classified according to size. This
ranges from dust (particles less than 0.5 millimetres in
size) to lava bombs and blocks (321000 millimetres
and over 1000 millimetres respectively). Probably the
best known of the tephra fragments is pumice. It is
solidified rock froth, which accounts for its lightness
and sponge-like appearance.
Pyroclastic flows contain a mixture of rock fragments
of all sizes which are unsorted in the flow. They result
from powerful explosions which involve large volumes
of escaping gases. Volcanic eruptions can also cause
mud flows or lahars. This flow consists of a mass of
mud (saturated volcanic ash), sand, gravel and boulders
mixed with water. It can flow at speeds up to 40 metres
per second. The source of the water can vary from
heavy rainfall to melting snow, or by the pyroclastic
flow entering a river or by eruptions occurring in crater
lakes. In 1985, following the eruption of Nevada del
Ruiz in Colombia (located in figure 3.3), huge mud flows
occurred when hot ash melted part of the volcanos ice
cap. More than 22 000 people died as the flows buried
villages.
Volcanic eruptions also produce gases in varying
amounts. The gases, which include water vapour,
carbon monoxide, hydrogen and sulphur, provide the
explosive force for an eruption. They can become a
hazard for humans as will be discussed later.
Activities
1. Research, using the Internet, a specific volcanic
eruption and create the first stage of an annotated
visual display to illustrate the particular
characteristics of the eruption. Include the
following information:
location show on a map
the plates involved and the type of plate
movement
the date of the eruption/s
the type of eruption/s,
the material erupted.
2. Explain why some volcanic eruptions are very
explosive and others are less explosive. In your
answer use the following words and phrases:
viscosity, gas content, pressure.
Volcanic landforms
Volcanic landforms may be classified as either
extrusive or intrusive according to whether the volcanic
activity leading to their formation has occurred above
or below the surface.
Landforms resulting from

extrusive volcanic activity
Extrusive landforms are formed when volcanic material
reaches the surface. The rate of formation and the size
of the landform features created can vary considerably.
Mt Paricutin in Mexico (shown in figure 3.10), for
example, reached a height of 336 metres in ten months
of 1943, including 140 metres of ash in the first week.
Similarly, destructive processes also vary considerably.
Destruction of volcanic structures can occur through
the usual processes of weathering and erosion.
Explosive activity, however, can cause enormous
changes in a very short time. For example, the eruption
of Mt St Helens, located in the north-west of the
United States in 1980, was reduced in height by 390
metres in 30 hours (for comparison, Melbournes
Eureka Tower is 283 metres high). Due to their long
life, volcanoes may go through several phases of
construction and destruction. The 1883 eruption of
Krakatoa in Indonesia, for example, destroyed
two-thirds of that island but eruptions since 1927 have
formed a new island which is increasing in height by
approximately five metres per year.
Extrusive landforms resulting

from constructive processes
(a) Basalt plateaus
These are formed where basic lava of low viscosity
erupts through fissures in huge quantities, covering
the existing landscape and forming the distinctive flat,
elevated surface, as shown in figure 3.11(a). The Deccan
Plateau in India (shown in figure 3.9 and located on
figure 3.3) covers an area of 500 000 square kilometres
to an average depth of 600 metres. The Columbia
Plateau in the north-west of North America (located
in figure 3.3) covering 600 000 square kilometres, was
built up over millions of years from fissure eruptions.
(b) Shield volcanoes
Figure 3.11(b) shows that where the lava is of low
viscosity, and therefore relatively fluid, it can spread
over wide areas before solidifying. This results in the
formation of a shield or basic lava volcano that has
gently sloping sides, made up of many layers of lava

from repeated eruptions, with a broad summit. This
type of volcano is most commonly found along the
constructive plate boundaries, where the magma rises
directly from the mantle (see figure 3.5, page 33) as
in Iceland at Mt Helgafell. There are also a number of
examples on the Hawaiian Islands which show how
high shield volcanoes can become, despite their gentle
slopes. Mauna Loa, in Hawaii, is more than 4000 metres
above sea level and almost another 6000 metres from
the ocean floor to sea level.
(c) Cinder or scoria cones
The cinder and scoria cones, see figure 3.11(c), are
relatively small volcanoes with steep sides usually
formed by one period of volcanic activity. Cinders or
scoria are small pieces of red or black lava containing
many bubble-like cavities known as vesicles that cool
in the air after eruption. Mt Paricutin in Mexico (figure
3.10) and Mt Noorat, in western Victoria, (figure 3.20,
page 45) are examples of scoria cones.
(d) Composite volcanoes
Composite volcanoes or stratovolcanoes are formed
by successive eruptions of ash and lava, and generally
have a cone with a steep summit, such as Mt Fuji in
Japan and Ruapehu in New Zealand (located on figure
3.3). The lava tends to be more viscous, and the eruption
more explosive than those associated with basaltic
Figure 3.9.
Satellite image of the
Deccan Plateau, India
37
38
(g) Calderas
Calderas are very large craters, greater than one
kilometre across. The formation of a caldera involves
the eruption of a large amount of material and/or
the subsidence of the existing crater. The explosion
partially empties the magma chamber below the vent,
and the ground above collapses into the space, as is
evident in figure 3.11(g). Massive eruptions on the
Greek island of Santorini in 1450 BC (see figure 3.12)
and at Lake Toba on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia
(located on figure 3.3), about 20 000 years ago formed
very large calderas.
(h) Lava tubes
Figure 3.10
Mt Paricutin, Mexico, a
cinder cone
lava. Figure 3.11(d) shows that successive eruptions

will vary the type of material ejected. The slopes will
consist of different layers of ash and lava interspersed
with pyroclastic material.
(e) Lava domes
Lava domes, as in figure 3.11(e), can form on the
outside slopes of many composite cones or within
the crater. Most are small, but some are recognised
by vulcanologists as volcanoes. They result from the
slow extrusion of highly viscous magma. The edges of
a dome can be quite steep. In subsequent eruptions,
lava domes are often blown away. Several domes have
grown slowly within the crater of Mount St Helens
since its eruption in 1980.

destructive processes
(f) Maars
These are the simplest kind of explosion crater. Maars
are produced when groundwater meets hot magma,
forming steam. The explosion that follows blows out
a large hole in the ground, surrounded by low rims of
volcanic ash known as tuff. Figure 3.11(f) shows how
the crater floor is usually below the general level of the
surrounding land, so lakes and swamps often occur in
maar craters. An example of a maar is Tower Hill
(figure 3.17(c)) in Western Victoria.
Lava tubes are formed when a crust forms and hardens

over the flowing lava, allowing the lava below to
continue to flow as cooling is slowed down. When the
eruption finishes, the lava empties out of the tubes
leaving long tunnels extending from the volcano,
producing caves (see figures 3.11(h) and 3.17(f)). The
worlds longest lava tubes are in Queensland. They
extend more than 160 kilometres away from the now
extinct Undara volcano, located 300 kilometres inland
from Cairns.
Once volcanic activity has taken place, the normal
processes of erosion will start. When streams are
established on volcanic slopes, gullies can be formed,
particularly in soft and loose ash that is quickly eroded.

intrusive volcanic activity
Sometimes magma rising towards the earths surface
may become trapped within the crust and not reach the
earths surface. This magma will then slowly cool and
harden into rock, such as granite. Over a long period of
time, erosion may lead to the removal of the overlying
covering and expose these rocks, resulting in distinctive
landforms. Figure 3.13 shows landforms that are the
result of both intrusive and extrusive volcanic activity.
(a) Batholiths
The larger masses of exposed intrusive volcanic rock
are known as batholiths. Arthurs Seat on Victorias
Mornington Peninsula is an example of a small
batholith. The You Yang Ranges near Geelong, formed
more than 300 million years ago, are an exposed and
eroded granite batholith.
Figure 3.11
Volcanic landforms
39
40
Figure 3.12
Santorini, Greece, located on
(b) Dykes
(c) Sills
Where the magma cuts across the layers of rock, or

where magma solidifies in a fissure, a dyke is formed.
When erosion exposes the magma that has solidified, a
distinctive narrow vertical basalt wall is exposed, such
as the 90-metres high Breadknife in the Warrumbungle
Range in New South Wales.
Sometimes the magma may harden horizontally

between layers or beds of sedimentary rocks to form
a sheet-like mass known as a sill. This process led to
the formation of the Salisbury Crags near Edinburgh,
Scotland.
(d) Plugs
Where magma hardens in the vent of a volcano, often
after the last eruption, it is exposed after erosion as a
pointed peak, known as a neck or plug. The Glasshouse
Mountains in south-east Queensland (figure 3.14) are
volcanic plugs.
a caldera rim
Activity
Complete the second stage of your annotated visual
display (begun as part of activity 1 on page 36):
Research the specific landforms that resulted from

the eruption of the volcano you selected.
Using annotated sketches and diagrams, describe
and explain the formation of the specific features.
(d) Volcanic neck or plug

Lava flow
Volcano
(b) Dyke
(c) Sill
(e) Sill
Figure 3.13
Intrusive volcanic
features and
(a) Batholith
surface volcanic
landforms (right)
Figure 3.14
The Glasshouse Mountains, Queensland, an example of volcanic
plugs
41
Changes in volcanic environments

Case Study: Western Plains of Victoria
Although there are no active volcanoes
on the Australian mainland today,
the Western Plains of Victoria are a
volcanic environment that has had
significant impact on the settlement
and land use of a region. Figure 3.15
maps the volcanic plains of the
Western District, which cover an area
of about 15 000 square kilometres and
extend approximately from the South
Australian border to a line between
Melbourne and Seymour. There is a
northerly extension into the Central
Highlands around Ballarat.
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Other geological feature

Major population centre
Volcanic plains
12
VICTORIA
SOUTH
AUSTRALIA
10
8
Hamilton
Mount Gambier
5
3
2
Warrnambool
VOLCANIC FEATURES
1 Mount Napier
2 Tower Hill
3 Mount Noorat
4 Lake Bullen Merri
5
6
7
8
9 Mount Buninyong
Mount Elephant Bass10 Strait
Mount Blackwood
Lake Corangamite
11 Mount Cottrell
Red Rock
12 Hanging Rock
Mount Warrenheip
13 Organ Pipes
13
11
MELBOURNE
You Yangs
6
Portland
Fig_03_15_bk1_2011
Ballarat
Geelong
Camperdown
Colac
Bass Strait
50 km
Scale
Figure 3.15
The distribution of the volcanic features of the Western Plains
of Victoria
Napier in the background
created August 2011
The typical rural landscape of the Western Plains with Mt
Figure 3.16
The flat to undulating plains are dotted with many

hills formed by extinct volcanoes. About 400 eruption
points have been identified distributed across the
region (figure 3.15). Many thin, lava flows with an
average thickness of about 60 metres form most of
the plains. Volcanic ash deposits surround the volcanic
cones. Most of the volcanic activity occurred two
to four-and-a-half million years ago, with the most
recent known eruption occurring at Mt Napier, south of
Hamilton, about 7240 years ago (located on figure 3.15).
Shield volcano
Scoria cone
Maar volcano
Identify and describe

geographic
characteristics of
volcanic environments in
different locations at two
different scales
about volcanic
environments produced
by the interaction of
natural processes
Examine the impact of
change on natural
environments and human
activity
Describe and analyse
changes to volcanic
environments produced
by the interaction
between natural
processes and human
activity
42
Feature
Example
Shield volcanoes
Figure 3.17(a)
Account for about half the volcanoes on the plain.
Mt Cottrell,
Mainly have gently sloping sides and sometimes no crater.
located on the
Formed by runny lava, usually fissures, following quiet eruptions,

e.g. Mt Blackwood and Mt Cottrell.
Werribee Plains
Steeper-sloped volcanoes formed where there was more viscous

lava. Now seen as prominent steep-sided lava domes. An example is
Hanging Rock at Woodend.
Scoria cones
west of
Melbourne
Figure 3.17(b)
Widely distributed
Mt Elephant, a
Often have large blocks of solid lava or volcanic bombs in the scoria.
Examples are Mt Warrenheip, Mt Buninyong and Mt Noorat.
breached scoria
Sometimes lava breached one side of the cone, often flowing from a
lava lake in the crater. There are about 200 breached cones in Victoria,
e.g. Mt Elephant and Mt Napier.
evidence of a
Maar volcanoes
cone. Note the

scoria quarry in
the lower flank
of the mountain.
Figure 3.17(c)
About 40 of these between Colac and Port Fairy. Often contain lakes.
The large, wide
Have large circular craters, up to 2 kilometres across.
crater at Tower
Most have thicker ash, or tuff, deposits on the eastern rim of the crater, Hill
due to the dominant westerly wind direction.
Examples are Tower Hill and Lake Bullenmerri.
Stony rises
Formed where the younger lava flows hardened on the surface, but the
still-liquid lava continued to flow and drain away, causing the skin on
the surface to sag and collapse.
Figure 3.17(d)
Lava flow through
Harmans Valley
Resulted in areas of irregular ridges and channels, up to 10 to 15 metres

high.
Stones were used by some of the early European settlers for fencing
and, in the process, to clear the land for farming.
Tumuli
Figure 3.17(e)
These lava blisters form on the surface of a lava flow.
One of the tumuli
Appear as large dome shapes; the roofs may collapse.
located west of
Formed due to build-up of gas within the flow, e.g. west of Mt Napier.
Mt Napier
Lava caves
Figure 3.17(f)
Formed when a lava tube (see page 39) empties of lava, leaving a cave. One of the lava caves at
Caves up to one kilometre long and 20 metres wide.
Examples are Byaduk Caves near Mt Napier, Mt Eccles.
Columnar jointing
Byaduk
Figure 3.17(g)
This occurs when a thin lava flow cools.
The Organ Pipes
An example is the Organ Pipes formation in the valley of Jacksons

Creek near Bulla.
near Bulla, north-
Figure 3.17
Volcanic features of the
Western Plains. Figure
3.17(a) is State of
Victoria, Department of
Primary Industries. Victorian
Resources Online www.dpi.
vic.gov.au/vro. Reproduced
with permission.
west of Melbourne
Changes in the natural

environment
Prior to European settlement, Indigenous people had
lived on the Western Plains for more than 30 000 years.
Some would have witnessed the volcanic activity in
the region. The plains provided them with food, and the
volcanic rock was used to build stone foundations for
shelters, usually centred near water.
In the 1840s the Western Plains provided the early
European settlers with fertile volcanic soils, flat to
undulating land and a reasonably reliable rainfall that
allowed them to run flocks of sheep. By the 1850s the
more fertile soils that developed from the tuff beds
around Colac, Camperdown and Terang led to closer
settlement and the introduction of dairying and crop
growing. Today, dairying, fodder crops and fat lambs
dominate in the wetter south-west, and sheep, fat
cattle and wheat in the drier north-east, as shown in
figure 3.19.
The basalt rock, known as bluestone, was used for
the building of many of the substantial buildings, as
well as providing crushed rock for roads, concrete,
dams and railways. The scoria cones provided a
lightweight material for concrete, driveways and tennis
courts.
The interaction between the natural environment
of the volcanic plains and human activity is greatest
on the outflows of basalt rather than the volcanic
cones. The basalt rock is quite permeable so water

accumulates above the underlying non-permeable
rocks as an underground water supply. Many lakes
have formed where the land surface has sagged, for
example at Lake Corangamite (located on figure 3.15).
These lakes are now important recreational sites, often
used for activities such as fishing and water skiing, for
example, Lake Bullenmerri.
Today the Western Plains form part of Kanawinka
Global Geopark which was declared as Australias
first National Geopark in September 2006. The
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) defines a Geopark as A
territory encompassing one or more sites of scientific
importance, not only for geological reasons but also by
virtue of its archaeological, ecological or cultural value.
The features of this volcanic environment are therefore
a tourism focus for the region.
43
44
Figure 3.20
Mount Noorat, Victoria, is a scoria cone. Note the volcanic stone wall in the foreground.
Activities
1. Describe the variation in distribution of the three main types of volcanoes shown
in figure 3.15.
2. Using the topographic map, figure 3.18, complete the following:
a. Construct a cross-section from 652693 to 693728. On your cross-section label
Lake Keilambete, the tuff ring, the quarries and the crater of Mt Noorat.
b. What type of landform is Lake Keilambete? Suggest how it was formed.
c. What type of volcanic cone is Mt Noorat? Provide evidence to support your
answer.
d. Why is the base of Mt Noorat not a complete circle?
e. What evidence is there of the dominant land use in the region?
Figure 3.18
Topographic map extract of Mt Noorat, Victoria
f. Referring to the transect shown in figure 3.19, describe the degree of spatial
association between land use and soil type.
Figure 3.19
g. Suggest why there are three quarries on the slopes of Mt Noorat.
Land-use transect: Warrnambool to Colac
742
748
756
762
725
45
46
Case Study: Eyjafjallajokull,

Iceland
Pronunciation:
ay-uh-fyat-luh-yoe-kuutl
The Eyjafjallajokull volcano gained worldwide publicity

during its eruption in April 2010, not just because it had
a name which was extremely difficult to pronounce but
primarily due to the major impact it had on a regional
and global scale.
This volcano is located approximately 160 kilometres
south-east of Icelands capital city, Reykjavik. As figure
3.21 shows, it is one of several volcanoes in Iceland
which are spatially associated with the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge which forms the boundary between the Eurasian
and the North American plates. Consequently, fissure
eruptions are common in Iceland, with an average of
one significant eruption occurring every five years.
Significantly, Eyjafjallajokull is also located under
one of Icelands icecaps. This icecap covers the
2.5-kilometre wide caldera of the volcano which is 1666
metres in height. This volcanos last major eruption
occurred between December 1821 and January 1823.
The 2010 eruption occurred in two phases. The first
phase occurred for approximately three weeks in March
with an effusive fissure eruption of lava on the flank of
the volcano. At this stage, the ash ejected rose no more
than four kilometres into the atmosphere. The second
explosive phase began on 14 April. Magma of higher
Figure 3.21
20W
Location of Eyjafjallajokull,
Mid-Atlantic
Ridge
(629 mm/year)
NORTH AMERICAN
PLATE
Activities
1. Describe the location of Iceland in relation to
tectonic plates.
2. Explain how this location is spatially associated
with volcanic activity.
3. Classify the volcanic activity of Eyjafjallajokull
according to figure 3.7.
Greenland Sea
Arctic Circle
(620 mm/year)
EURASIAN
PLATE
ICELAND
N
0
Reykjavik
100 km
Scale
Eyjafjallajokull
Mid-Atlantic
Ridge
Major active volcano
Katla
Atlantic
Ocean
viscosity and gas content than that from the first phase
of the eruption was forced from the main crater under
200 metres of glacial ice. The resulting meltwater
flowed back into the erupting volcano and was rapidly
vaporised. The rapid cooling of the magma and this
subsequent explosive power created a cloud of abrasive,
glass-rich ash which extended between six and ten
kilometres into the atmosphere (see figure 3.23). Once
there, the northern hemisphere Jet Stream (a fastflowing, narrow air current) enabled movement of the
ash cloud in a south-easterly direction, spreading
across the United Kingdom, Ireland and much of
mainland Europe in the following days (refer to figure
3.22). In all, an estimated 250 million cubic metres of
material was ejected.
Iceland, and major plate

boundaries
Impact of the eruption

At a local scale the eruption of Eyjafjallajokull led to
the evacuation of approximately six hundred people
from this sparsely populated farming area by the
Icelandic Civil Protection Department. The main
danger to the local people during the eruption was
from the movement of melted ice as it flowed down
the mountain, bringing with it large blocks of ice and
boulders and eroding the roads. Fields were covered
with ash, posing difficulties for farmers and their
animals. The fluoride content in the ash was monitored,
as fluorine poisoning of grazing animals, particularly in
sheep, was a possibility. Farmers were forced to keep
their livestock indoors and purchase clean water and
food. Fluorine gas dissolves quickly in water, polluting
lakes and streams, therefore posing a potential hazard
to drinking water. The release of sulphur dioxide and
ash also posed a potential health risk to locals. The
World Health Organization (WHO) issued a warning
to residents in affected areas to wear masks; the
tiny particles of sand and glass which constitute the
volcanic ash cause irritation of eyes, nose and throat
and can lead to serious respiratory problems such as
asthma.
Huge disruption occurred at a regional and global
scale due to the spatial interaction between the ash
cloud and aircraft flight paths. The height of the ash

cloud coincided with the altitude of commercial jet
aircraft. The potential risk to those planes of damage
from the glass-like shards in the ash cloud led to the
subsequent closure of air space for a total of six days.
As the ash cloud became more widely distributed, so
did the area of air space which was closed (refer to
figure 3.22). Not only were travellers in Europe affected
but also those en route from other regions such as Asia
and the Pacific. According to the International Air
Transportation Association (IATA), an estimated
1.2 million passengers per day were affected, with a
loss to the international airline industry being put at
$1.8 billion. Claims on travel insurance companies in
the United Kingdom alone were estimated at $96
million.
The volcanic ash plume hung over Europe and the
British Isles for more than a week. The cloud was so
thick that it was visible in Scotland and smelt of rotten
eggs (sulphuric acid). During that time, farmers in these
regions monitored the conditions of water and soil for
possible contamination.
The emission of ash, water vapour and sulphurous
gases continued for some months but at a much
reduced scale. The eruption was officially declared over
in October 2010. Given the size of the Eyjafjallajokull
eruption, it had little impact on global temperatures.
Figure 3.22
19 April 2010
Reykjavik
ICELAND
SWEDEN
NORWAY
ESTONIA
ash and the region affected
Airspace partial ban
by air space closures as a
Extent of volcanic ash
FINLAND
Atlantic
Ocean
Eyjafjallajokull Volcano
RUSSIA
LATVIA
DENMARK
LITHUANIA
BELARUS
UNITED
IRELAND KINGDOM
50
POLAND
NETHERLANDS
UKRAINE
GERMANY
CZECH
REPUBLIC
BELGIUM
AUSTRIA
SWITZERLAND
FRANCE
500 km
Scale
Mediterranean
HUNGARY
MOLDOVA
ROMANIA
BULGARIA
ITALY
SLOVAKIA
Sea
The distribution of volcanic
Airspace closure
Black Sea
result of the Eyjafjallajokull

eruption
47
48
3
While the size of the eruption was large (estimated
as a 4 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index), an eruption
of the scale of the 1991 Mt Pinatubo eruption in the
Philippines (VEI 6) would be needed for this to occur
(refer to page 36).
One long-term impact of the Eyjafjallajokull
eruption has been a change to rules guiding when
airspace is closed. The safe threshold of volcanic
ash concentration has been revised by aircraft
manufacturers and civil aviation authorities. New data
has allowed manufacturers to confirm that a higher
concentration of ash (0.004 grams per cubic metre up
from 0.002 grams per cubic metre) will not damage
aircraft or engines. Another long-term impact has been
the change to the way airspace is governed across
the European Union, with member transport ministers
agreeing in May 2010 to work to create a single air
space regulator across Europe rather than maintaining
their 27 fragmented national airspaces. They maintain
that such measures will help manage air travel in
similar future situations.
On the positive side, the Eyjafjallajokull eruption
led to increased global interest in Iceland. Volcano
tourism increased, with local companies offering day
tours via modified jeeps and helicopters. In addition,
web cameras were installed at a safe distance to
provide views of the erupting volcano. One year after
the eruption, a local farmer opened a museum and
visitor centre in which he sells original volcanic ash and

other memorabilia and an Icelandic fashion designer
has added the perfume EFJ to her range it is made
from volcanic ice and water. Icelandic tourism also
boomed, reporting a five per cent increase in foreign
visitors in February 2011 and a 33 per cent increase in
North American travellers for the first three months of
2011.
The danger from Eyjafjallajokulls last eruption has
passed but Icelanders must continue to live with the
threat of 22 other active volcanoes. Scientists are
particularly monitoring the nearby sister volcano, Katla,
which is considered overdue for an eruption and has
the potential to produce a much bigger eruption than
Eyjafjallajokull.
Activities
1. What factors accounted for the large amount of
ash produced by Eyjafjallajokull despite its VEI
being considered relatively low? You should include
discussion of the type of magma and its gas content
and the material overlying the volcanos crater.
2. Refer to figure 3.22. Describe the distribution of the
ash cloud produced by the Eyjafjallajokull eruption.
3. Classify the impacts of the Eyjafjallajokull eruption
according to whether they were positive or negative
and affected people or the environment.
Figure 3.23
The eruption of
Eyjafjallajokull showing the
ash plume with farm houses
in the foreground
Impacts of volcanic
activity
Eruptions may produce spectacular changes in
landforms in a very short time. Large eruptions
may result in short-term weather changes, because
the amount of volcanic ash and smoke released into
the atmosphere may reduce the amount of sunlight
reaching the earths surface. The sulphur released in the
eruption mixes with water vapour in the atmosphere
to form clouds of sulphuric acid. The acid droplets
absorb incoming solar radiation and bounce it back into
space, thus reducing temperatures. In the year after the

eruption of Mt Pinatubo (located on figure 3.3), global
temperatures dropped by nearly one degree Celsius.
More than 500 million people live in regions around
active volcanoes, despite the possible dangers. Some
of these major volcanoes are listed in the table below
(figure 3.24). These volcanoes are some of the 16
Decade Volcanoes identified by the International
Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the earths
Interior (IAVCEI) as being worthy of particular study
due to their history of large, destructive eruptions and
proximity to populated areas.
Figure 3.24
Selected Decade Volcanoes
and their potential human
interaction
Volcano
Location
Last eruption
City, distance from

volcano and number of
people at risk
Major human activities
Vesuvius
Italy
1944
Naples; 9 km; 3 million in

greater metropolitan area
Commercial centre; tourism:

Vesuvius National Park including
site of Pompeii
Etna
Sicily, Italy
2010
Catania; at foot of volcano;
Urban area with nearby farming:

vineyards, olive groves, citrus
304 000
Mauna Loa
Island of Hawaii
1984
Hilo; 71 km;
40 700
Merapi
Galeras
Rainier
Sakurajima
Ulawun
Nyiragongo
Avachinsky-Koryaksky
Central Java, Indonesia

Pasto, Colombia
Tourism: Hawaii Volcanoes

National Park
Ongoing since 2006;

major eruptions in 2010
Yogjakarta; 28 km;
3.1 million
Farming: rice;
2006
Pasto; 9 km;
Farming: dairy products, wool;
313 000
Mining: gold
Tacoma; 80 km; 197 000
National park:
Seattle; 124 km; 3.2 million
2 million visitors per year
Urban area
Tacoma, Washington
State, part of Cascade
Mountain Range,
United States
1894
Kyushu, Japan
Ongoing since 2006;

major eruption in 1914
Kagoshima;
On border of provinces
of East and West New
Britain, Papua New
Guinea
2007
Rabaul; 130 km;
Democratic Republic of
Congo, near Rwandan
border
2007
Kamchatka Peninsula,
Russia
Avachinsky: 2001
National Park
3 km; 1.7 million

Oil palm farming
3800 plus 6000 local

farmers
Goma; 10 km;
Subsistence farming
250 000
Koryaksky: 1957
Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky;
26 km;
195 000
Mountaineering and climbing:

2000 per year
49
50
Figure 3.25
Pompeii and Herculaneum in
Italy were both buried under
metres of ash, volcanic
bombs and lava in 79 AD
when Mt Vesuvius erupted.
3
Resulting destructive impacts of volcanoes have
been part of human history, as the excavations in
Italy, shown in figure 3.25, reveal. Impacts of volcanic
eruptions will vary according to the type of volcano
and the violence of the eruption, as well as the
preparedness of the population. The immediate hazards
from a volcanic eruption include lava flows, mud flows,
hot rock avalanches, ash falls and floods. Any of these
can cause loss of life. People who survive an eruption
may lose their livelihood for a period, if farmlands are
covered by lava flows or heavy ash fallout.
There are, however, significant benefits from volcanic
activity. The volcanic soils can be very fertile, see
figure 3.26, providing a livelihood for millions of
farmers. Volcanic rocks are new young rocks that can
be rich in minerals, such as gold, silver and copper.
There is a potential source of renewable energy from
hot-water springs associated with volcanoes. In New
Zealand, Iceland, Japan and Italy, power is generated
from this source as shown in figure 3.27. There are
tourists who visit volcanic sites, attracted by beautiful
scenery, spectacular geysers and an element of danger
(see figure 3.8, page 36).
There will always be a tension between the risks
of living in areas of volcanic activity and the benefits
gained.
Management and prediction of

volcanic activity
Modern technology is allowing scientists to track
the movement of the plates. The Global Positioning
System (GPS) uses signals from satellites orbiting the
earth to locate accurately each GPS site. By repeatedly
measuring the distances between each site, geologists
can determine if there has been active movement
between plates. Monitoring is already occurring
around the Pacific Basin. By monitoring the interaction
between the Pacific Plate and the surrounding plates,
scientists hope to learn more about the events that lead
to volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. This monitoring
also enables scientists to make predictions about
longer-term plate movements.
GPS data, together with measurement of seismic
signatures, is also used to monitor changes to the
surface of a volcano. Volcano deformation can provide
clues in terms of the movement of magma and the
amount of pressure building up below the surface.
Direct sampling of gases such as carbon dioxide and
sulphur dioxide emitted from fumaroles (small gas
vents in the side of the volcano) can help determine
changes in likely volcanic activity. A combination of
all these methods is used by the US Geological Survey
(USGS) in its Volcano Hazards Program, which has a
nationwide alert notification system. It characterises
the level of unrest and eruptive activity of volcanoes, in
order to inform both people on the ground and those in
aviation of potential or current hazards.
Use of such technology will help to limit the
disastrous effects caused by the power of the natural
processes involved in volcanic activity.
Figure 3.27
The Kawerau Power Station is a 100-megawatt geothermal
power plant located in the North Island of New Zealand.
Completed in July 2008, it generates power to 100 000
homes.
Activities
1. What actions could be taken to limit the loss of life
in an active volcanic area?
2. Tourism in an active volcanic area can be risky. Do
you think that tourists should be allowed to visit
such active areas? Justify your answer.
3. Undertake an Internet investigation into volcanic
tourism at one of these locations:

Yellowstone National Park
Pompeii
Figure 3.26
Iceland
Mt Agung in Bali, Indonesia,
White Island.
Include a location map, what tourists can see, and

the levels of danger associated with visiting such
an area.
is one of a number of
volcanoes responsible for
the islands fertile soil.
4. Suggest how further development of geothermal

energy could be seen as contributing to solving
problems of global warming.
51
52
School-assessed coursework
Assessment task: Volcanic environments
Question 1
Match the definitions below with the appropriate word
or phrase from the list in the text box.
Note: each word or phrase may only be used once.
fissure
eruption caldera plug
hot spot
pahoehoe mantle tephra
continental plate
Pacific Ring of Fire
intrusive rock
a. lava with a wrinkled, ropey appearance
b. a very large crater formed when the original
volcano summit is destroyed by another eruption
c. the section of the earths crust found mainly on
land but which may extend to the edge of the
continental shelf in the oceans
d. solid material that is ejected into the atmosphere
e.g. pumice
e. the part of the earth below the crust which
contains magma
f. formed when magma cools within the crust
g. formed when magma which has hardened in the
vent of a volcano is exposed after erosion
Question 2
a. Draw an annotated sketch of (i) a shield volcano
and (ii) a strato (composite) volcano.
b. Account for the differences in the shapes of these
two types of volcanoes.
Question 3
Refer to figure 3.28 (page 53) showing the distribution
of volcanoes in Indonesia.
Describe the distribution pattern shown.
Question 4
With specific reference to the type of plate movement
indicated in figure 3.29 (page 53), account for the
distribution of volcanoes in Sumatra and Java.
Question 5
Draw a table as shown below. Complete the table
to show the impact of volcanic activity using specific
examples to support your points.
Positive impact on people Negative impact on
people
Positive impact on the
environment
Negative impact on the

environment
h. when strong convection currents in the mantle

force magma through a weakness in the earths
crust, away from a plate boundary
Question 6
i. when magma is forced through a long, narrow,

vertical crack in the earths crust
a. Outline two ways in which volcanic activity may be

monitored.
j. there is a strong spatial association with volcanic

activity throughout this region
b. Evaluate the extent to which such monitoring

reduces the risk of the hazards posed by volcanic
environments.
CHAPTER THREE
SCHOOL-ASSESSED COURSEWORK
Pacific
Ocean
South China Sea
volcanoes in Indonesia
BRUNEI
MALAYSIA
MALAYSIA
SINGAPORE
Equator
Borneo
Sulawesi
Jakarta
N
500 km
Agung
Indian
Ocean
Scale
NEW
GUINEA
Tambora
Merapi
New
Guinea PAPUA
INDONESIA
Java
EAST TIMOR
Arafura Sea
Timor Sea
Active volcano
AUSTRALIA
110E
Figure 3.29
THAILAND
South China Sea
SUNDA
PLATE
The location of plate

boundaries in Sumatra and
BRUNEI
MALAYSIA
MALAYSIA
Equator
Sumatra
Fault
45 mm/year
SINGAPORE
Borneo
N
400 km
INDONESIA
Scale
Jakarta
AUSTRALIA
PLATE
Java
55 mm/year
Active volcano
Subduction fault
Transform fault
Indian
Ocean
Java
Tr e n c
h
110E
Java
Fig_03_29_bk1_2011
Sumatra
Fig_03_28_bk1_2011
Sumatra
The distribution of active
PHILIPPINES
Krakatoa
53
Figure 3.28
VIETNAM
THAILAND
CAMBODIA
UNIT ONE
65 mm/year
54
V I C T O R I A S F O R E S T E N V I R O N M E N T S
Victorias forest
environments
Outcome 1
On the completion of this
chapter, the student should be
able to describe the
geographic characteristics of
Victorian forest environments
and the natural processes that
develop them.
Outcome 2
On the completion of this
chapter, the student should be
able to analyse and explain the
changes in Victorian forest
environments due to natural
processes and human activity.
Key Knowledge and

Skills

Distribution
Introduction
Forest environments comprise some of the most

significant natural places on earth. They form the
earths largest reservoir of biological diversity,
containing an estimated 50 per cent of all its plant and
animal species. To many, forests are also places of
great beauty and mystery. They can be of immense age
and variety, vary remarkably in structure and contain
some of the most amazing life on the planet. Forests
can be classified in a range of ways with the most
common global classification being based on climatic
zones, such as temperate and tropical. This can be seen
clearly in figure 4.1.
A forest can be defined as a natural environment
dominated by trees. Forests are characterised by
multi-storey canopies and trees of a variety of ages
and species. Consequently forests are complex
ecosystems that support a variety of living creatures,
from mammals to birds and insects. Globally there has
been a considerable spatial change over time in the
proportion of the earth covered by forests. Over
50 per cent of the earths original distribution of natural
forests is thought to have been removed by human

activities such as farming and urbanisation. In some
countries this trend is starting to be readdressed as
the value and function of forest regions is being better
appreciated.
It was estimated in 2008 that Australian forests
covered approximately 149 million hectares of land
predominantly along the east coast and were spatially
associated with the coast and the Great Dividing
Range. These forests span tropical, sub-tropical and
temperate climates. Approximately 8.3 million hectares
of forest areas or about 5.5 per cent of Australian
forests are found in Victoria. With a total land area of
22 million hectares, forests occupy about 36 per cent
of Victorias land area. Victorian forests are generally
located in temperate climates and have developed
naturally in response to relatively mild temperatures
and moderate rainfall. It would be easy to conclude
that all Victorian forests could look identical due to
Figure 4.1
Global distribution of forests
Arctic Ocean
Atlantic
Ocean
Tropic of Cancer
Pacific Ocean
Equator
Indian Ocean
Temperate broadleaf
Current
Original
Tropical dry
Current
Original
Tropical moist
Current
Original
Tropic of Capricorn
Needleleaf
Current
Original
N
0
5000 km
Equatorial Scale
| U N I T O N E | N AT U R A L E N V I R O N M E N T S | C H A P T E R F O U R |
climatic similarities; however, this could not be further

from the truth. Many other factors influence forest
location, structure and diversity and these are covered
on pages 602.
Areas of trees planted by people are generally
considered to be plantations often of a single
tree species. As a consequence they do not contain
the diversity of life to be found in a natural forest.
About 5 per cent of Victorias forests are classified as
plantation. Figure 4.4 shows the distribution of forests
in Victoria. Nearly 93 per cent of Victorian forests have
a eucalyptus species as the dominant tree of the forest.
A typical forest structure is shown in figure 4.3.
Canopy dense
Canopy dense but

some separation
Forest type
Percentage cover
Acacia
Callitris
<1
Casuarina
Melaleuca
<1
Eucalypt mallee
19
Eucalypt woodland
14
Eucalypt, tall open
17
Eucalypt, medium open
38
Eucalypt, low open
Eucalypt, closed
Rainforest
<1
Plantation
Upper branches may touch;

understorey quite light
Figure 4.2
Forest cover in Victoria
Figure 4.3
Distinct spacing
between trees
The structure of some types

of Victorian forest
Crown
50 metres
plus
Emergent layer
Crown
30 metres
plus
Canopy
Crown
Crown
Upperstorey
Shrub layer
Ground layer
Rainforest (closed forest)
Shrubby
understorey
Tall open eucalypt forest
Shrubby
understoery
Medium open eucalypt forest
Grassy
understorey
Woodland forest
55
56
4
Activities
1. Use figure 4.1 to complete the following:
a. In which regions of the earth are the largest
remaining tracts of forest globally?
b. Which regions around the earth seem to have
lost the most forests? How could you prove
this?
c. Some forest regions are found outside their
expected climate range. For example, there
are places where tropical rainforests are found
that are outside the tropics. Where does this
occur and why do you think this might be the
case?
2. Refer to figure 4.4.

a. Describe the distribution of Victorias forests.
b. How do you think the pattern you described
in question 2(a) can be explained. What other
data would you need to confirm your opinion?
3. Refer to figure 4.3. What differences can you see
in the structures of each type of forest shown?
Comment on each layer of forest and canopy cover
in your answer.
d. Find two areas that appear to have never had

forest. Describe their location. With the aid
of an atlas, determine if these regions are
associated with another type of landform.
Figure 4.4
The distribution of Victorias
e. Describe the current distribution of Australias

forests.
forests
57
The natural system of forests

Figure 4.5 shows how forests are part of the
biosphere; that is, the junction of the lithosphere,
atmosphere and hydrosphere. The interaction of
these spheres leads to a range of processes and the
cycling of matter within the forest. One of the most
important processes is photosynthesis. This is where
solar energy is trapped by green plants and used to
convert carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and water
absorbed through the roots to carbohydrates, which
are stored in the cellular matter.
Oxygen is a byproduct of this process.
Photosynthesis is critical to human life on earth,
as it removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
and produces oxygen. The carbohydrates produced
nourish plants, and consequently animals and
people. As sunlight is the vital ingredient to power
photosynthesis, plants will always compete to
maximise their exposure to the sun.
Photosynthesis is balanced by the process of
respiration. Respiration is the release of energy from
food in the cells of all living organisms (plants and
animals). This process requires oxygen and releases
carbon dioxide. With the increased burning of fossil
fuels and a reduction in the number of trees to
produce oxygen, the earths natural balance between
photosynthesis and respiration has been altered.
Photosynthesis and respiration also have major
roles in the carbon cycle, one of three major cycles
operating in forests. The three major cycles that
operate in forests are the carbon cycle, the nitrogen

cycle and the water cycle. These three cycles involve
the cycling of compounds that are necessary for the
existence of all life forms. Other cycles that can be
found in the biosphere are the sulphur cycle and
phosphorus cycle.
Natural systems and their

interaction
factors creating forests
The carbon cycle

The carbon cycle (see figure 4.6) involves the circulation
of the element carbon in the biosphere. Carbon is found
in all living organisms. Plants obtain carbon from the
carbon dioxide in the air through photosynthesis. The
carbon is converted into a carbohydrate (glucose).
Animals obtain carbon by eating plants and other
animals. Carbon is released back into the atmosphere
in the form of carbon dioxide when organisms respire.
Animals may also recycle carbon by excreting it into
the soil. When an organism dies, decomposition occurs
resulting in carbon being released into the soil and the
atmosphere. Carbon is also released into the
atmosphere through bushfires and burning fossil fuels.
It is estimated that Victorias native forests store an
estimated 852 million tonnes of carbon in the trees and
soil. This figure is equivalent to keeping 3.1 billion
tonnes of carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere.
Victorias native forests have also been identified as
the most carbon dense on the globe. The ability of
forests to take up carbon is vital to the mitigation of
climate change.
Biosphere
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Figure 4.5
The forest environment as a
natural system
Lithosphere
Processes
Inputs
e.g.
precipitation,
solar energy
Interact with
Components
e.g.
soil,
vegetation,
animals
Generate
e.g.
respiration,
photosynthesis
and
cycles
e.g.
nitrogen,
carbon, water
Result in
Atmosphere
Hydrosphere
Outputs
e.g.
water vapour,
oxygen,
coal
58
The nitrogen cycle

Carbon dioxide
in atmosphere
Assimilation
by plants
Plant
respiration
Animal
respiration
Respiration
in soil
Food for
animals
Litter
Root respiration
Decomposition
Dead organisms
Figure 4.6
The carbon cycle
Atmospheric nitrogen
Lightning
Rainwater
Oxides of
nitrogen
Herbivores
Blue-green
algae
Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in
humus and in
root nodules
of leguminous
plants
Taken up
by plant
roots
Dead
animals,
faeces
and urine
Decomposing and nitrifying

bacteria convert anmonia
Soil nitrates
Figure 4.7
The nitrogen cycle
Dead
plant
organisms
Denitrifying
bacteria in
waterlogged
soil
The nitrogen cycle (see figure 4.7) is a very important

cycle in the biosphere as, although 78 per cent of
the atmosphere is nitrogen, most plants and animals
cannot use this directly. Plants can only use nitrogen
in the form of simple inorganic salts, soil nitrates, from
the soil. Bacteria, lightning and some algae convert
nitrogen from the atmosphere into soil nitrates, a
process called fixation. Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria
live mutually with leguminous plants, such as peas and
beans. The presence of leguminous plants in a region
is usually highly desirable, as they are responsible for
improving soil fertility. Animals require their nitrogen to
be already built up into complex molecules, which they
obtain by eating plants.
The water cycle

The water cycle (see figure 4.8) is essential to life. It
operates in all spheres of the natural system but is
particularly important to the biosphere, as all of the
cycles existing in the biosphere need water to operate.
It is also the largest constituent of living organisms. For
example, approximately 65 per cent of the human body
is water. In the biosphere water infiltrates the soil, is
taken up by plants and animals, and transpired into the
atmosphere. More than 90 per cent of the water that
is taken up by the root of a tree is given off into the air
as water vapour. Forests are important in maintaining
water quality. Stable forests filter out impurities and
this is why Victoria follows a closed catchment policy
around water supplies such as reservoirs.
Clearly the forest is a dynamic natural system,
as there is always interaction between its varying
components: the biosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere
and hydrosphere. This implies that any forest region
around the world can exhibit geographic characteristics
that may make it unique from any other forest region.
Activities
a. Which of the spheres do you think is most dominant in the formation of the forest environment? Justify
your answer.
b. Select one input into the forest environment. Describe how that input may interact with the components
of the forest to generate processes, and eventually an output, to leave this natural system.
c. What may happen to the forest system if there is a change to the inputs entering the system? Explain why
this may be the case.
d. Give an example of where you think matter can cycle through the forest system.
e. Create a sketch that explains how photosynthesis and respiration operate in the forest environment.
Where does the energy come from to allow these processes to operate?
a. Imagine you are a molecule of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Describe two different courses that you
could take around the carbon cycle.
b. In winter, the rates of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increase. Explain why this is so.
c. Where does the energy come from to allow carbon to cycle in the forest environment?
d. Many governments around the world are thinking about introducing a carbon tax. Complete some research
to determine whether instituting a carbon tax could increase forest distributions globally in the long run
and why.
a. Why do you think the nitrogen cycle is so important to the forest environment?
b. What are the different ways in which nitrogen can get into the soil?
c. Outline one route that a nitrogen molecule can take in a forest environment through a complete cycle.
4. Evaluate the importance of the water cycle important to the existence of a forest.
Figure 4.8
The water cycle
Rainfall
Transpiration
Evaporation
Input from
floods
River
Runoff
Infiltration
Uptake by roots
Water table
Groundwater
Soil
River red gum
Yellow box
Cypress pine
Flood
Flow of water
59
60
Geographic characteristics of Victorias

forest environments
Key Knowledge and
Skills
factors
Landscapes and
environments
Changes to forest
environments by natural
processes and human
activities
There are many aspects that contribute to the

distribution and characteristics of Victorias forest
environments. These aspects individually are not the
sole reason explaining the structure of a forest or where
a forest is located. Sometimes all of the aspects listed
below may contribute. These aspects are:
availability of water
soils
temperature
landforms/elevation
sunlight and aspect
ecological history such as fire
human activities.
Availability of water
The availability of water limits the spread of plants
throughout the world. Plants adapt to the levels of
moisture available in a certain area. As discussed
earlier in this chapter, photosynthesis, respiration, and
the carbon and nitrogen cycles cannot operate without
water. Some trees will drop their leaves to reduce
water loss. These plant species are called deciduous.
Those trees that retain their leaves all year-round are
called evergreen.
Soils
Figure 4.9
Fungi is a living organism in
the soil.
The nutrient levels, soil structure and texture,

and presence of water and air within soil are all
important when considering the impact soil has on

forest environments. Nutrient levels to some extent
determine the species present in a place; soil structure
and texture control the plants ability to root; and the
ability of the soil to hold water or drain will also have
implications on the type of plant able to grow. Soil is a
complicated mixture of five main elements:
organic material dead and decaying plants and
animals
mineral material inorganic fragments mainly
from rocks
water the solution in which nutrients available
to plants are dissolved
air fills the pores between soil particles not
filled by water
living organisms an enormous variety of
organisms that live in the soil, including slugs, ants,
worms and fungi (see figure 4.9).
If the proportion of any one of these elements
is altered, the soil is changed, making the growing
environment for plants different. This may result in a
change of species.
Temperature
Temperature plays a significant role in determining
the distribution of vegetation. Research has shown
that temperature conditions in certain seasons can
be a limiting factor for the development and growth
of plants. For example, young trees often struggle
to survive frosts. Temperature also influences the
rates of chemical reactions, such as decomposition.
Vegetation can grow up to 10 times more quickly in
the tropics when compared to cooler regions. Figure
4.11 shows the temperatures needed for different
types of forest to survive, as well as the strong spatial
association temperature has with precipitation in
determining the distribution of vegetation types. In a
forest, temperature can also vary considerably between
the different layers. Victoria has three distinct climate
regions based on temperature and humidity. This can be
seen in figure 4.12.
Landforms/Elevation
Distribution of different vegetation species will also
vary with altitude and slope. Steeper slopes may have
better drainage, a lack of moisture in the soil or no
Annual precipitation (mm)
1600
Figure 4.10
Tall open eucalypt forest with a dense understorey of tree
Tropical
rainforest
1200
Temperate
rainforest
Tropical
seasonal
forest
800
400
Mallee forest
Savanna
Thorn scrub
ferns
soil at all. Gullies often tend to collect water and, as

a consequence, are moist and even waterlogged at
times. This encourages water-loving plants such as
the tree ferns in figure 4.10. There is a strong spatial
association between the location of gullies and the
distribution of temperate rainforest. As altitude
increases the temperature decreases, and relative
humidity increases as does exposure to prevailing
winds, for example. The tree limit or timberline
spatially interacts with latitude and altitude. In Victoria
it is approximately 1500 metres above sea level.
Mt Bogong, Victorias highest point, is 1986 metres
above sea level.
Sunlight and aspect

Solar energy is the starting point in the forest for
photosynthesis, so sunlight is vital to plants. There
Tall open eucalypt forest

Medium open eucalypt forest
Eucalypt
Woodland
Grassland
Shrubland
Taiga
Tundra
Desert
0
30
20
10
Annual temperature (C)

Figure 4.11
Climatic effects on forest type
are many influences on light available to plants. The

duration, intensity and distribution of light can vary in
a location, depending on latitude, altitude, cloudiness
and aspect. Trees at the top of the canopy receive
more light than those found near the forest floor. In
the southern hemisphere trees with a northerly aspect
receive more light, and usually have drier conditions
than those plants with a southerly aspect. The aspect
can also be important in protecting some plants by
sheltering them from prevailing winds.
Figure 4.12
Scale
MELBOURNE
Bass Strait
humidity
Created new by CC August 2011
100 km
based on temperature and
Victorian climate zones
Fig_04_12_bk1_2011
Climate zones
Hot dry summer,
cold winter
Warm summer,
cold winter
Mild/warm summer,
cold winter
-10
61
62
Figure 4.13
Impact of bushfire on a
forested hillside
Ecological history
Human activities
In Australia fire has had a major influence in the

distribution of vegetation (see figure 4.13). Many
species of vegetation require fire to regenerate, and
there is usually evidence of past fires in any temperate
forests where eucalypts are present. Most eucalypts
develop shoots from the trunk or ground if foliage is
burnt. Seed pods of banksias and hakeas open when
heated by fire, while seeds that are lying dormant in
the soil, such as wattles, are often activated by fire.
Some Australian plants actually encourage fires by
having highly flammable oils in their leaves, or having
dry bark hanging off limbs, which ignites easily. After
fires the ash layer adds to soil fertility and assists
seeds to germinate. If fires occur before a tree reaches
maturity (before it has produced seeds), or in areas
where there is rainforest (most rainforest plants do
not regenerate with fire), the dominant species may be
eliminated. Alternatively, if a temperate forest is fire
free for a long period of time, the species requiring fire
to regenerate may be replaced by non-fire dependent
species.
The biggest influence on the current distribution of

Victorias forests has been human activity. Over time
there has been a multitude of activities that have
occurred in forests. These range from seed and fruit
collecting, which has a minimal impact, to invasive
activities such as forest clearance for timber and
agriculture. In Victoria some of the human activities
have been highly invasive on forests. Extensive mining
operations throughout central Victoria saw forests cut
for props in mine shafts, fuel wood and construction.
Forests along the Murray River were cut down for
shipbuilding and to power paddlesteamers, while
paper manufacture required considerable quantities of
pulpwood.
Dynamics in Victorias forests

Changes to the forest are occurring continuously.
Plants are growing and dying, animals are consuming
some species, bacteria and fungi are decomposing
waste products, energy is being released, and soils are
gaining and losing nutrients. The appearance of forests
is the culmination of a series of processes over time.
The slow, orderly progression of vegetation changes
within an environment, such as a bare piece of land
turning into a forest, is called succession. A simple
succession is as follows:
Bare rock > Lichen > Moss > Grass > Shrub > Tree
As vegetation cover changes, soil develops, and the
animals and birds that live in the region will become
more varied over time. When a bare area becomes
gradually colonised by plants, as in the example above,
it is called primary succession. In an area where
vegetation has been removed, either naturally or from
human activities such as logging, regrowth occurs
as soil is already developed and seeds from former
species lie dormant in the soil. Secondary succession is
said to occur when the forest regrows from this seed.
Many forests in the Central Highlands in Victoria are
examples of secondary succession. As most forests on
earth have been modified to some extent by humans,
secondary succession is a lot more widespread than
primary succession. The plants that first become
established in a bare area are better known as pioneer
or coloniser plants. These may be weeds or even some
acacias (wattles) which can grow very vigorously
after disturbance. When trees become the dominant
vegetation in a region, it is called a forest. There are
significant spatial changes over time in canopy cover
and vegetation density as a forest develops. Figure 4.14
is an example of a temperate rainforest.
As the trees mature and the vegetation and its
ecosystem move to a balance or equilibrium with the
soil, climate and other parts of the environment, it is
said to be a climax community. The mountain ash forest
in figure 4.10 is a climax species. It is the characteristics
of a forest at climax that allow geographers to classify
a forest. At this stage the different layers of the forest,
the dominant plants, the height and density of vegetation
and the foliage cover are able to be identified. Until
the forest reaches climax, there are a number of other
interactions between organisms within the ecosystem
that influence the appearance and structure of the forest.

These include:
competition
predation
mutualism.
Competition
Organisms sharing the same habitat compete for
resources, particularly light, soil, space and water.
Competition can occur at all stages of a plants growth
from seedling to maturity. For example, in the open
forests of the Otway Ranges of southern Victoria, there
are three species of eucalypt messmate, manna
gum and long-leaved box that compete for space
in the upper canopy. Sometimes new species compete
so well that they eliminate old species. In southern
Australia sweet pittosporum is a good example of this,
and these plants are now classified as weeds.
Predation
The types of vegetation in a forest can be influenced
by the animals that consume them. Rabbit plagues
ravage understoreys and stop seedlings from growing.
Koalas eat only certain types of eucalypt leaves. This
marsupial has had to be relocated from some Victorian
Figure 4.14
Myrtle beech trees are
dominant species in cool,
temperate rainforests.
63
64
4
forests, as their numbers had become so large that
the ecological balance has been upset. Mt Eccles near
Hamilton has seen koala populations skyrocket. This
has resulted in trees being stripped bare. As a result
this location is no longer able to support its koala
population. At Raymond Island in the Gippsland Lakes,
many koalas were sterilised in 2004 to try to create a
more sustainable koala population. Most predators rely
on a range of food sources so they will never starve. In
a forest, complex food chains exist. The balance of a
food chain can be altered by major natural events such
as fire, flood, human activities or the introduction of a
new species.
Mutualism
Sometimes in an environment, co-existences occur
between two or more species, as the prevalence
of one or more organisms may be essential to the
survival of another. A good example of this is the
spatial interaction between bacteria micorrhizae,
which coexists with mountain ash and messmate
in Australian temperate forests. This bacteria fixes
nitrogen for the trees, enabling them to germinate.
The trees secrete the soluble food that this bacteria
needs to survive. All these interactions are important in
contributing to the distribution of forests in Victoria and
around the world.
In Victoria climax communities are also known as
old growth forests. About 12 per cent of Victorias
forests are classified as old growth and 48 per cent are
classified as mature.
Figure 4.15
The impact of koalas
Activities
1. Refer to figures 4.8 to 4.15 and the text.
a. How is soil in a forest enriched by organic
matter?
b. Using figure 4.11 on page 61, describe the
temperature and precipitation conditions
needed for a eucalypt woodland to grow. How
could this differ to a temperate rainforest and
a mallee eucalypt forest?
c. Why is fire so important in Australian forests?
2. Use the information on pages 602 to examine the
seven aspects that influence the distribution and
characteristics of temperate rainforests. Create a
table that gives a brief summary of each aspect,
and then rank each in terms of which aspect you
think is the most important to least important.
3. What is meant by the term succession?
4. What is a climax community?
5. After reading the description of secondary
succession, sketch a diagram that you think best
explains this process.
3
Characteristics of Victorias forests

As can be seen from figure 4.2 (page 55) there are 11
native forest types in Victoria. These forests are divided
into types based on the dominant species that are
present and other characteristics, such as canopy cover,
rainfall and height. There is a strong spatial interaction
between the location and distribution of Victorias
forests that can be explained with reference to factors
such as topography, rainfall and climate zones. Tall
open eucalypt forests need at least 900 millimetres of
rain per annum and soil that has good infiltration rates.
Medium open eucalypt forests tend to have very
well-drained, often sandy, soils that are usually low in
the nutrient phosphorus. Low open eucalypt forests

grow in less favourable sites where extreme cold,
dryness or poor soils limit growth, such as in the
Australian Alps. Eucalypt woodlands have well-spaced
trees and grow in drier, flatter areas (figure 4.18).
Mallee eucalypts (figure 4.19) are found in desert-like
regions where rainfall is low and irregular and
temperatures high. Rainforests remaining in Victoria are
found only in small isolated patches, usually in sheltered
gullies that receive more than 1300 millimetres of rain
per annum (see figure 4.16). Victorian forests ecosystems
support 83 mammals, 207 bird species, 97 reptiles,
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Landscapes and
environments
factors
Distribution of Victorian
forest environments
Figure 4.16
MELBOURNE
Bairnsdale
Warragul
Colac
Orbost
Cann
Bemm River River
Scenic Reserve
Tarra-Bulga
National Park
STRZELECKI
Yarram
RANGES
OTWAY
RANGES
Great Otway
National Park
Bass Strait
WILSONS
PROMONTORY
100 km
Scale
Forest type
Dominant species
Height range
Rainfall
Canopy cover
Cool rainforest
Myrtle beech
Up to 30 metres
More than 1300

mm per annum
>90%
Warm rainforest
Lilly pilly
Up to 30 metres
More than 1300

mm per annum
>90%
30110 metres
More than 900 mm

per annum
3070%
1030 metres
40 900 mm per
annum
30 70%
Kanooka
Tall open eucalypt
forest
Mountain ash
Alpine ash
Medium open eucalypt Messmate

forest
Manna gum
Peppermint gum
Low open eucalypt
Snowgum
510 metres
Variable
3070%
Woodland eucalypt
forest
Box
530 metres
400600 mm per
annum
10 30%
26 metres
Less than 300 mm

per year
1030%
Ironbark
Stringybark
Red gum
Mallee eucalypt forest
Ridgefruited mallee
Bull mallee
Green mallee
Created new by CC August 2011
EAST
GIPPSLAND
Victoria
Fig_04_16_bk1_2011
CENTRAL
HIGHLANDS
ERRINUNDRA
PLATEAU
Jones Creek
Reference
Area
Distribution of rainforest in
Rainforest
Figure 4.17
Characteristics of Victorias
major forest types
65
66
4
28 amphibians and multitudes of fungi and algae.
Some of these species are endangered such as
Leadbeaters possum, red-tailed black cockatoo and
spotted tree-frog.
Tall open eucalypt forests of

Victoria
Figure 4.18
Woodland eucalypt forest
This type of forest is located in many parts of Victoria.

The Central Highlands, Dandenongs, Otway Ranges,
Strzelecki Ranges, Grampians and East Gippsland
all have tall open eucalypt forests which can also be
called wet sclerophyll forests. These forests are often
characterised by dense upper canopies that allow
very little light to penetrate to the forest floor. These
forests are dominated by the tallest flowering plant in
the world, the mountain ash. Mountain ash can grow
to 110 metres in height and have a girth of up to 20
metres. The tallest known remaining tree in Victoria
today is over 99 metres high. When European settlers
first moved into these forests, some were able to
use the massive trunks of these trees for temporary
housing and stables. The forests then were nearly
impenetrable, as the understorey was dense and
dark, and abounded with leeches, swordgrass and
snakes. These forests grew because of reasonably
reliable rainfall, high soil moisture and good drainage.
Nutrients continually cycle through this type of forest.
Rainwater can leach and dissolve minerals in the
soil. Plant litter, which averages about 22 tonnes per
hectare per year, decomposes over time, and insects,
worms and microorganisms assist in its breakdown.
The lyrebird also helps the process in these forests
by raking over and mixing soil with plant litter. Dense

understoreys, with species such as blackwoods, silver
wattle, musk daisy bush, hazel pomaderris and austral
mulberry, are common in these forests. Near the forest
floor it is dark and other moisture-loving plants such as
ferns and mosses grow in abundance.
Medium open eucalypt forests

of Victoria
In comparison to tall open eucalypt forests, medium
open eucalypt forests or dry sclerophyll forests are
spatially associated with regions where rainfall is
lower and soil less fertile. These forests often develop
on sandy soils that have little water-retaining capacity.
Periodic droughts are common. The soils are nutrient
poor, particularly in phosphorus. The soils in open
eucalypt forests usually have half the amount of
phosphorus in comparison to tall open eucalypt forests.
Nutrient cycling is highly adapted to cope with poor
soils and periodic drought. Rainwater can directly leach
minerals, such as potassium, magnesium and calcium,
from green leaves and leaf litter. As plants decompose
they release nutrients. Decomposition is most active in
warm and wet conditions. Insects graze on leaves and
can eat up to 50 per cent of leaf litter. The droppings of
these insects contain nutrients that are concentrated
approximately ten times higher than the soil itself.
Eucalypts are the dominant vegetation type, but the
species present are very different to tall open eucalypt
forests, as they are not as tall and the canopy cover
is reduced. Most eucalypts present are particularly
adapted to regeneration by fire, as fire has shaped this
type of forest for thousands of years. The most common
eucalypts found in this type of forest are messmates
and peppermint gums. Medium open eucalypt forests
can be found bordering tall open eucalypt forests on
both sides of the Great Dividing Range, the Otway
Ranges, Central Highlands, Strzelecki Ranges and
Dandenong Ranges. Underneath the eucalypts this type
of forest typically has two types of understorey. The
shrubby layer is made up of plants with hard leathery
leaves, such as bottle brushes (callistemons), tea
tree (leptospermums), hakeas, heaths, grevilleas and
wattles. The grassy layer contains a number of grasses,
as well as orchids and grass trees.
Woodland eucalypt forest

These forests found in a range of locations across
Victoria have a common canopy cover of between 10
and 30 per cent. The environments where woodlands
grow are generally drier than open eucalypt forests,
can experience extended drought, high summer
temperatures and in upland areas experience severe
cold. You can generally identify a woodland by its
well-spaced trees with short trunks and a grassy
understorey (see figure 4.18). Species present can be
extremely diverse and include, box, ironbark, red gum
and stringybark. In a eucalypt woodland it is common
to have up to 10 different species in a hectare of
forest. An interesting woodland species is the red
gum. This tree has the widest distribution of any tree
in Victoria. Greatly prized for its deep red timber, it
grows in heavy clay soils common with wet areas. You
would expect to find red gums near rivers and low-lying
areas. Natural eucalypt woodlands are an environment
under great threat. Most woodlands have been
removed for agriculture practices, mining activities
or wood products including firewood. It is estimated
that less than 10 per cent of original woodlands are
left in Victoria. The 2003 State of Victorias forests
report expressed great concern about the future of
these forests due to the demand for firewood, current
agricultural practices and land degradation.

Mallee eucalypts forests are unique forests that have
adapted to very low rainfall, often very high
temperatures and sandy soils with a high salt content,
and are found in the Mallee and Wimmera regions of
north-west Victoria. These forests often are no more
than 6 metres in height and can be very dense and hard
to penetrate with a grassy understorey (see figure 4.19).
The name Mallee is derived from the Wergeai
Aboriginal people of north-west Victoria who used the
term to denote a small-statured tree. Mallee eucalypts
are often multi-trunked and grow from an underground
woody structure called a lignotuber or mallee root.
There are more than 11 species of Mallee eucalypt that
have been identified and can grow in these conditions.
It is estimated that more than 35 per cent of this type
of forest has been cleared in Victoria for agriculture.
Activities
1. Refer to figures 4.16 to 4.19 and the text.
a. Describe the distribution of temperate
rainforest in Victoria.
b. There are many spatial associations that can
be seen between forest type, topography
and rainfall. Use an atlas to find out about
the topography, rainfall and climate types in
Victoria, and figure 4.17 to describe the spatial
associations with forests that you can identify.
c. Are there any exceptions to the patterns you
have identified?
d. Tall open eucalypt forests and medium open
eucalypt forests are often found bordering
each other. Why do you think this occurs?
e. Using the resources in this chapter and the
Internet, find a location where you might be
able to see each different type of Victorian
forest.
2. A big international media company is interested
in doing a feature article on forests in Victoria due
to the diversity of forest environments found here.
This article will be published globally. They want
you to write an account that outlines the reasons
behind why forests in Victoria develop differently.
Specific locations should be referred to in your
article.
Figure 4.19
67
68
4
Case study: Forests of the
Otways
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Landscapes and
environments
factors
Distribution of Victorian
forest environments
The Otway Ranges, located in south-west Victoria, as

shown in figure 4.20, is well known for its remarkable
forests, waterfalls and close proximity to the Great
Ocean Road. With rainfall varying between 1000 and
2000 millimetres per annum, and elevations to
686 metres above sea level at Mt Cowley, the Otways
has significant stands of cool temperate rainforest, tall
open forest and medium open forest. The topography
in many parts of the Otways is very steep, creating
many sheltered wet gullies that are spatially associated
with cool temperate rainforest, dominated by myrtle
beech, and a rich fern understorey. Distributed on the
slopes above gullies, often on the south and southwest flanks of the Otways, are the tall open forests
dominated by mountain ash. Most of the medium open
forests are located on the north and north-east facing
slopes. These forests have many eucalypt species, with
blue gums, messmates, peppermints and grey gums
dominating. One of the regions top tourist attractions is
the Otway Fly tree-top walk: a walk along a suspended
bridge 25 metres above a cool temperate rainforest
gully. The forests of the Otways have had a chequered
history. The area suffered devastating bushfires in 1851,
1919, 1939 and 1983, and other areas of forest have
been felled for timber or cleared for agriculture. Timber
has been milled from the Otways since the 1850s, and
towns such as Lorne and Apollo Bay expanded rapidly,
mainly to house timber workers. More than 1000 timber
workers were living in Apollo Bay in the 1860s. Then,
most of the timber was selectively cut and used for
railway sleepers.
Today, these towns have no timber mills and are
better known as tourist destinations. If you went for
a drive through these forests, you would see many
stages of succession. The old-growth forests are
climax communities, while those forests recovering
from bushfires are in secondary succession. There are
only two sections of tall open forest left in the Otways
that are considered old growth. These are at the Big
Trees Reserve and Olangolah Flora and Fauna Reserve
located on figure 4.20. As well, there are many veteran
trees dispersed through the forests. Veteran trees are
ones left behind by past selective logging operations
and survived the many bushfires. These trees are often
more than 200 years old.
In early 2000s the Victorian Environment Assessment
Commission (VEAC) completed a two-year investigation
into forest use and the amount of forest land that was
protected in the region. VEAC recommended that many
forest activities be prohibited and that the amount of
land protected in reserves be increased. They
recommended that a Great Otways National Park be
created in 2006 to join together smaller national parks
to nearly double the protected forest from 54 540
hectares to 103 000 hectares. Within the new national
park there are ten sites where there are sections of
cool temperate rainforest classified as significant, from
a national scale to State and regional scales. The Great
Otway National Park also protects tracts of tall open
forest and over 21 000 hectares of medium open forest.
VEAC also recommended the creation of the Otway
Forest Park that further protected nearly 40 000 hectares
of forest.
Logging is no longer taking place in the native
forests of the Otways. The Otway Ranges Environment
Network (OREN) campaigned extensively since 1995 to
ban clearfelling in native forests in the Otways. OREN
orchestrated a community campaign that resulted in
legislation being passed in State parliament in 2005
that banned any logging in native forests from 2008.
Although logging is banned in native forests there
are still forestry operations in the many privately owned
plantations in the region. In 1993 a group of more than
20 farming families formed an agroforestry network in
the Otways in collaboration with the East Otway Land
Protection Group, Natural Heritage Trust and other
groups to serve a range of purposes. This includes:
restoring previously degraded areas by using local
indigenous trees grown at local nurseries
connecting remnant stands of trees to create
wildlife corridors
improving water quality in local creeks and
catchments
increasing biodiversity
providing a source of income to some farmers from
harvesting wood for fuel and paper pulp.
In the Yan Yan Gurt catchment in the Otways in
1993, forested land had decreased to 6 per cent of the
total catchment and this had led to a range of issues
including land degradation, salinity and declining
water quality. By 2002 forested land in the Yan Yan
Gurt catchment had increased to 21 per cent, areas
of dryland salinity had decreased and water quality in
the catchment improved significantly. Added to this,
extensive wildlife corridors (see figure 4.21) were
created that saw the return of many mammals, birds
69
Activities
and reptiles. In the future, of the 396 hectares of

forest now in the catchment, 250 hectares has been
committed to logging activities. It is envisaged that
logging will start in about 2030. Since 2002 farmers
have continued to plant more trees and they have
created their own commercial seed orchard. In 2010 the
forested area still remained at just over 21 per cent of
the total catchment.
Refer to figure 4.20.

1. a. Describe the distribution of cool temperate rainforest in the Otways.
b. Describe the degree of spatial association existing between cool temperate
rainforest and parks.
2. Look at the OREN website at www.oren.org.au. Describe how OREN went about
campaigning to protect Otway native forests.
3. Find the Otway Agroforestry Network website at www.oan.org.au. What is the
purpose of this group? What services do they offer?
4. With reference to figure 4.21, explain why creating corridors can increase the
biodiversity of an area.
Figure 4.20
Camperdown
Bellbrae
Birregurra
RO
AD
a
br
lli
Ge
Great Otway
National Park
Port Campbell
Lavers
Hill
Otway Fly
tree-top walk
Forrest
Gellibrand
Princetown
Beech
Forest
Lorne
Olangolah
Flora & Fauna
Reserve
T
EA
GR
Big Trees
Reserve
Wye River
Kennet River
Cape Patton
Apollo Bay
Great Otway
National Park
Great Otway
National Park
Cape Otway
Bass
Aireys Inlet
Mt Cowley
OC
nd
iver
EA
ys
ned
Great Otway
National Park
e
Cr
n
Ke
Anglesea
Strait
Figure 4.21
How corridors can connect isolated
habitats
10 km
Scale
Yan Yan Gurt Catchment

Cool temperate rainforest
National Park
Otway Forest Park
Plantation
Population centre
Attraction

( fig 1.3.16)
Barw
ek
west Victoria
Anglesea
Heath
on
Colac
Torquay
re-supplied August 2011
CES
PRIN
Cobden
Otway forest areas, south-
Rive
Lake
Colac
Fig_04_20_bk1_2011
HW
70
Changes to Victorias forest environments
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Changes to forest
environments
Interactions between natural
activities
Impact of change on natural
activity
Importance of interactions
between natural processes
and human activities
Some change is occurring all the time within Victorian

forests. Many of these changes, such as seasonal and
annual variations in temperature and rainfall, will be
small and not lead to major changes in the appearance
of the forest. With these small changes the cycles and
processes operating in the forest will adjust with the
alteration in inputs.
Sometimes changes can occur over an extended
period of time, and it can be difficult to notice the
impact of this change. Climate change is a good
example of this, because change is gradual. The
resultant spatial change over time in forest structure
and distribution may be subtle and hard to identify.
Sometimes changes can be quite radical and cause
the balance and appearance of Victorian forests to
change quickly. Both natural processes and human
activities can lead to such changes. Natural changes
could include natural disasters such as bushfires,
floods, drought or disease. Human activities tend to
be the biggest initiator of change in the appearance of
temperate forests. Logging operations, road building,
land clearance, introduction of introduced species,
tourism, plantations, agricultural activities, pollution
and population expansion can all have drastic impacts
on the forest environment. When examining change to
an environment, it is important to note the extent and
rate of change. Bushfires can destroy huge tracts of
forest, while road building may only have a localised
small-scale effect.
Using an existing forest to protect a water catchment
may have no impact on the forest at all beyond
excluding most human activities. Since the arrival of
the first Europeans to Australia, forest landscapes have
been transformed considerably. The extent of forest
regions has declined markedly. Forests have been lost
mainly due to many of the aforementioned human
activities. Currently there is much discussion as to what
human activities are most appropriate for Victorias
forests, as many uses are incompatible with others, or
would appear to have negative environmental effects.
Old-growth forests or those relatively untouched by
humans and which are climax communities with very
mature upper canopies, such as the East Gippsland
forests, tend to engender heated discussion about their
future use.
Logging operations
Most timber in Victorian forests is hardwood, and is
valued for a variety of reasons. Blackwood can make
excellent furniture; mountain ash with its tall straight
trunks is ideal for housing frames and flooring, while
many other trees can be woodchipped and used for
pulp and paper products.
There are two operations used to remove trees from
a forest: selective logging and clear-felling. Selective
logging, as its name suggests, is where some species
of trees are removed, leaving a cross-section of trees
of different ages and species. Generally the most
commercially valuable trees are removed. If forestry
practices are sound, some of the species of tree being
felled will be left in a coupe as seed trees, or to provide
habitat trees for arboreal birds and animals, and forest
regeneration. Selective felling, although changing the
structure and composition of the forest, does not have
the massive impact that clear-felling does. Clear-felling
involves the removal of all vegetation from a particular
region. Tree trunks, generally the most valuable part
of the tree, are usually milled, and the rest of the tree
and other understorey species are woodchipped for
paper and pulp products. Leftover vegetation that is not
required for anything else is usually burnt at the site.
The impact of these activities is major, especially on
the soil and wildlife. Soil is exposed to the elements,
is often eroded by wind and water, or compacted by
the heavy machinery required to complete forestry
operations. As a result of this, soil fertility declines,
soil moisture decreases, runoff increases after rain,
which can lead to streams and rivers becoming more
turbid, while weeds and other opportunist species can
colonise exposed areas.
The wildlife in a region can be devastated by
clearfelling, as suddenly their shelter has been
destroyed and food sources removed. Food chains
and natural cycles are disrupted. Vulnerable plant and
animal species can become endangered. Neighbouring
regions can be affected as well. Animals near the top
of food chains, such as wedge-tailed eagles, roam
over vast areas to search for food, and the loss of one
source area can have implications on others.
Often areas that have been clear-felled are
replanted, but rarely will the structure or biodiversity
of the previous forest be replicated, and certainly
not immediately. Many forest replantings are called
plantations, as they are designed for logging in the

future and are dominated by one species. Plantations
can also be called monocultures. If a clear-felled area is
left alone, seed banks present in the soil can allow for
some endemic species in a region to regrow. However
it could take many centuries for plant succession to
reach a climax community.
Sometimes forested land can be cleared for
agriculture, for example grape growing in the Yarra
Valley and dairying in the foothills of the western
Strzelecki Ranges. Forested land can be cleared for
housing, for tourist infrastructure in the Otways, for
example, or to enable prospecting for minerals as
in Central Victoria. When considering the effects
of human activities such as logging on forests,
the potential economic and social benefits that
forestry offers have to be considered as well as the
environmental impacts.
Some rural communities rely on forestry for
employment and income. Towns such as Colac and
Traralgon have many people employed in logging,
transporting trees to mills and processing in the mills
themselves. These people spend their income in
local shops or on other services such as health and
education, or maintenance of possessions such as cars
and electrical goods. Forestry can be considered one
of the major economic bases for the local community.
At the beginning of 2011 there were 112 sawmills still
operating in Victoria mainly in regional areas including
major woodchipping plants in both Portland and
Geelong.
fires of 1983 and Black Saturday 2009 are testament

to this.
People have used fire in Australia to change the
characteristics of forests since the arrival of the first
people approximately 60 000 years ago. Over time these
people used a method of fire-stick farming to remove
undergrowth and make forests easier to traverse, as
well as to hunt animals and collect roots and tubers. In
many regions of Australia this has allowed plants that
are fire dependent to dominate the landscape. Today,
humans are using low-intensity fires to control leaf
litter and other debris in an attempt to reduce the risk
of serious, large-scale wildfire. As well they are using
backburns in an attempt to stop existing fires spreading,
and also to assist in the regeneration of particular fire
dependent plants.
The effectiveness of many of these techniques is
being questioned. In Victoria, for example, questions
were raised following the Wilsons Promontory fires of
2005, which devastated much of this popular national
park after low intensity fire operations got out of
control.
Bushfires
3. Clear-felling and wood-chip exports are profitable

to some, disastrous to others. Debate the
controversy as a class or group discussion.
As discussed earlier in this chapter, fire can be a

decisive influence in changing the characteristics of
Victorian forests. Fire is, and has been, a powerful
force in the selection of plants, particularly in eucalypt
dominated open forests. Forests that are closed, such
as cool temperate rainforest, rarely catch fire unless the
canopy has been disturbed or there has been prolonged
drought.
Fires in forests can be initiated naturally or by human
activity. Lightning is the most common natural cause
of fire. Leaf litter, bark and twigs can ignite easily
in open forests if dry. Once alight the volatile oils in
eucalyptus leaves can lead to high intensity fires that
are extremely hot, and can move through the crown of
a forest very quickly. These fires can be hard to contain
and pose a great threat to anything in their way. Fires
such as the Black Friday fires of 1939, Ash Wednesday
Activities
1. Construct a table or matrix that summarises the
positive and negative effects of logging.
2. Choose one of the positive effects and one of the
negative effects of logging, and do some research
to find places and evidence to support your
classification.
4. Black Friday, Ash Wednesday and Black Saturday

were three very destructive bushfires that occurred
in Victorian forest regions. Research one of these
bushfires to find the initiating causes, the extent,
location and the effects of this bushfire. Include a
map in your report.
71
72
4
Case study: Forests of the
Strzeleckis
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Changes to forest
environments
Interactions between natural
activities
Impact of change on natural
activity
between natural processes
and human activities
The Strzelecki Ranges are located in the region of

Gippsland in eastern Victoria. The ranges reach a
maximum height of 730 metres above sea level at Mt
Tassie, near the small township of Balook. The steep
valleys near Mt Tassie can be seen in figure 4.22.
Although much lower in height than the Great Dividing
Range to the north, the position of the Strzeleckis
allows it to collect the moisture-laden winds from the
south-west, which precipitate on the ridges and slopes
of these ranges. The average annual rainfall starts at
about 700 millimetres on the lower slopes, rising to
levels of more than 1400 millimetres on the higher
slopes near Balook. The Strzelecki Ranges are well
known for their steep slopes and rugged landscapes,
and for being extremely difficult to traverse. The
first visitors to this region saw three types of forest:
tall open eucalypt, medium open eucalypt and cool
temperate rainforest. Today the region still contains
these three types of forest, but in much smaller
proportions. As well, there are many plantations of blue
gum, shining gum and radiata pine, developed for the
pulp and paper industry.
The ranges have had a diverse human history.
Artifacts and stone tools indicate that Indigenous
people frequented the area in spring and summer,
when food was plentiful and the climate not as harsh.
They would have seen a densely forested wilderness
that periodically had fires sweep through, clearing
the undergrowth and activating the cycle of regrowth
common in these predominantly open forests. One of
the first Europeans to visit the area was a Pole named
Paul Edmund de Strzelecki, after whom the ranges
were named. In 1840 he and a party of men took 22
days to cover approximately 70 kilometres across the
ranges, along what today is the Grand Ridge Road from
east to west (see figure 4.22, grid reference 605461).
It was nearly an impossible journey, as the trees were
often 90 metres high and the undergrowth was so thick
horses had to be left behind. Their trek through dark,
and swordgrass and leech-infested undergrowth was
so difficult the party nearly starved. They were saved by
an Indigenous guide who caught koalas for the party to
eat. The first town in the area was established in 1876,
and marked the beginning of the human activities that
changed the appearance, structure and cycles occurring
within these forests. The first task for most pioneers
was to attempt to clear the land to build roads and
houses, and to grow crops. Often a large tree was felled

at the top of a slope to bring down trees and shrubs
below, and fire was used to clear the undergrowth.
Figure 4.23 depicts the effect of ths domino method of
land clearance on the environment. It was no mean feat
to fell a tree that often had a girth of 18 metres or more.
Slots were cut in the side of a tree and springboards
inserted for the axemen to climb. The logs were used
for fences, building materials and to surface roads to
stop them turning into mud channels after rain.
Figure 4.22
Topographic map extract of Mt Tassie, Tarra Bulga National
Park
Figure 4.23
The results of the domino method used to clear forests in 1910
73
74
Figure 4.24
Plantations in the Strzelecki
Ranges, 2004
Figure 4.25
Plantations in the Strzelecki
Ranges, 2011
Attempts to tame the land in the Western

Strzeleckis were generally successful, and the region
is now noted for its many productive dairy farms.
The Eastern Strzeleckis proved to be a very different
story. Many areas were cleared that were too steep,
soil was washed away and erosion scars became
commonplace. Farmers struggled to make a living,
and the area became better known as the heartbreak

hills. There were 15 bushfires between 1899 and 1944
and, together with the sheer isolation of the area, the
difficulties became too great for many to bear. During
World War 1 many men enlisted and, subsequently, some
families abandoned their land. Most of the sawmills kept
operating. In 1914 the population of Balook was around
160 and supported four sawmills. By the time of World

War II, the best timber had been felled.
In 1904 two pockets of land totalling about 40 hectares
were preserved as examples of relatively untouched tall
open forests and cool temperate rainforest. In 1941
these were declared as Tarra Valley National Park and
Bulga National Park. In 1938 the Victorian Forests
Commission started replanting areas left derelict with
blue gums and mountain ash. After World War II it was
decided to try to rehabilitate the eastern Strzeleckis,
which had been cleared and become eroded. In the
1950s a private company APM (Australian Paper
Manufacturers) and the Forests Commission started
buying some of the old farms and planting pine trees.
This served three purposes: to grow a soft wood crop
that would be useful for paper products, to stabilise
the often very steep slopes, and to smother the noxious
weeds, such as blackberries, that had spread
unchecked across the Strzeleckis.
In the 1990s the Victorian Government sold publicly
owned plantations in the Strzeleckis to private
companies. Grand Ridge Plantations now owns nearly
all plantations in the Strzeleckis, after buying out the
APM plantations in 2001. Areas of mainly radiata pine
in logging coupes are shown in figure 4.24. Today the
Strzeleckis contain a range of treed areas. Tarra Valley
National Park and Bulga National Park were joined in
1986 and enlarged, after a land swap between APM
and the State government. This has enabled some
of the significant plants and animals of the region
to be protected, as well as providing recreational
opportunities, such as bushwalking and watching the
lyrebirds for which the park is renowned.
In 2004 the park celebrated its centenary, and in
2005 a further 380 hectares were added to make the
total area of the park just over 2000 hectares. The
Swing Bridge in the park is a popular tourist attraction.
There are still areas of tall and medium open forest
and cool temperate rainforest on public land in the
Strzeleckis that have been left relatively untouched and
community groups have been lobbying to have these
forests protected. Plantations are still by far the most
prevalent treed areas and most are now managed by
HVP (Hancocks Victorian Plantations), a subsidiary of
an American company. Many of the pine plantations
reach maturity after 40 years, and have been
progressively harvested over the past two decades.
Figure 4.26 shows an area about to be replanted after
it has been logged. With advances in technology, paper
products can now be made from both soft and hard

wood. Consequently some of the harvested plantation
areas have gone back to eucalypts. Pines are still
preferred on very steep slopes and in high wind areas.
The Black Saturday fires of 2009 caused massive
damage to the plantations and some native forests in
the Eastern Strzeleckis. On Saturday 7 February 2009
more than 400 individual fires raged across Victoria.
The fires destroyed numerous properties and killed 173
people, 11 of whom were residents of small towns in
the Strzeleckis. Callignee, one of the small towns, had
57 of 61 houses in the town destroyed. Huge tracts of
native forest and plantations were burnt (see figure 4.26)
and concerns were raised about the welfare of many rare
and endangered species including the Strzelecki koala
and sooty owl. HVP logged a 350-hectare section of
forest, including cool temperate forest at College Creek,
six days after the Black Saturday fires, resulting in
controversy. College Creek had been a protected forest
until 2006 and was Crown Land leased to HVP.
In late 2010 the Victorian Government and the
Gunaikurnai people entered into an agreement which
formally recognises the Gunaikurnai people as the
traditional owners of much of Gippsland. The State has
also agreed in the Federal Court that the Gunaikurnai
hold native title over land in that area. Many reserves
including Tarra Bulga National Park are now subject
to joint management between current managers and
a traditional owner management board. The impact of
this change on forests in the Strzeleckis is still to be
determined.
Figure 4.26
Area being developed for a
new plantation
75
76
4
Activities
1. Refer to figure 4.22 on page 73.
a. What are the highest and lowest elevations on
this map extract?
b. How do you think the Grand Ridge Road got its
name? In what general direction does this road
run?
c. Describe the geographic characteristics found
within grid square 6146. How is it different to
grid square 5947?
d. Prepare a cross-section between grid reference
595490 and the junction of the Grand Ridge
Road and Bulga Park Road at grid reference
619463.
e. There are two types of forest found in the
region covered by the cross-section: cool
temperate rainforest and tall open eucalypt
forest. Mark the places on the cross-section
where you are likely to find each one. Also
mark the streams and roads. Use a key to
identify your markings.
f. Most cool temperate rainforest is found on the
south side of the Grand Ridge Road. Explain
why you think this is the case.
Figure 4.27
Visitors picknicking at
Tarra Bulga National Park
g. Riggs sawmill and some workers houses were

located around grid reference 623453. Explain
why you think this site would have been
chosen for a sawmill.
h. Riggs sawmill closed more than 50 years ago.

Predict the effects on the environment that
this sawmill would have had.
This area is now in a stage of succession.
Describe how you think this area would
look today.
a. Prepare an annotated sketch of this pioneer
farm in the Tarra Valley.
b. What do you think is meant by the domino
method?
c. Describe the scene. Comment on the slope,
runoff, evidence of fire, house construction and
what problems the family who lived here may
have had in farming this area.
3. Refer to figures 4.24 and 4.25 on page 74.
a. Prepare an annotated sketch of figure 4.24 that
identifies the different types of vegetation and
the stages of growth.
b. The plantations shown in this photo are being
logged in coupes. Why is this method preferred
instead of just progressively logging an area?
c. Figures 4.24 and figure 4.25 were taken at the
same location in 2004 and 2011. In 2009 the
Black Saturday bushfires went through this
area. Describe how the region has changed
in terms of forest cover and plantations as
apparent in the two photos.
4. How might the forest environment be compromised
by recreational users such as those in figure 4.27?
77
Future of Victorian forest environments

With populations expanding, Melbourne sprawling,
climates predicted to change and demand for pulp
paper products increasing, predicting how the
distribution of Victorian forests may change into
the future is difficult. Scientists are predicting more
extreme events such as bushfires that require improved
risk reduction strategies such as in figure 4.28. In
Victoria only 12 per cent of old-growth forests remain,
and there has been considerable pressure by many
conservation groups to preserve what is left of these
resources. Most of Victorias forests are outside
protected areas such as national parks. Eighty per
cent of forests in the Central Highlands of Victoria
are outside protected areas, and there is concern
that these regions could be sourced in the future for
paper and other timber products. Although protected
regions such as Tarra Bulga National Park and the
Great Otway National Park have recently increased
in size, conservation groups such as the Wilderness
Society and the Australian Conservation Foundation
are concerned that not enough of Victorias forests
are being protected. Just as political action can save
forests, it can also contribute to their demise. Areas
saved from logging are frequently matched by retaining
or opening other forests for development. The activities
of the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) are starting to
have a global impact on the logging of native forests.
The FSC, a non-profit organisation based in 50 countries
around the world, has created a certificationsystem to
provide a credible link between responsible production
and consumption of forest products. The FSC does not
certify unsustainable forest practices so will not certify
some timber products. With consumers becoming more
informed and buying certified products, demand for
plantation timber is increasing and this is decreasing
the need to log old growth forests. The United Nations
also declared 2011 to be the year of the forest to raise
awareness about forest conservation and sustainable
use.
Logging and milling operations are often important
sources of employment in rural areas. Politicians,
mindful of retaining rural parliamentary seats, may
favour logging of an area, despite the balance of
evidence against it. Another report completed by the
Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment
(DSE) in 2004 has attempted to predict the impact of
climate change on forests. This report contends that
by 2030 all seasons will become warmer, and rainfall
will decrease in all seasons except summer. As a result

this could lead to a change in forest distribution and
also changes in the composition of both plant and
animal species within the forest. It is also thought
that this predicted warming of the climate could lead
to an increased bushfire risk and the possibility of
weed invasion. Forests have considerable potential
as recreation locations for urban dwellers. Many of
Victorias forests are within a few hours travelling
time from urban areas. Opportunities for passive and
recreation activities are relatively easily developed and
maintained, such as the picnic and camping grounds.
In March 2011 the Victorian Environment Assessment
Council published a remnant native vegetation
investigation report. This report has made 20
recommendations to coordinate forest management
activities and more effectively protect remnant native
vegetation in Victoria. How these recommendations will
be addressed by the State Government is still to be seen.
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Changes to forest
environments
Interactions between
natural environments and
human activities
between natural
processes and human
activities
Activities
1. Research the FSC at www.fscaustralia.org and www.fsc.org. What activities is it
participating in to make forestry practices sustainable?
2. Discuss in class the merits of the following ideas:
a. Logging and mill workers can be retained as park managers.
b. Closing forests to loggers shifts the problem of logging elsewhere.
3. Assume the area of forest being protected in the Central Highlands has been
expanded. Brainstorm with a classmate on what would be needed to maintain
this environment. How would a Geographic Information System (GIS) help in this
task?
Figure 4.28
Burning off to reduce fuel loads
78
Student-assessed coursework
Assesment task: Victorias forest environments
Figure 4.29
Forest cover in Australia
Forest type
Percentage cover
Acacia
Callitris
Casuarina
Melaleuca
Eucalypt mallee
Eucalypt woodland
47
Eucalypt, tall open
Eucalypt, medium open

Eucalypt, low open
Eucalypt, closed
19
2
<1
Rainforest
Plantation
Question 1
a. Refer to figure 4.29. Describe the distribution of
forest cover in Australia.
b. Refer to figure 4.2, Forest cover in Victoria, page 55.
Identify the similarities and differences between
the distribution of forest types in Victoria and the
distribution of forest types in Australia.
c. There are many reasons that account for the
differences in the distribution of forests you have
described in (b) above. From your knowledge of
forest characteristics, identify and describe three
reasons that could explain why these distributions
are different.
d. Select one of the forest types from figure 4.29.
Explain how this forest type could operate as a
natural system. Give an example of an input and
output that may be part of the natural system in this
type of forest.
Figure 4.30
Forest at Barmah
Question 2
a. Refer to figure 4.30, which shows a forest with red
gum as the dominant species in Barmah National
Park. What is the typical forest type where you
would expect to find red gum as the dominant
species?
b. With reference to figure 4.30 explain how the carbon
cycle would operate here.
c. Complete an annotated sketch of figure 4.30. Label
the canopy, understorey, dominant species, water,
dry land and forest litter.
d. From your observation of figure 4.30, what do think
are the conditions that best allow red gumdominant
forests to grow?
Question 3
Refer to figure 4.31.
East Gippsland rainforest generally grows in sheltered
south-facing gullies. Warm temperate rainforest
generally grows from sea level to about 700 metres
altitude while cool temperate rainforest grows between
600 and 1200 metres elevation.
Figure 4.31 illustrates the habitat requirements. VRN
(Victorian Rainforest Network) has overlaid rainforest
Ecological Vegetation Class (EVC) maps onto Google
Earth imagery. Cool temperate rainforest is represented
by bright green
and can be seen at higher
elevations while warm temperate rainforest at lower
elevations is light green
. This view to the northeast shows rainforest communities that lie south-west
of the Errinundra National Park (outlined in red).
Figure 4.31
The distribution of East Gippsland temperate rainforests
| |
| | CCHHAAPPTTEERRF FOOUURR |
U N I T UONNIET O NSET U D E N TA TAUSRSAELS ES N

ED
V I CR OO UNRMSEENWTOS R K
This map has been constructed by the Victorian

Rainforest Network by overlaying rainforest
distributions onto a Google map. Cool temperate
rainforest is shown in bright green and warm
temperate rainforest is shown in light green. Errinundra
National Park can be seen by the red line. Figure 4.16
on page 65 also shows the distribution of Victorian
rainforests.
a. Draw a sketch map of figure 4.31 and label
rainforests, flat land, ridges and gullies.
b. Describe the distribution of rainforest shown in the
sketch map you have drawn.
c. Describe the spatial association between the
distribution of temperate rainforests and gullies
shown in figure 32.
d. Cool temperate rainforests are found at higher
elevations than warm temperate rainforests. Give
reasons why this occurs.
e. Figure 4.31 shows that temperate rainforests in
Victoria are rarely found on north-facing slopes.
Give reasons why this is the case.
Question 4
Match the definitions below with the appropriate word
or phrase from the list in the text box. Use each word
or phrase only once.
tropical rainforest
eucalyptus
mountain ash

old growth forest
plantations
canopy
logging
rabbit
mallee eucalypt fire
a. the tallest flowering plant in the world

b. areas of trees planted by people
c. type of forest requiring high temperatures and
rainfall all year
d. forests untouched by human activity
e. the dominant tree species of Victorian forests
f. a major pest attacking young trees and
understoreys
g. some Victorian communities have become
dependent on this for their existence
h. helps to regenerate some species of trees
i. forest type found in dry areas of Victoria
j. the upper parts of a forest
79
80
C O A S TA L E N V I R O N M E N T S
Coastal environments
Outcome
On completion of this chapter
students should be able to
describe the geographic
characteristics of at least two
coastal environments, and
explain how coastal
environments develop and are
changed by natural processes
and human activities.
Coastal environments are dynamic possibly the most changeable natural environment on the earths surface.
The spatial change over time evident in figure 5.1 shows, in spectacular fashion, how the interaction of natural
processes operating along the lands margin incessantly changes the landforms that define the coast. The 45-metre
high limestone stacks that make up the Twelve Apostles along the south-west coast of Victoria have been
created by coastal processes over thousands of years from rock which has, in turn, formed from the consolidation
of crushed marine debris over millions of years. But coastal processes can also lead to the collapse of these
landforms in seconds, as occurred in 2005, demonstrating the constant, and sometimes sudden, natural processes
that continually mould the coastline.
While it is also affected by human activities, the coast is a natural environment, as natural processes dominate.
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.1
The Twelve Apostles before (a) and after (b) the collapse of one of its stacks in July, 2005
The coastal
environment and
the earths natural
systems
The natural geographic characteristics of a coastal
environment includes its:
location
wave, current and tidal regimes
geomorphology (the shape of, and changes to, the
land) and geology (type of rock)
climate
flora and fauna.
These characteristics are produced by the spatial

interaction of processes occurring in the four natural
systems the biosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere
and hydrosphere along the margin between land
and sea. Figure 5.2 demonstrates how the interplay
between the various components of these natural
systems shapes coastal environments.
The interaction of natural processes renders coasts
dynamic environments, subject to constant change.
Short-term changes occur due to agents such as waves,
currents and tides, or over the medium term due to
processes such as the changing of seasons, erosion,
and vegetation colonisation and succession. Change
may also occur on geological time scales as a result of
processes, such as rock formation, earth movement and
climate change.
What is a coastal
environment?
The term coast refers to a region where the land
meets the sea. Technically, the term encompasses the
region that stretches from the shallow water of the
continental shelf up to the furthest extent of wave
and tide influence on the land. However, the coast is
commonly accepted as the three-kilometre or so strip
of land adjacent to the sea. There is considerable
spatial interaction between the land and the sea in
coastal areas, as what happens in one affects the
other. This results in the movement of materials,
including sediments and water, between the marine
and terrestrial environments. Weathering and erosion
can lead to the recession of the coast, while deposition
builds an advancing coast.
Coastal regions can be divided into zones. The terms
used to identify the different zones include:
shore: the land adjacent to the sea which receives

some form of marine influence, including sea winds
or salt spray
shoreline: the waters edge at any particular point
in time
UNIT ONE
N AT U R A L E N V I R O N M E N T S
CHAPTER FIVE
81
coastline: the extreme landward limit prone to the

action of waves
high (and low) tide mark: the highest (or lowest)
point above sea level that the shoreline reaches
under the influence of tides
intertidal zone: land between low-tide and hightide marks
backshore: land from high tide up to the coastline
berm: the small ridge of sediment which piles up
just above the high-tide mark
hinterland: the region surrounding the coast in view
of the shore
coastal waters: the area of seawater adjacent to
the coast, including offshore and nearshore waters
surf zone: point where the sea floor rises up
towards the shore and can be identified by the
steepening of waves as they begin to break
nearshore waters: shallow waters that extend from
the surf zone to the shoreline
offshore waters: the deep water seaward of the
surf zone
open sea: deeper sea beyond continental shelf.
Coastal atmosphere: The sun generates wind, which in
Coastal hydrosphere: Water movement due to
turn dries and blows the sand (which has been deposited
waves, currents and tides grinds down rock and marine
onto the beach by waves) into dunes. The wind and sun
debris, which is then deposited on the beach while
also cause weathering and erosion of the parent rock,
rivers transport sediments to the coast from inland.
creating sand.
Key Knowledge and

Skills
The earths four natural
systems and the ways in
which they are dynamic
and interactive
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Geographic
characteristics of natural
environments
Activities
1. Using a blank diagram
of the zones of the coast
available on the website for
this book (www.gtav.asn.
au/CMS200/files/text%20
diagrams%20zones_of_
the_coast_diagrams.
pdf), together with the
information above, label the
various zones of the coast.
2. Divide the class into
four groups. Each group
generates a list of the
natural processes that
change coasts within their
designated sphere.
3. Find a picture of a coastal
scene and make a copy of
this picture. Annotate how
each of the four spheres
of the natural world
would have contributed
to the development of
this particular coastal
environment.
Coastal lithosphere: The parent rock in the region
Coastal biosphere: Vegetation, including hairy spinifex
erodes to form sand. Variations in the rate of erosion
and marram grass, anchors the sediments blown into the
Figure 5.2
of different coastal rock create bays, where sand is
backshore, allowing them to be stabilised and form sand
The spatial interaction of
deposited, and rocky outcrops which form cliffs.
dunes.
the four natural systems

within coastal environments
82
Types of coasts
The type of coast produced at a given location will depend on the spatial interaction between the processes
operating at the site and the geographic features present. Figure 5.3 shows the range of coasts.
Figure 5.3
Different types of coast
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Beaches are created by the movement and

deposition of sediments, such as sand. The
type of sediment is determined by the nature
of the rock or other materials in the area. In
Australia beaches often occupy long stretches
of the coast, backed by cliffs or sand dunes.
Cliffed coasts are primarily subject to strong

destructive waves that create a variety of
distinctive landforms. Erosion leads to the
formation of cliffs, wave-cut platforms, caves,
arches and stacks.
Coastal wetlands include mangrove swamps

and salt marshes. These form in sheltered
coastal regions where fine silt is deposited,
including estuaries, lagoons, tidal mudflats
and sheltered bays. They provide important
nesting grounds and stopovers for waterfowl
and migratory birds, and are nurseries for
various fish and other marine species.
Coral reef coasts are rock-like structures
located in tropical and semi-tropical regions.
They are formed by small marine creatures,
coral polyps, and can grow to form large
structures such as the Great Barrier Reef in
Queensland.
Seagrass meadows form in shallow seawater

offshore where wave energy is low, allowing
these specifically adapted plants to grow in
the sea floor without being dislodged by wave
action. They support a wide variety of fish and
other marine organisms, and provide nurseries
for young fish before they head out to the open
sea.
| U N I T O N E | N AT U R A L E N V I R O N M E N T S | C H A P T E R F I V E |
The distribution of different types

of coast
seas of the Southern Ocean. Its coast is dominated by

receding limestone cliffs, though sandy beaches are
located in bays sheltered from the direct impact of the
south-westerly swell.
The central region between Cape Otway and
Wilsons Promontory is exposed to the south-westerly
swell but, due to the location of Cape Otway and
King Island in its path and the presence of shallower
offshore waters in this region, receives moderate
wave energy. It is mostly characterised by sandy
beaches punctuated by vegetated sandstone and
mudstone bluffs on headlands. These conditions are
evident on the eastern shores of Port Phillip. Other
bays and inlets located in this region, including
Western Port, Corner Inlet and the western shores
of Port Phillip, are subject to low wave energy due
to their sheltered location. They are characterised
by sandy beaches backed by relatively small dunes
and, in the most protected parts, coastal wetlands
consisting of mangroves and salt marsh.
The distribution of different types of coast within

Victoria is shown in figure 5.4. Sandy beaches and
cliffed coasts dominate, while regions of coastal
wetland are located in the most sheltered coasts.
Wave conditions vary from day to day, but the
direction of prevailing winds means that Victorias
coast is usually subject to waves from the south-west.
This is called the prevailing swell. Local winds may
accentuate or reduce the effect of this swell. The
location of Tasmania and Flinders Island in Bass Strait
causes the south-westerly swell to bend around these
islands, and results in the shores east of Wilsons
Promontory receiving a south-easterly swell of reduced
wave energy.
The region between Wilsons Promontory and Cape
Howe off the coast of Gippsland is characterised by
extensive sandy beaches backed by well-developed
sand dunes, including the Ninety Mile Beach, the
States longest uninterrupted stretch of beach. It is a
moderate wave energy coast, with waves generated by
the south-easterly swell.
The south-west region between the South Australian
border and Cape Otway is world renowned for its
spectacular coastal features, including the Twelve
Apostles (see figure 5.1, page 80). It is a high wave
energy coast, as it is subject to the direct impact of
the south-westerly swell emanating from the open
1. Identify the wave

environments along
Victorias coast
spatially associated
with:
cliffed coasts
sandy beaches
coastal wetlands.
2. Describe the
distribution of
different types of
coast at a location
you have visited, and
compare this with
distribution of coasts
in Victoria.
Figure 5.4
The distribution of different types of coast along the Victorian
coastline
Cliffs
Sandy beaches
Coastal wetland
1.
2.
3.
Activities
N
0
Corio Bay
Port Phillip
Western Port
Cape Howe
100 km
Scale
MELBOURNE
Lakes Entrance
Ninety Mile Beach
Portland
Otway coast
Port Campbell coast
Corner Inlet
So
Cape
Otway
ut
So
h
sw -we
el ste
l
r
ut
ly
King
Island
rl
te
s
ea l
h- wel
t
ou s
Wilsons
Promontory
h
sw -we
el ste
l
r
ly
Bass Strait
Flinders
Island
83
84
The natural processes that shape and change

coastal environments
Weathering and erosion
Key Knowledge and
Skills
Geographic characteristics of
natural environments
Distribution of selected
types of predominantly
natural environments at two
different scales
selected natural
environments in different
locations at two different
scales
Key Knowledge and

Skills
factors that create natural
environments
Weathering, erosion, transportation and deposition

are the dominant processes occurring along the coast.
These processes create coastal landforms through the
agents of water, wind, ice and gravity. Weathering is
the breakdown of bedrock into smaller particles by
chemical reactions or physical processes. Erosion is
the further wearing down and transportation of the
weathered material. The rate of weathering and erosion
will depend on a number of factors including:
the geology of the region

the shape of the shoreline and the profile of the
shore
the degree of vegetation cover
the wave, tide and current environment
the intensity of the atmospheric conditions
the number of human activities.
The forms of erosion that occur along the coast

are outlined in figure 5.5. After weathering and
erosion have broken down and moved liberated rocks,
sediments may be transported and deposited in another
location.
Wave and wind action

Waves are a dominant cause of spatial change over
time within coastal environments, as they are the main
agent of erosion, transportation and deposition of
sediments. Along Victorias coastline this results from
Figure 5.5
Erosional processes
operating at the coast
swell waves produced by the winds blowing across the

Bass Strait, as well as local waves generated by local
winds.
The transfer of energy from wind brushing across the
ocean surface is the beginning of a wave. As the wave
energy moves through the water, the water particles
move in a circular motion, which is reduced to a simple
backward and forward motion at the sea floor. Waves
build and begin to collapse when they reach shallow
water. The elevated sea floor near the coast slows
down their movement and forces the water up to form
a breaker, as shown in figure 5.6. As the wave breaks,
water surges up the beach. This movement of water
up the shore is called the swash, and the return of
water back into the sea is the backwash. The swash
carries sediments up the beach, held by suspension and
traction, while the backwash returns these sediments
to the sea. The greater the turbulence in the surf zone,
the more sediment will be churned up and moved by the
wave.
Waves are influenced by the speed of the wind and
the distance the wind has blown over the sea. This
distance is called the fetch; the longer the fetch, the
larger the wave will be. Wave energy will also increase
in proportion to wind speed. Wind also has a direct
impact on the movement of sediments along the coast.
When weather conditions are relatively calm, waves
will be quite small (usually less than one metre high)
and break at a frequency of less than eight per minute,
the crest spilling as the wave enters the breaker
Erosional processes operating at the coast

Abrasion (or corrasion) is a physical process during which rock fragments are used as a tool of erosion. Sediments and
rocks are hurled against cliffs, or rolled back and forth in the surf zone as waves break, resulting in a quarrying action.
Hydraulic action is erosion caused by the physical force of moving water. It also involves the compression of air within
rock joints and cracks as waves pound against rocks, producing an effect similar to that of driving a wedge into a crack.
Attrition is another physical process where the rock fragments moved back and forth by waves in the surf zone rub
against each other, reducing their size through abrasion. These sediments may be held in suspension in the water, or
moved back and forth along the sea floor by traction.
Corrosion involves the weakening of rocks resulting from the dissolution of some of the minerals within rocks by the
weak acids in seawater. Limestone is particularly vulnerable to this form of erosion.
Sub-aerial erosion takes place when runoff flows down the side of a cliff or slope, wearing away small grooves called
rills. These can, with continuing erosion, become gullies.
Mass movement takes place when rock falls, landslides and dune collapses occur as coastal cliffs give way under the
pressure of gravity.
Dune blowouts occur where the loss of protective vegetation cover results in the destabilisation of the sand stored in
dunes, resulting in the movement of these sediments by wind and their encroachment inland.
zone. Under these conditions the swash of the wave

is stronger than the backwash, so overall there is a
net movement of sediment onto the beach. These are
called constructive waves and are shown in figure
5.6(a). When strong winds prevail, however, waves
will have a higher level of energy; they will be larger
(more than a metre high) and break at a frequency of
more than 10 per minute, their crest plunging over in
the breaker zone, as shown in figure 5.6(b). This results
in destructive waves; the backwash is dominant, and
sediments will be eroded from the beach and deposited
in the nearshore region. The scene in figure 5.7 shows
particularly large, destructive waves.
(a) Constructive
Strong swash sends
sediments up the beach
Swash
(b) Destructive
Strong backwash
(or undertow) drags
sediments out to sea
Figure 5.6
Waves can cause both the erosion and deposition of
sediments.
Beach material
Figure 5.7
Large destructive waves at Shipsterns Bluff, south-eastern
Tasmania
Longshore drift, as shown in figure 5.8, is the

transportation of sediment along the coast in the
surf zone. It occurs where waves strike the shore at
an angle. The swash of the wave, with its sediment
load held by suspension and traction, breaks onshore
at the angle of wave approach. The movement of the
backwash, however, is perpendicular to the coast. Over
time this has the effect of moving sediment along the
coast parallel to the shore.
There is spatial change over time along coastal
regions, with sediment moving between the coastal
waters and the shore in response to different types
of waves generated by different weather conditions.
Because there is a higher frequency of windy and
storm conditions in winter along Victorian beaches, a
steeper beach profile will typically be more evident in
this season than in summer. This seasonal movement
of sand is called the sand cycle. Storm surges at any
time, however, may result in the erosion of sediments
and their deposition in the nearshore zone as sandbars.
Very intense storms may even involve the movement of
Wave direction:
Waves approaching
at an angle
Swash
Backwash
Longshore drift
Figure 5.8
sand stored in sand dunes. The direction of longshore

drift can also change with seasonal variations in wind
direction, as occurs in Port Phillip.
Tides
Tides are important in shaping the coast by
determining the location of the shoreline and
influencing the movement of water as an agent of
deposition. The cyclic rise and fall of the shoreline
is due to the gravitational pull of the moon and, to a
lesser extent, the sun (figure 5.9). There are two high
Longshore drift
85
86
Figure 5.9
Spring tides
Factors causing tides. Two
Neap tides
tidal bulges are created
on opposite sides of the

earth due to the moons
gravitational force.
Moon
Earth
Spring tides
Sun
Neap tides
Tidal bulge
Figure 5.10
Tidal movement in the Bay of
Fundy, Canada
tides and two low tides on a given coast each day,

but the time of these events changes because of the
difference between a lunar day and that of a solar day.
The movement of the shoreline from high tide to low
tide is known as the ebb tide and movement from low
tide to high tide is a flood tide. A spring tide occurs
when the pull of the sun compounds the influence of
the moon and produces an exceptionally wide tidal
range, while a neap tide occurs when the position of
the sun counteracts the gravitational pull of the moon.
Coastal geomorphology influences the tidal range
of a given location. Most of Victorias coastline has a
mean tidal range of between 1.0 and 1.5 metres. The
largest tidal range in the world occurs in the Bay of
Earth
Fundy in Canada, which has an amazing range of 15

metres, and produces a spectacular spatial change
over time in the coastal landscape over the short-term
(figure 5.10).
Extreme weather events

Weather events such as storm surges and tropical
cyclones can change the coast dramatically in the short
term, especially when they coincide with extreme high
tides. Cyclones can generate waves that reach several
metres above mean high tide and produce extreme
weather conditions. Cyclone Yasi, which hit the north
Queensland coast in January 2011, pummelled the
coast with wind speeds up to 290 kilometres per hour
in coastal regions, and generated a storm surge which

caused the shoreline to recede and the deposition of a
large quantity of debris. It also caused physical damage
to the coral reefs of the Great Barrier Reef, which may
take up to ten years to recover.
Fortunately, Victorias coast is not exposed to
cyclones, but it does experience severe storms
emanating from the Southern Ocean. The largest storm
surge to affect Melbourne occurred in 1934, over the
period from 30 November to 1 December, when tidal
gauges registered a temporary rise in sea level of up to
1.23 metres.
Alluvial process
Coasts are sites of strong spatial interaction between
inland regions and the sea where rivers reach the
coast. Rivers erode sediment along their course,
particularly along stretches where the gradient is steep
and water flow is accelerated. As it reaches the coast,
however, the speed of flow is often reduced, leading
to the deposition of the alluvial sediment load near the
coast and out to sea. This alluvial sediment may form
a delta at the rivers mouth, or combine with sediments
formed by the weathering and erosion of coastal rock,
providing a source of material for natural processes
to build beaches. Figure 5.11 shows the plume of
sediment deposited into Port Phillip after extreme
rainfalls in February 2011.
Estuaries are formed at the mouth of a river where
the freshwater of streams and the saline water of
the sea water mix. The water in this region will be
brackish, influenced by both river flow towards the sea

and tidal fluctuations. Estuaries host a range of wildlife
adapted to these unique conditions.
Vegetation
Vegetation can play a very important role in
determining the geographic characteristics of coastal
environments. The type of vegetation located along a
coast includes mangroves and salt marsh of coastal
wetlands, coastal grasses and shrubs colonising sand
dunes and cliffs, and the seagrass meadows which
inhabit the sea floor of some shallow coastal waters.
Without this vegetation the force of waves, tides and
currents, in addition to wind and runoff from the land,
would easily destabilise sediments. Coastal plant
species are uniquely adapted to the extreme conditions
located in coastal environments. Mangroves, for
example, are able to tolerate the airless soils of the
intertidal zone which is regularly inundated by salty
water, while the grasses which colonise the primary
dune of sandy beaches, such as hairy spinifex and
marram grass, are subject to intense wind, salt spray,
dry conditions and sand inundation. Coastal vegetation
buffers landforms from the erosive effects of wind and
water, while their roots trap and anchor sediment. The
importance of this vegetation in the stabilisation of
dunes is evident in figure 5.12; sand has clearly been
lost in the area where trampling has led to the loss of
dune vegetation. These vegetation communities also
provide habitat for the variety of ecosystems spatially
associated with coastal environments.
Figure 5.11
Plume of sediment washed
into Port Phillip after heavy
rains in February 2011
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88
of wave energy in this region, increasing the level of

erosion (see figure 5.15). Similarly, wave energy is
dissipated as the wave enters the bay, reducing its
erosive power and often resulting in the deposition of
sediments.
When waves strike a solid surface, such as a steep
cliff face, their energy is reflected back towards the
sea. Figure 5.14 shows how this wave reflection causes
intense scouring at the base of the vertical face, the
movement of sediment back into the sea.
Changing sea level
Figure 5.12
Coastal geomorphology
Sand dunes at St Marys
The shape of the shore profile and the configuration

of the coastline have a significant impact on coastal
processes. Ongoing coastal processes and extreme
natural events also cause spatial change over time in
coastal geomorphology.
Wave refraction is the bending of waves as they
approach shallow water of the nearshore. Figure 5.13
indicates that, if the coast is indented, waves will reach
shallow water off a headland before reaching the shore
of an adjacent bay. This causes the curving of the wave
crests around the headland, and the concentration
beach, Tasmania
Figure 5.13
Wave refraction
Beach
Beach
Headland
nt
ve
a
W
Wave direction
fro
Wave front
The location of the shoreline varies in the short term

due to sea level change resulting from waves, tides,
currents and storms. But sea level has also changed
dramatically over the long term due to land movement
and changes in the volume of water in the sea, as
figure 5.16 shows.
Climate change has caused major changes to the
location of the coast and coastal landforms throughout
the earths history. Victorias coastline lay beneath the
sea 500 million years ago, but it has been land for the
last million years. For much of this time, however, its
coast was located some distance further south than the
present coastline. For approximately 100 000 years Port
Phillip was a low-lying alluvial plain over which the
Yarra, Maribyrnong and Werribee rivers, among others,
flowed. Their shared course flowed through a deep
gorge near what is now the Port Phillip Heads.
During the height of the last glacial period, about
20 000 years ago, the sea level was about 100 metres
below its present level, with much of the area between
Wilsons Promontory and the Otway Ranges exposed,
as can be seen in figure 5.17. Victoria and Tasmania
were connected by a land bridge, and Indigenous
people lived across this marshy lowland. The sea level
began to rise again at the end of this glacial period
about 17 000 years ago, reaching its present level
between 8000 and 6000 years ago, forming Bass Strait.
The present global warming is currently contributing to
a gradual rise in sea level.
Figure 5.14
Wave reflection
Cliff
Waves
Beach
Cliff
High water mark
During storms, waves hit

the cliff and reflect back
into the sea, causing sand
to be washed out (scouring)
Cliff
Over time, beach is eroded
Figure 5.15
Wave refraction and wave
reflection
The steep vertical face of the cliff causes wave energy to

be reflected off this surface. This increases wave energy
leading to erosion at the base of the cliff face.
Wave fraction is causing the

wave to bend as it enters the
bay adjacent to the cliffed
headland.
89
Sea level history - last 140,000 years
Geological processes
0
-20
Sea level (metres)
-40
-60
-80
-100
-120
-140
Last glacial maximum
-180
-200
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
Thousands of years before present
Figure 5.16
Sea level variation over the last 140 000 years
Pacific Ocean
Equator
Borneo
Sulawesi
New
Guinea
Dili
Timor
Denpasar
Torres Strait
Port
Moresby
Darwin
Indian
Ocean
Coral
Sea
Cairns
Alice Springs
Tropic o
f
Caprico
rn
AUSTRALIA
Fig_05_18_bk1_2011
Brisbane
Perth
Adelaide
Sydney
Canberra
Melbourne
Tasman
Sea
N
Shoreline of 16 00017 000
years ago
500 km
Tasmania
Hobart
Scale
Figure 5.17
Australias coastline during the last glacial period
Geological processes have a significant impact on

the coastal features. The type of rock and pattern
of jointing, in addition to the angle of dip of rock
strata, can affect the rate of erosion and the
shape of the coast. Headlands are usually formed
from resilient rock located along the coastline,
while adjacent areas composed of more easily
eroded rock are worn away to form coves, bays
and gulfs. The presence of resilient rock, such as
the basalt of Cape Schanck shown in figure 5.18,
can result in a very slow rate of erosion, even in
areas subject to high levels of wave energy.
The type of parent rock present at the coast
will largely determine the type of sediments
available to form beaches. The sand at Squeaky
Beach at Wilsons Promontory consists of wellrounded, coarse, white grains of quartz derived
from nearby granite outcrops. Along Victorias
coast alluvial sediments tend to be transported
offshore, as it often consists of finer particles.
These may reappear along sections of the coast
that display a strong spatial association with low
wave-energy and strong tidal currents, such as
Western Port and Corner Inlet.
Earth movements affect coastal geomorphology
on a large scale. Port Phillip, for example, has
been formed by downward faulting of the land
between the Rowsley Fault along the Bellarine
Peninsula in the west, and the Selwyn Fault along
the Mornington Peninsula in the east. This resulted
in the formation of a bay more than 10 000 years
ago. A series of dunes built up along its shores as
sea level slowly dropped in response to this
downward faulting.
Major disturbances of the ocean floor, caused
by earthquakes, landslides and volcanic eruptions,
can generate tsunamis of up to several hundred
metres in length which proceed at speeds of
up to 800 kilometres per hour. They are barely
perceptible in deep ocean, but build up as they
enter shallow coastal waters. The tsunami which
hit the east coast of Japan on 11 March 2011
was caused by the movement along the boundary
of the Eurasian and Pacific plates, and devastated
some regions of the east coast of the island of
Honshu. (Refer to figure 3.4, page 32).
20
-160
90
Figure 5.18
The basalt cliffs of Cape
Schanck face Bass Strait on
the southern coast of the
Mornington Peninsula
Activities
1. Summarise the difference between constructive
and destructive waves by developing a table
comparing these two waves using the following
headings:
wave energy
wave frequency
wave size
the relative dominance of swash and backwash
effect on the movement of sediments
weather conditions.
2. Examine a tide chart for Victorias coast on the
Internet.
a. Explain why the tide times vary at different
locations.
b. Explain why high and low tide marks vary from
day to day.
c. View Internet images showing tidal changes
for a particular site. List the impact this
change would have on the natural and human
components of this location.
3. Construct annotated diagrams explaining:
a. the sand cycle
b. wave refraction
c. longshore drift
d. wave reflection.
4. Predict what may occur in a coastal environment

subject to longshore drift, when a solid structure is
built perpendicular to the coast, protruding into the
coastal waters.
5. Construct a timeline summarising the spatial
change over time of the coast of Victoria over
geological time scales. Consider the changes
caused by sea level fluctuations as well as geologic
processes affecting the land.
6. Identify locations along Victorias coast that you
would expect to sustain wave refraction resulting
in erosion and those locations you would expect to
experience deposition.
7. Examine the map of Victorias coast shown in
figure 5.4. Locate the coast of Corio Bay, used for
the storage of petrochemical products. Discuss the
suitability of this site for this purpose.
8. Research and prepare a multimedia presentation
of a case study of a particular extreme natural
event which has affected a coastal region. You may
consider a particular:
storm surge
cyclone, typhoon or hurricane
tsunami
an El Nino or La Nina event.
91
92
The landforms located in coastal

environments
Weathering, erosion and deposition result from the complex interplay of natural processes at the coast. This
produces a variety of different coastal landforms, as shown in figure 5.19.
Figure 5.19
Coastal landforms
Spit
Tombolo
Sandy beach
Sand dunes
Barrier
island
Sand bar
Lagoon
Headland
Mudflats
Headland
Sea stack
Arch
Beach
Bluff
Water sprays when

seas are high
Blowhole
Cliff
Wave notch
Wave-cut platform
Cave
Figure 5.20
A rockpool formed in a
Bay
wave-cut platform
Landforms created by erosion

A wave-cut platform is produced by waves eroding the
base of a cliff or bluff. This starts with the formation
of a wave notch at the high-tide mark. Over time,
the cliff is undercut and attacked by waves through
abrasion and hydraulic action, eventually causing the
overhanging rock to collapse. As erosion continues, the
cliff retreats, leaving behind a wave-cut platform at its
base and a new cliff face. These landforms are visible
in figure 5.18 on page 91. Sub-aerial erosion may
eventually round off the cliff to form a gently sloping
bluff. The wave-cut platform continues to be eroded
by the wave action and the abrasion of rock particles
trapped in the pools of water, as seen in figure 5.20.
On a headland, wave refraction, hydraulic action
and abrasion will erode weaker strata or rock joints
within the cliff face to form caves. The caves, in turn,
may erode through the headland to form an arch.
Over a long period of time the arch roof may collapse
and leave a stack and a newly formed cliff face. This

process occurred dramatically at Port Campbell in
1990, when the then London Bridge, a popular tourist
destination consisting of a headland connected to
the mainland by a series of arches, collapsed leaving
a number of tourists stranded on the sea stack it
produced (see figure 5.21).
A blowhole results from hydraulic action piercing a
channel through a joint or crack formed within the roof
of a sea cave. As waves break, water is forced through
this channel under considerable pressure, sometimes
causing an explosion of seawater through the top of
the blowhole as each wave breaks at high tide, as can
be seen in figure 5.22. In Victoria, blowholes can be
observed at Cape Bridgewater, Warrnambool, Lochard
Gorge, Point Grant on Phillip Island and at Flinders on
the Mornington Peninsula.
Bays and headlands are created through the process
of erosion taking place at different rates due to
variations in the rock strata of a region. Soft rock is
eroded more quickly, leading to the formation of bays.
Where the rock is more resilient the rate of erosion will
be slower and headlands will remain. Wave refraction
will continue to cause further erosion of the headland,
forming cliffs and other erosional features, while
deposition of sand or rocks occurs in the adjacent bays.
This pattern of erosion and deposition is evident in
figure 5.23.
Landforms created by
deposition
A beach is a particular type of coastal feature formed
through the deposition of sediment by constructive
waves. The material transported will depend on the
local sediment available; this may be fine or coarse
sand, or if there is sufficient wave action, shingles or
rounded stones.
Sand dunes act as a reservoir of sand for coastal
processes. They provide a buffer zone between the
coast and the inland areas. They are formed by waves
depositing sand on the berm, which is then dried
and blown into the backshore region by wind. Dune
vegetation then colonises and stabilises this sand. If
the vegetation is damaged or removed, a dune blowout may form. The immobilised sand may move some
Figure 5.23
Aerial view of the Sydney coastline showing the formation of
a sandy beach in a bay adjacent to a cliffed headland
Figure 5.21
The collapse of the arch of
London Bridge in Victorias
south-west coast in 1990,
forming a stack and a new
cliff face
Figure 5.22
A blowhole erupting at
Bicheno, Tasmania
93
94
Figure 5.24
The Cape Woolamai tombolo
Figure 5.25
A profile of a mangrove and
salt marsh community
distance inland, and valuable land can be lost.

A spit is an extension of sand formed when
sediments carried by waves are deposited along the
coast. It results from the deposition of sediments in
the nearshore zone through longshore drift when the
coastline diverges. A cuspate spit forms when an
offshore island, reef or other obstruction causes wave
refraction to deposit sediment in its lee.
When a spit is formed across the mouth of an inlet or
bay, it may eventually obstruct the movement of water
to the sea, forming a lagoon. A lagoon may have a tidal
inlet connecting it to the sea, or may be permanently
cut off. When a spit grows from the mainland and
connects to an offshore island or stack, it is called
a tombolo. Cape Woolamai on Phillip Island is an
example of a tombolo (see figure 5.24).
Sandbars are linear mounds of sand, submerged
by seawater at high tide, deposited offshore by
Mean sea level

(mid-tide)
Mean high spring-tide level
destructive waves. They act as a reserve of sand within

the sand cycle, with sand being added or removed by
waves, depending on weather conditions. If a sandbar
builds up above high tide level, dune vegetation may
colonise and stabilise the sediments, eventually
forming a barrier island. Barrier islands can also form
from the growth of a spit parallel to the existing
coastline.
Mudflats are areas of deposition of fine sediments
that are shaped by the wetland vegetation that grows
within the intertidal zone. Algae and marine grasses
partially stabilise the surface, and salt-tolerant
species such as mangroves colonise the mud from mid
way along the intertidal zone to the high tide mark,
allowing other salt marsh plants to colonise as the
mud level builds (figure 5.25). Areas with large tidal
ranges provide an ideal environment for mangrove
development, such as Western Port and Corner Inlet.
Highest spring-tide level
Mudflats
Mangroves
Salt marsh
Woodland
Covered by tides for most of

the time; exposed twice daily
for short periods
Covered by tides twice a day;

exposed for long periods of
time
Lower levels covered by tides

for short periods twice daily;
upper levels covered only once
or twice a year
Never covered by tides
The nature, rate and scale of natural

processes along the coast
The rate of coastal
accretion and erosion
varies from region to
region. Figure 5.26
outlines coastal processes
and the approximate time
scales on which they
operate.
The dynamic nature of
coasts is clearly evident
along Victorias coastline.
Some regions, such
as the Port Campbell
coast, are receding quite
rapidly, while along
some coasts, such as
the coastal wetlands of
Western Port, accretion is
occurring. Along many of
Victorias coasts there are
seasonal changes in the
distribution of sediments
onshore and offshore
due to the sand cycle,
and within its region as
a result of longshore
drift. In some sites there
appears to be equilibrium,
with erosion and
deposition in balance.
Figure 5.26
Coastal processes and the
approximate time scales on
which they operate
Time scale
Coastal process and change
Diurnal (daily or
within a day)
Position of the shoreline due to waves, tides and storms

Exposure of sandbars and wave-cut platforms at low tide
Change in wind direction and speed
Changes in the size, frequency and force of waves
Collapse of a cliff overhang, arch roof or a stack
Formation and approach of a tsunami or storm
Monthly
Extremes of tidal range such as spring tide and neap

tide
Seasonal
Changes in the amount of sand on a beach

Formation of sand bars
Frequency of strong winds and storm surges
Cyclonic activity in tropical waters
Changes in direction of longshore drift
Loss of coral reefs due to coral bleaching or tropical
storms
Annual
Equilibrium between erosion and deposition on sandy

beaches
Years
Rebuilding of the front face of the foredune after

rupture from storm surge
Decades
Formation of wave notches

Development of spits
Succession colonisation of dunes by vegetation
Attrition of rock fragments into sand
Dunes to recover from blowouts
Centuries
Changing sea levels in response to climate change

Development of dunes and barrier islands
Formation of wave-cut platforms and new cliff face
Climax coastal vegetation development
Millennia
Major movement of sea levels in response to climate

change and earth movement
Major retreat of coastline due to erosion
Straightening of coastlines through the infilling of bays
and erosion of headlands
Formation of caves, arches and stacks
Change in the course of a river
Formation of deltas
Formation of coral reefs
Geologic time
scales
Changes in prevailing wind patterns

Subsidence and uplift
Movement of continents and changing coastlines
Formation of new rock
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Landforms that make up
selected landscapes and
environments
Activities
1. Construct annotated diagrams
to show the stages of
development of:
a. cave, arch and stack
b. wave notch, wave cut
platform, cliff and bluff
c. blowhole
d. sandy beach and sand dune
e. headland and bay
f. spit, lagoon and tombolo
g. sand bar and barrier island.
2. Examine the coastal feature
shown in figure 5.20 on page
92. Referring to the text on
weathering and erosion,
suggest how these rockpools
may be formed.
3. Working in small groups,
construct a three dimensional
model of a coastal scene from
different-coloured modelling
clay, including a number of
erosional and depositional
features, as well as different
rock types. Predict how this
scene may change in 1000
years time, justifying your
predictions.
4. Research and prepare an oral
presentation of a case study of
the natural history of a region
of the Victorian coast. Describe
their natural geographic
characteristics and explain
how they have formed over
geological time.
95
96
The human activities that shape and change

Key Knowledge and
Skills
Landforms that make up
selected landscapes and
environments
of natural environments
environments
about the geographic
characteristics of natural
environments produced by
the interaction of natural
processes.
Coastal environments are dynamic, undergoing spatial change over time on a daily basis, seasonally, from year to
year, and over geological time scales. While natural processes dominate, coastal environments are also affected
by human activities.
Human use of the coast
There is a strong spatial association between

human activities and coastal environments. These
activities are summarised below.
Residential land use, including low-density

housing and high-rise apartments
Human activities located

along the coast
Port, harbour and sea-transport activities and the

maintenance of shipping channels
Industries such as oil refineries and storage
facilities, power plants, desalination plants,
smelters and various processing factories
Shipbuilding and boat maintenance facilities
Commercial and recreational fishing and mariculture
Agriculture
Figure 5.27
Tourism and recreational activities, including waterbased sports and passive recreation
Extractive industries including sand mining and salt

extraction
The treatment and/or distribution of waste water,
sewage and runoff
Wind farms
Defence activities.
Approximately 85 per cent of Victorians live within

50 kilometres of the coast, and a quarter live within
three kilometres. Some of Victorias fastest growing
regions are located along its coast. This distribution
pattern is likely to intensify in the future, as population
projections indicate an increase of approximately
132 000 people and 95 000 households in Victorian
coastal communities by 2031. It is also estimated
that around 70 million recreational visits are made
to Victorias coastal areas each year. The Phillip
Island Penguin Parade, the Great Ocean Road and
the Gippsland Lakes are some of the Victorias major
attractions that draw large numbers of visitors. Recent
visitor and residential coastal population is quantified in
figure 5.28.
Activities
1. Develop a list of passive and active recreational
uses of the coast. Generate a list of the
infrastructure that would be required to facilitate
the activities they have been designated.
2. Identify and explain the geographic characteristics
of coasts that make them suitable for each of the
activities listed in figure 5.27.
3. Access two aerial images of a particular
coastline, showing spatial change over time.
Suggest the factors which may have caused the
apparent changes, classifying each factor: social,
technological, economic, environmental, political or
historical.
Figure 5.28
Current peak residential and visitor population estimates for
selected Victorian coastal towns, based on 2006 ABS census
data and AAA Tourist data from 2007
Number of persons
Estimated
peak visitor
population
50 000
25 000
Residential
population
5 000
MELBOURNE
Geelong
Warrnambool
Portland
Surf
Coast
Phillip
Island
Gippsland
Lakes
Lakes Entrance
Bass
Coast
Cape Otway
Bass Strait
Wilsons Promontory
100 km
Scale
97
98
The nature, rate and scale of human

activities along the coast
Today the most significant issues surrounding the use of
Victorias coast are:
Key Knowledge and

Skills
environments
coastal development
erosion and interference in the movement of coastal
sediments
coastal pollution and water quality
loss of coastal species and habitats
rising sea levels and an increase in storm events
due to climate change
ensuring the safety and amenity of beach users.
Coastal development
Figure 5.29
Coastal residential
development at Ocean Grove
Victorias population is unevenly distributed, with very

high population density in some coastal regions. The
construction of homes and other infrastructure near
the coast, such as the scene shown in figure 5.29, is
one of the most obvious impacts humans have on the
coast. Not only does the construction drastically and
irreversibly alter the natural aspects of the coast, but
the provision of facilities to enhance peoples use of
the coast paves the way for more intensive use for
recreation and tourism.
The use of the coast for recreation has also had a
significant impact. Vegetation loss, erosion, blowouts
and cliff destabilisation have occurred in many locations
where pedestrian traffic has been intense, often when
there has been uncontrolled access to the coast. The
provision of infrastructure to support recreational
uses of the coast can also be a major source of human
impact. This may include accommodation and resorts,
caravan parks, roads, car parks, marinas, canals,
artificial entrances and harbours, piers and jetties, boat
ramps, surf lifesaving and yacht clubs.
A number of recent residential and infrastructure

developments proposed for Victorias coast have
attracted strong opposition, as local residents fear
such infrastructure may lead to the over-development
of the coast and the loss of its environmental and
social amenity. This includes the Spring Creek estate
proposed for Torquay, the eco-village estate for Cape
Patterson, and the breakwater and boat ramp for
Bastion Point at Mallacoota.
Coastal land use for port facilities and industrial land
use, and the dredging of the sea floor to facilitate these
activities, has proceeded on the urban waterfront of
Melbourne, Geelong, Western Port and Portland. The
large-scale dredging of sections of Port Phillip over
200809 involved the movement of 22.9 million cubic
metres of contaminated seabed and the blasting of
underwater rock at the heads of the bay.
Interference in the movement of

sediments
A number of artificial structures, including sea walls,
groynes, jetties, piers and breakwaters, have been
constructed in Victoria over the past 150 years.
These structures may be built to facilitate the use
of the coast, or they may be created to reduce the
inconvenience caused by the dynamic nature of coasts,
most commonly to control the movement of sand.
Figure 5.30 outlines some of the methods used to
manage coastal processes, including soft engineering
methods such as beach renourishment and managed
retreat, as well as hard engineering methods.
There have been many incidences, however, where
the construction of structures to assist the use and
management of the coast has interfered with natural
processes, sometimes resulting in quite unexpected
consequences. This has caused ongoing problems at a
number of sites along Victorias coastline, such as the
silting up of Sandringham Harbour shown in
figure 5.31(a).
The construction of the breakwater (visible in the
background) interrupted the seasonal longshore drift
along this coast, leading to the silting up of its boat
harbour (a) and starving neighbouring Hampton of
sand. The spatial change over time occurring at the
site is shown in maps (c) to (e); it includes a series
of groynes established at Hampton (b) to reduce the
Groynes are solid constructions built perpendicular to the coast to

retain sediment. Sand is trapped between these groynes and cannot
be transported away by longshore drift. Groynes encourage the
development of a wide beach.
Sea walls are solid walls built parallel to the coast, often
constructed in the backshore to protect infrastructure such as paths,
roads or buildings. Erosion can be exacerbated at the base of the
sea wall due to wave reflection.
Revetment walls are solid structures constructed toward the

backshore. The angle of the wall reduces erosion by minimising
wave reflection. The material of the wall can be concrete or
boulders, or a more flexible material such as tyres.
Breakwaters are large, solid structures constructed of concrete

or boulders and located offshore to reduce wave action to create
safe harbour.
Beach nourishment is the replacement of eroded sand with sand

that may be trucked in from another beach or derived from seafloor
sediment directly sourced from offshore.
Managed retreat is the process of allowing a coast to erode and

reach its natural equilibrium. It may entail the buy-back of land
by government and efforts to revegetate the backshore to provide
natural defence against erosion.
Figure 5.30
Engineering methods used to manage the coast
99
100
(a)
(c)
1861
(b)
(d)
Green Point
1995
BRIGHTON
BEACH
Green Point
(e)
1997+
BRIGHTON
BEACH
Green Point
Sea wall
Stabi
HAMPTON
Port
Phillip
HAMPTON
bl uffs
ms
ho
om
lised
IFT
ER DR
Scale
at
3f
T
R DRIF
cliffs
400 km
WINTE
ating
SUMM
Retre
Port
Phillip
New Street
Groyne
Breakwater built
194954
Sandringham
Harbour
Sandringham
Harbour
ath
1f
Picnic Point
(f)
Picnic Point
SANDRINGHAM
Picnic Point
SANDRINGHAM
Figure 5.31
Sandringham Harbour and Hampton
erosion of its beach. The dramatic changes that have

occurred are evident from the view of the site in
1911 (f).
Coastal pollution and water

quality
While most of Australias coastal regions have almost
pristine water, those located near urban regions
are spatially associated with marine pollution. This
pollution has a number of sources: stormwater runoff,
leakages from sewerage systems, discharges from
industry, the dissolution of air pollutants, and spills
and dumping at sea. Stormwater runoff is frequently
the greatest contributor to coastal pollution. The

preponderance of hard surfaces, such as those provided
by roads, paths and buildings, increases the amount of
runoff, which is often contaminated by pollutants as it
flows across on its journey to the sea.
Water quality problems may, however, emanate some
distance from the coast through the spatial interaction
between the terrestrial and marine environment. The
Yarra River deposits 40 000 tonnes of nutrient-laden
sediment into Port Phillip each year, smothering
seagrass meadows in some locations and causing algal
blooms on occasions. The flash flooding in Melbourne
in February 2011 caused a vast plume of sediment and
detritus carried out into Port Phillip, which necessitated
the closure of many of Melbournes beaches for several
weeks due to subsequent poor water quality (see figure
5.11 on page 87).
Beach litter is a problem because it detracts from the
visual appeal of the coast, and can be a safety hazard
to humans. Litter which makes its way to sea, however,
is a threat to wildlife. Discarded nets and lines, plastic
bags and six-pack binders can kill animals through
ingestion or strangulation. To remedy this problem
many councils have installed litter traps across their
waterways and conduct regular litter patrols of local
beaches.
Loss of coastal species and

habitat
Coastal ecosystems can be compromised by the
degradation of habitat, over-use, and the introduction
of exotic species. These species become a problem
in coastal regions when they invade the habitat of
native species and compete with them for resources,
or when they feed off or smother other organisms.
Weeds may be introduced into the coastal environment
by seeds or cuttings carried by wind, water, birds or
by human visitors inadvertently carrying in seeds on
their shoes or car tyres. Of equal concern is the spread
of marine pests in coastal waters. Over 250 species
have been introduced into Australian waters, including
the Northern Pacific sea star (Asterias amurensis),
the European fan worm (Sabella spallanzani) and the
Japanese sea weed (Undaria pinnatifida). These can
endanger native marine species and threaten the
financial viability of fishing industries. The main source
of these pests is from sea vessels: ship hulls or ballast
water can act as a vector for invasive species from
other coastal locations. With over 7000 vessels from
over 600 ports entering Victorias waters each year, the

spatial interaction between the States ports and other
coastal environments is considerable. Environments
around Victorias major ports of Melbourne, Geelong
and Portland are particularly at risk.
Climate change
Climate change resulting from the current global
warming is anticipated to pose a serious threat to
coastal regions in the medium and long-term future.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), the international scientific body charged with
assessing the extent of climate change and predicting
its outcomes, has estimated sea levels could rise by up
to one metre by 2100 due to the melting of terrestrial
ice and thermal expansion of the oceans.
Tidal gauges along Victorias coast have already
registered sea level rise of up to 0.03 metres per
year since 2000. The IPCC has also predicted that
the increase in the incidence of storm surges due
to changing weather patterns and higher seawater
temperatures will exacerbate this sea level rise
in some coastal regions. This will lead to coastal
settlements in low-lying areas becoming inundated and
increasingly prone to erosion. Lakes Entrance, on the
Gippsland Lakes on Victorias east coast, is particularly
vulnerable to rising sea levels, as this region is already
subject to subsidence due to the large scale extraction
of natural gas and petroleum along this coastline. The
predicted spatial change over time anticipated for this
location is shown in figure 5.32. These impacts are
likely to compound the existing problems experienced
at this location associated with changing sediment
load and volume of water carried by rivers converging
at this site, which is possibly related to the changing
climate within this catchment.
The full range of the predicted impacts of climate
change on coastal regions is outlined in figure 5.33. It
has been estimated that approximately 45 000 homes
in Victoria and $10 billion worth of infrastructure assets
are vulnerable to sea level rise and increasing storm
surges, mostly severely in the local government areas
of Kingston, Hobsons Bay, Greater Geelong, Wellington
and Port Phillip over the next 100 years, if current
trends continue. Some coastal managers believe the
impacts of climate change on the coast are already
apparent, with many beaches experiencing increased
levels of erosion.
101
102
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.32
Impact of rising sea levels at Lakes Entrance. The image (a)
shows the entrance at present while (b) shows the areas of
land that would be inundated if there was a one-metre rise
in sea level.
Ensuring the safety and amenity

of beach users
Managers of the coast must not only consider the
impacts of human activities on the coast, but also
how the coast may affect people. There have been
incidences of people suffering injuries and death due
to rock falls, cliff and dune collapses, drownings and
other accidents along the coast. Local councils and
other authorities are mindful of the risks involved
with the use of the coast, and try to ensure the safety
of users through signage, fencing and education
campaigns.
Component of climate
change
Impact on coastal regions
Sea level rise
Coral erosion
Figure 5.33
The predicted impacts of
climate change on the coast
Landward migration of sand dunes conflicting with human activities inland

Migration and loss of coastal habitat and biodiversity (resulting in the coasts
squeeze of native habitat between rising seas and increasing urban development)
Rising water tables in coastal regions and increased possibility of salt intrusion
into freshwater aquifers
Decline in coastal recreation and tourism
Damage to coastal infrastructure assets (roads, buildings, water, sewerage,
telecommunications, ports, jetties, seawalls, marinas, boat ramps)
Need for the construction of additional coastal engineering works, including
groynes, sea walls, levees, breakwaters, beach renourishment
Increase in the frequency
and intensity of storm
events and changing
precipitation pattern within
catchments
Increase in incidence of coastal erosion

Physical damage to coastal ecosystems from stormwater, sediment deposition
and agricultural runoff
Increase in the turbidity of water flowing to the coast and deposition of sediment
in estuaries and coastal waters
Change in salt concentrations in coastal wetlands, and consequent stress on
these ecosystems
Water and groundwater contamination (during storm events and flooding)
Water shortages in coastal regions (during droughts)
Damage to coastal infrastrucure assets
Threats to public safety
Pressure on emergency services
Impacts on industry located at coast (port functions, petrochemical storage,
fishing, transport, recreation, tourism)
Increase in insurance premiums
Warming and acidification

of sea water
Threats to marine and coastal ecosystems biodiversity (coral reefs, mangroves,

salt marsh, seagrass meadows, estuaries, coastal wetlands, marine algae,
plankton and fish)
Decline in commercial and recreational fisheries
Activities
1. Working in pairs, examine a topographic map of a
given Victorian coastal location in conjunction with
the map shown in figure 5.4 on page 83. Consider
the natural characteristics of this region, including
its prevailing swell.
a. Suggest the natural processes which are likely
to occur at different locations within this
region, including:

wave refraction
longshore drift
sand accretion
the erosion of cliffs.
b. Suggest the siting for the following features,

justifying your choices:

a camp ground

a boat ramp

a road and car park

a boardwalk

a visitor information centre

a stormwater runoff outfall pipe.
c. Consider how a 0.8-metre sea level rise may
affect this coast.
103
104
5
2. Examine the various engineering methods used to
manage the coast outlined in figure 5.30. Analyse
their positive and negative impact on people and
on their environment. Consider their cost and
regional impacts as well as their local impacts, and
their effectiveness for particular locations.
an increase in the use of the coast for active

recreation
an increase in ships entering ports
an increase in sediment eroded by rivers
flowing to the sea
the dredging of contaminated sea-floor
sediment to facilitate safe navigation by ships
the construction of a large-scale wind farm
near the coast
an increase in the area devoted to protected
coastal reserves
an improvement in the quality of runoff
reaching the coast
the reuse and better processing of treated
sewerage water.
4. Refer to the table showing the predicted impacts of

climate change on coastal environments shown in
figure 5.33. Identify the impacts on the environment
and those on humans.
5. To what extent do you agree with the following
statement:

While the coast is often considered a fragile

environment, it also has enormous power to seek
equilibrium when there is change imposed upon its
components.
Write an essay or organise a debate to present

your ideas, justifying your point of view using
specific examples and diagrams.
6. Every five years the Federal Government releases a

State of the Environment Report which outlines the
condition of various aspects of the environment.
Investigate the most recent report to determine the
state of Australias coastal environments.
The management of
Coastal environments need to be managed for a
number of reasons:

3. Working in groups, select a region of Victorias

coast, and construct and present a futures wheel
exploring the consequences of one of the following
scenarios:
an increase in high-rise development along the
waterfront
to protect ecosystems which can easily be

unbalanced by human activities
to accommodate the multiple, and sometimes

conflicting, uses of the coast
to reduce the hazards coastal regions can pose to
people and infrastructure assets
to sustain the environmental, economic and social

benefits of coastal resources for all stakeholders
today and in the future.
The management of the coast involves all tiers of
government and many industry and community groups.
The State Government is responsible for large-scale
land-use planning, management and environmental
protection of its 2000-kilometre coastline, largely
through the Victorian Coastal Council. Committees of
Management, consisting of government authorities and
community representatives, are appointed to manage
specific coastal regions. About 96 per cent of Victorias
coastal zone is public land administered by the
Department of Sustainability and Environment, mostly
through Parks Victoria. The Environmental Protection
Authority is responsible for monitoring and policing the
States water quality, while catchment, water, primary
industry, transport and port authorities are also involved
in the development and management of the coast.
Coastal local councils issue permits for building and
other activities within their Local Government Area, and
provide services and maintenance along their coastline.
The Federal Government is responsible for offshore
resource development and use, maritime matters,
defence and quarantine; and it initiates and funds much
of the scientific research on issues affecting coastal
and marine environments. It is party to a number of
international agreements involving the coast and has
control and responsibility of the Exclusive Economic
Zone surrounding its land and territories. Coast Action
(also known as Coastcare) is a volunteer-based national
program that encourages community involvement in
the monitoring, protection and rehabilitation of coastal
and marine environments. Aboriginal communities also
have rights and responsibilities for some regions of the
coast.
The management of the coasts presents a number of

difficulties:

Seas have traditionally been considered a shared

resource free to all and belonging to none. This
perception has, in the past, tended to lead to
unfettered use, and sometimes abuse, of the coast.
The scale and nature of the sea makes it difficult
to monitor and police. The combined area of
Australias Exclusive Economic Zone far exceeds
its land area and is bounded by a 36735 kilometre
coastline (excluding its small island territories).
The difficulty of managing such a vast area has
been heightened by the multiplicity of authorities
responsible for the coast.
The sustainability of
our coast
The term sustainable development recognises the
need to use components of the natural environment for
economic and social benefit; however, this must occur
in a way that ensures ecological processes, on which
life depends, are maintained now and in the future.
In an effort to ensure the sustainable development of
the coast, the State Government released its Victorian
Coastal Strategy in 2008, which established the longterm policies for the planning and management of its
coastal, estuarine and marine environments.
(a)
Some water quality problems evident along the

coast may emanate some distance away through
the spatial interaction between pollutants
generated in the catchment and streams flowing
to the sea. Human activities, such as deforestation
or poor agricultural practices within a catchment,
may lead to increased erosion and higher turbidity
and nutrient loads in stream water moved to
coastal waters from inland areas. Similarly, human
activities located at sea may also, eventually, affect
the coast.
The challenges and uncertainty surrounding climate
change and its impacts on the coast.
Coastal resources have, in the past, been
undervalued. It has been estimated that industries
located or reliant upon coastal regions, including
shipping and port activities, commercial fisheries
and aquaculture, energy generation and the
petroleum industry, tourism and recreation,
contribute $7.7 billion to Victorias economy
annually. Importantly, many of the benefits of the
coast are priceless: the natural services it provides,
its environmental value to the many species which
inhabit the region, its beauty and restorative
aspects which lift the human spirit.
(b)
Figure 5.34
The site of the Wonthaggi
water desalination plant (a)
and a stylised image of the
plant (b)
105
106
5
This policy focused on:
the impacts of climate change, including rising sea

levels
rapid population growth in coastal areas
the health of our unique and valued marine

environment.
It also encompasses the precautionary principle,
where the lack of full knowledge and certainty about
the impacts of a proposal should not be a reason to
proceed regardless.
To address the predicted impacts of climate change,
the Victorian Government released the Future Coasts
Program in 2010. The report provides a comprehensive
and detailed assessment of the vulnerability of the
States coast to climate change and strategies to adapt
to its impacts. These impacts were determined by
studying bathymetric (sea depth) and topographic data
derived from digital elevation modelling of Victorias
coast. This information has allowed for the creation of
three-dimensional maps of the coast and more accurate
prediction of the recession of the coastline under
different sea-level rise scenario. The adaptation options
proposed include policies to:
1. A detailed study into Australias coast, the

Coastal Zone Inquiry, was completed in 1993. It
concluded that one of the main reasons for coastal
degradation was the tyranny of small decisions.
a. Discuss what you think this phrase may mean.
b. Analyse how viewing the coast on a larger
scale may overcome some of the problems
resulting from this mismanagement.
c. Consider how managing coastal environments
on a catchment scale, termed Integrated
Catchment Management (ICM), may reduce
some of the problems affecting coasts.
2. Working in groups, prepare a multimedia
presentation of a case study investigating a
particular example of a major development project
proposed for a particular location on the Victorian
coast. In the case study:
describe the geographic characteristics of this

case study
protect: protection of beaches, dunes, infrastructure

assets and land use
accommodate: establishment of planning and
building regulations which allow for a 0.8-metre
rise in sea level
retreat: the relocation of infrastructure and land use

predicted to be affected.
A number of studies of the coastal environment
over the last decade or so indicate that, while there
are some areas of concern, overall there has been
an improvement in our treatment of the coast. This
has occurred despite rapidly expanding coastal
development, largely due to considered management.
The challenge for coastal managers in the future is to
maintain this trend and cope with the unpredictable
changes that events such as increasing population and
rising sea level may bring.
Activities
analyse its potential impact on the local and

regional coastal environment
outline the social and economic benefits of the
project
explain how these impacts may be managed.
Generate electronic or hand-drawn maps and aerial

photographs of your case study. You may also
investigate another similar issue in another part of
the world, comparing the different methods used to
address this issue.
3. The three policies established by the Future Coasts

Program to respond to the impacts of climate
change to the states coast are:
protect: protection of beaches, dunes,

infrastructure assets and land use
accommodate: establishment of planning
and building regulations which allow for a
0.8-metre rise in sea levels
retreat: the relocation of infrastructure and land
use predicted to be affected.
List the strategies that may allow for each of these

policy aims to be achieved. Refer to figure 5.33 on
the impacts of climate change to assist in this task.
4. Government authorities have created:
many coastal national parks

a system of coastal and marine reserves, to
complement the existing land-based national
parks, many of which are located in coastal
regions
a number of coastal Ramsar sites of
international importance in the provision of
habitat for migratory birds
two coastal UNESCO Biosphere reserves:
the Mornington Peninsula and Western Port
Biosphere Reserve, and the Croajingolong
Biosphere Reserve in East Gippsland.
Investigate an example of one of these reserves

and evaluate how the reserve may protect the
coastal environment and meet the needs of people
visiting these regions.
107
108
Assessment task: Coastal environments
Question 1
a. Identify the main coastal landform in the
photograph.
b. Describe how this landform is likely to have
developed over time.
c. With the aid of an annotated sketch, explain a
likely future scenario for this feature.
Figure 5.35
Question 2
a. This section of coastline is subject to severe
hydraulic action. What is meant by the term
hydraulic action?
b. On a sketch outline of the photograph, identify at
least three coastal landforms.
c. On your sketch, shade an area where severe
hydraulic action would be occurring.
d. Draw a series of diagrams to show how this section
of coastline is being altered over time.
Figure 5.36
Question 3
a. Describe the natural environment of this coastal
region.
b. Identify two changes human activities are likely to
be making to the natural environment shown in the
photograph.
c. Suggest what measures would be needed to
maintain the existing high quality of this coastal
region.
d. In the future, do you think the environmental quality
of this coastal region can be sustained?
Figure 5.37
UNIT ONE
CHAPTER FIVE
Question 4
Sand dunes
a. At points AB and CD, the local council is

proposing to construct two groynes. Suggest what
effect this construction might have on the shape
and size of the beach on either side to the groynes.
A
Beach
Direction of
longshore drift
b. What effect might their construction have on

beaches outside of the area shown on the
diagram?
Prevailing wind
direction
D
A
C
B
D
Proposed groynes
Figure 5.38
Question 5
a. Name one way in which sand dunes can be eroded
by a natural process and one way they can be
eroded by human activity.
b. Suggest why the fencing shown in the photograph
was built.
c. How effective does this fencing appear to have
been?
d. Describe one other method people use to manage
coastal areas, to protect them from being eroded
by either natural processes or human activities.
Question 6
Figure 5.39
You are in charge of developing a sandy beach for part

of a coastline in front of a new holiday complex where
previously there had been no sandy beach.
Discuss at least five important factors you would need
to know before nourishment of the coastline could take
place.
Question 7
It is far better to educate people about how to use
coastal areas than restrict their use or enforce bans
and fines.
Evaluate this statement using at least one specific
example from your fieldwork and one example from
another source.
Question 8
What are the likely links between climate change and
changes in coastlines?
109
110
GLOSSARY
Aa lava: A type of lava formed when a crust forms in a rather thick, rocky
surface layer consisting of loose blocks of solidified lava.
Abrasion (or corrasion): A physical process in which rock fragments are used
as a tool of erosion.
Accretion: The accumulation of sediment so that the coastline builds out into
the sea.
Active volcano: A volcano which has erupted during the last few hundred
years.
Aquifer: A layer of rock capable of holding water.
Arch: Arc-shaped landform formed within a headland.
Atmosphere: One of four spheres making up natural systems and containing the
gases that surround the earth.
Attrition: A physical process where the rock fragments erode against each other,
reducing their size.
Backwash: The recession of water back into the sea after a wave has broken
and surged up the shore, under the influence of gravity.
Barrier island: A long, linear promontory of sand formed from a sandbar
emergent above sea level or a spit.
Basalt: The name of a common volcanic rock formed when lava cools on the
surface.
Batholith: A large mass of exposed intrusive volcanic rock.
Bay: A wide indentation of land on a shore.
Beach nourishment: The artificial replacement of eroded sand with sediment
along a beach.
Beach: Deposition of sediments, such as sand, on the shore of a body of water.
Berm: The small ridge of sediment which piles up just above the high tide mark.
Biosphere: One of four spheres making up natural systems and containing living
and non-living organic matter.
Blowhole: The eruption of water through a rock formation as waves break
onshore.
Bluff: A gently sloping cliff, worn by erosion.
Breakwater: A solid structure constructed in coastal waters to reduce wave
energy.
Caldera: A crater in excess of one kilometre wide formed following a later
eruption which destroys the original volcano summit.
Cave: A hollow area within a rock formation.
Clear felling: Removal of all trees in a particular coupe at one time with the
purpose of producing timber products.
Cliff: High and steep rock face.
Coast: The region where the land meets the sea; the region which stretches
from the shallow water of the coastal waters; the area of seawater adjacent
to the coast, including offshore and nearshore waters.
Coastline: The extreme landward limit prone to the action of waves.
Components: Material things making up a natural system.
Composite volcano: Also called stratovolcanoes; are formed by successive
eruptions of ash and lava. They usually have a steep summit.
Constructive waves: Waves characterised by the dominance of the swash,
resulting in the net deposition of sediment onshore.
Continental shelf: The skirt of land that extends from the continents, covered
by relatively shallow seawater.
Convection currents: Currents in the mantle caused by differences in the
temperature of the earths interior which lead to the movement of magma.
Coral reefs: Rock-like structures located in shallow tropical and semi-tropical
regions. They are formed by small marine creatures, coral polyps, and can
grow to form large landforms.
Corrosion: The weakening of rock resulting from the dissolution of some of the
minerals within rocks by weak acids in water.
Coupe: A tract of land identified for forestry operations.
Crater: The basin-shaped depression at the summit of a volcano.
Crust: The earths crust is the outer layer of the earth varying in thickness
between 7 km and 70 km. It is broken into oceanic and continental crust.
Currents: The movement of the surface water of an ocean.
Cuspate: Crescent-shaped.
Cycling of matter: Movement of matter within and through a system.
Delta: A fan-shaped alluvial deposit at the mouth of a river.
Destructive waves: Waves characterised by the dominance of the backwash,
resulting in the net erosion of sediment from the shore.
Dormant volcano: A volcano which has not erupted for up to 10 000 years.
Dune blow-out: The mobilisation of sand in a sand dune.
Dune: A mound or ridge of sand.
Dyke: A feature formed where the magma cuts across the layers of rock, or
where magma solidifies in a fissure.
Ebb tide: Recession of shoreline back towards the sea after it has reached its
high tide mark.
El Nio (and La Nia): Irregularly occurring, complex set of weather patterns
relating to changes in the strength and temperature of ocean currents which
occur in the equatorial Pacific Ocean.
Estuary: The region of a rivers mouth where the freshwater flow meets the
salty water pushed up-river by tidal influences.
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): Zone of sea around a country which it
is responsible for administering and to which it is entitled to exploit its
resources.
Extinct volcano: A volcano which has not erupted for more than 10 000 years.
Extrusive landforms: Those formed when volcanic material reaches the
surface.
Faulting: Process of rock movement, where a section of rock subsides, is thrust
up or moves laterally along a fracture in the crust.
Fetch: The distance of water that wind blows across to create a wave crest.
Fissure: A long, narrow, vertical crack through which magma is forced.
Foredune: The primary dune.
Forest: A natural environment dominated by trees. Forests are characterised by
multi-storey canopies and trees of a variety of ages and species.
Fumaroles: Small gas vents on the side of a volcano.
Geographic characteristics: Features and influences identified in an
environment and described using appropriate spatial concepts.
Groyne: Solid structure built perpendicular to the coast to retain sediment.
Gulf: Large, coastal inundation, more enclosed than a bay.
Headland: A cliffed cape or promontory jutting into the sea.
Hinterland: The region surrounding the coast in view of the shore.
Hot-spot: Occurs where magma, driven by a particularly strong convection
current in the mantle, rises and erupts through a weakness in the crust away
from a plate boundary.
Hydraulic action: Erosion caused by the physical force of moving water.
Hydrosphere: One of four spheres making up natural systems and includes all
water components.
Inlet: A small opening on the coastline.
Inputs: Matter or forces entering a natural system.
Integrated Catchment Management (ICM): Managing coastal and river
environments that form a catchment area.
Intertidal zone: Land between low tide and high tide.
Intrusive landforms: Those formed as a result of magma being trapped within
the crust and which do not reach the earths surface. The solidified magma
may later be exposed by erosion.
Jetty: A structure built out into shallow waters; usually a short pier.
Lagoon: A shallow, brackish body of water located near the sea, which is partly
or fully separated from the sea by a narrow strip of land.
Lahar: A mudflow consisting of saturated volcanic ash, sand, gravel and
boulders mixed with water.
Lava: A flow of molten rock on the surface of the earth.

Lava tube: A long tunnel formed when the top of a lava flow solidifies and lava
continues flowing underneath.
Lithosphere: One of four spheres making up the natural system and including
rocks, soil and minerals.
Longshore drift: The transportation of sediment along a coast in the surf zone
of coastal waters, due to the oblique angle of wave approach.
Low tide mark: The lowest point above sea level the shoreline reaches under
the influence of tides.
Maar: A type of volcano produced by strong steam-driven explosions to form a
broad but shallow crater, often containing a lake.
Magma: The name for molten rock while it is still within the earths crust.
Mangroves: A group of plants that live in intertidal mudflats.
Mantle: The part of the earth below the crust which extends down to depths of
about 2900 km and contains magma.
Mass movement: Movement of a mass of soil and rock including rock falls,
landslides and dune collapses.
Mudflats: Coastal sediment, comprising fine sediments, located within the
intertidal zone.
Natural system: A combination of the four spheres that interact to produce
distinctive geographic characteristics.
Neap tide: Occurs when the position of the sun counteracts the gravitational
pull of the moon, resulting in a relatively small tidal range.
Offshore waters: The deep water seaward of the surf zone.
Outputs: Matter or energy leaving a system.
Pacific Ring of Fire: The plate boundaries around the Pacific Ocean around
which there is a concentration of earthquake and volcanic activity.
Pahoehoe: This lava crust occurs as a thin, skin-like layer over the liquid lava,
which will eventually pile up giving the lava a wrinkled, ropey appearance.
Prevailing winds: The most common direction the wind blows from for a given
location.
Primary dune: The first dune that is subject to the most intense wind and some
wave action.
Process: An operation or action within a system.
Pyroclastic flow: A fast-moving current of extremely hot gas and rock
(collectively known as tephra), ejected from a volcano at a fast speed.
Rainforest: A dense evergreen forest with a heavy annual rainfall of generally
more than 1300 mm per annum. Rainforests are located in tropical and
temperate regions of the globe. Rainforests are often characterised by four
layers: emergent, canopy, understorey and forest floor.
Recycling of matter: Return of matter to its place of origin in a system.
Reef: A ridge of rock located under shallow coastal waters.
Revetment wall: Solid, angled structure constructed in the backshore to
protect against erosion.
Richter scale: A logarithmic scale measuring the magnitude of an earthquake.
Rockpools: Small, basin-like depressions formed within a wave-cut platform.
Runoff: Rainfall which flows across the land, eventually flowing into streams
and rivers.
Sand cycle: The seasonal movement of sand between the shore and coastal
waters.
Sandbar: A linear mound of sand parallel to the coast, submerged by seawater
at high tide.
Sawlog: The part of the tree that is processed at a sawmill and is generally the
most financially valuable.
Scoria: Loose pebble to cobble-sized angular fragments of frothy lava,
typically red in size and containing many holes from gas bubbles. Volcanoes
composed of this material are referred to as scoria or cinder cones.
Sea wall: Solid wall or fence built parallel to the coast, often constructed in the
backshore to protect infrastructure.
UNIT ONE
| G L O S S A R Y |
Sediment: Particles of rock or soil, including dust, silt, sand and small rocks.
Selective felling: The process of removing selected tree species from a forest.
Shield volcano: A volcano with gently sloping sides, formed by low viscosity
lava.
Sill: Feature formed when magma hardens between layers or beds of
sedimentary rocks to form a sheet-like mass.
Spit: An extension of sand formed when sediments are deposited along the coast.
Spring tide: Occurs when the pull of the sun compounds the influence of the
moon and produces an exceptionally large tidal range.
Stack: An isolated, off-shore rock pillar.
Stony rises: A term used in Victorias Western District to describe the irregular
stony ground formed on the younger lava flows.
Strata: Layers of rock.
Succession: The process where plant composition of an area changes over the
medium term.
Surf zone: Point where the sea floor rises up towards the shore and can be
identified by the steepening of waves as they begin to break.
Suspension: Particles held, but not dissolved, within a body of water.
Swash: The forward movement of water as waves break onshore.
Swell: Waves originated in another region and gaining in wave length as they
travel.
Tephra: Solid material that is ejected by a volcano into the atmosphere; may
range in size from ash to lava blocks.
Temperate Zone: The temperate zone is the area of the globe between the
tropics and the polar regions. This is considered to be the area between 23.5
degrees latitude and 66.5 degrees latitude, north and south of the equator.
Tidal range: Vertical distance between low tide and high tide marks.
Tides: The cyclic rise and fall of the shoreline due to the gravitational pull of the
moon, and to a lesser extent, the sun.
Tombolo: A promontory formed when a spit connects an island or rocky outcrop
to the mainland, or to another island.
Tree line: The tree line is the edge of the habitat at which trees are capable of
growing. Beyond the tree line, they are unable to grow because of factors
such as cold weather or lack of moisture.
Tropical zone: The tropical zone is the area found between the Tropic of Cancer
and the Tropic of Capricorn. The tropics are 23.5 degrees latitude north and
south of the equator.
Tsunami: Series of long and high sea waves generated by tectonic activity
along the sea floor.
Tuff: A consolidated rock formed from volcanic ash.
Tumuli: Steep-sided mounds of lava formed by the localised upheaval of lava
flowing below a crust of solidified lava.
Vent: The central opening in a volcano from which magma reaches the surface.
Viscosity: The degree to which a fluid, such as lava, flows.
Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI): The VEI ranks the size of the eruption from
0 to 8 according to magnitude.
Volcano: A natural feature formed when molten material, known as magma,
rises up from deep within the earth and erupts onto the surface, or is ejected
if in a mostly gaseous state. It is often a conical shape.
Wave: The cresting up of water as energy moves through it.
Wave frequency: The rate at which waves break on shore.
Wave notch: Small indentation on a cliff face at the high tide mark, formed by
wave action.
Wave reflection: The intensification of wave energy resulting from a wave
pounding against a solid, vertical surface.
Wave refraction: Bending (and change in level of erosive energy) of waves as
they approach shallow water of the nearshore.
Wave-cut platform: Generally a flat and solid area of rock located at sea level,
formed by erosion of a cliff face or rocky outcrop by wave action.
111
112
Unit 2
Human Environments
113
Chapter 6 Introduction to
Human Environments
Chapter 7 Vietnam: a changing

human environment
124
Chapter 8 Melbourne: an urban

environment
146
Chapter 9 Yarra Valley: a rural

environment
114
172
Areas of Study
1. Characteristics of human environments
2. Changes in human environments
Outcome 1
On completion of this unit the student should be able to describe
and explain the geographic characteristics of different types of
rural and urban environments.
Outcome 2
On completion of this unit the student should be able to analyse
and explain changes due to human activities in rural and urban
environments.
114
INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ENVIRONMENTS
Introduction to Human
Environments
Human environments are everywhere on earth and can be numbered in the
millions. They range in scale from your bedroom, to apartments and single houses,
neighbourhoods, suburbs, towns and cities to farms and regions. A human
environment can therefore be defined as a place where activities are conducted by
humans, and features are built and/or modified by humans. Figure 6.1 shows just a
few of these human environments.
People can make an impact on an environment in many ways. Some of the earths
environments are almost entirely the result of human activities. Natural processes
such as erosion and deposition, vegetation growth, and even climate and weather are
controlled, altered and at times even obliterated in environments, as figure 6.2 (a) and
(b) shows.
Figure 6.1(a)
An Athens caf
Figure 6.2(a)
Forest clearing.
Figure 6.2(b)
Hong Kong Island
foreshore. The
reconstruction of the
Figure 6.1(b)
Part of the Gold Coast skyline
foreshore will produce

a green open area, with
underground roads and
car parking.
Figure 6.1(c)
Rice harvesting in Sri Lanka
| UNIT two | HUMAN ENVIRONMENTS | CHAPTER SIX |
Activities
Rural environments
1. Which human
environment in figure
6.1 is:
most similar to
where you live?
most dissimilar to
where you live?
Give your reason in
each case.
Environments within rural regions across the earth are

very diverse. They differ because of variations in the
shape of the land (relief), climate and weather, the
type of activities undertaken, the social characteristics
and wealth levels of the community, government
expenditure, as well as the legacy of past events. In
most rural areas agriculture remains the dominant land
use, although these environments are likely to include
other human activities such as forestry, tourism, mining
and fishing. In addition, rural environments will support
settlements such as farmhouses and villages, and
towns. The larger settlements may offer a range of
non-agricultural services such as shops, schools, banks
and health centres.
Within the broad category of agriculture, there is
much variety. Arable farms grow crops. Pastoral farms
specialise in rearing animals. Mixed farms are both
pastoral and arable farms. Farms that have a high level
of inputs, particularly labour, are intensive and usually
achieve a high yield per hectare. An example would be
the arable farming taking place in figure 6.1(c). Those
farms that have low input and output per hectare are
extensive; for example, a cattle ranch in Brazil or cattle
station in northern Australia.
Farms can also be classified by what happens to
their outputs. On subsistence farms, the farming family
2. To what extent can

human activities
control, alter and
even obliterate
climate and weather
in a town or city or
rural area?
3. What impact are
people likely to be
making on the natural
system that once
flourished in figure
6.2(a)?
Figure 6.3
The earths major types of
consumes what is produced. Any surplus is usually sold

or bartered for other goods. Farms that sell the majority
of their produce are known as commercial farms.
Australian farms are nearly all commercial farms, while
many of those in Indonesia are largely subsistence.
Figure 6.3 shows how agricultural activities vary from
region to region at a global scale.
Farmers like the ones in figure 6.1(c) can alter
their immediate environment by levelling their land,
fertilising the soil, and building drains and irrigation
channels. On a larger scale, rural environments may
change in other ways, either through the efforts
of individuals, the community working together or
government programs. These changes include:
clearing forest and trees
damming rivers
introducing exotic plants and animals
exploiting mineral resources
building roads and railways.
In some rural environments, such as the drier
regions of Australia, the presence of people may be
less obvious than elsewhere. Dwellings are likely
to be fewer and probably isolated. People still make
an impact on the environment by grazing livestock
which have largely replaced the native animals,
and introducing exotic grasses to replace the native
grasses, scrub and trees.
agriculture
Arctic Ocean
Siberia
Great
Lakes
Great
Plains
North
China
Plain
Sahara Desert
Atlantic
Ocean
Bihar
Pacific Ocean
Equator
Amazon
Basin
Indian Ocean
N
0
5000 km
Equatorial Scale
Agricultural types
Shifting cultivation
Subsistence farming, mostly cropping
Nomadic herding
Commercial livestock ranching and rearing

Commercial cropping, often with livestock rearing
Forest reserves (some farming activities may be present)
Little or no agriculture
Pampas
115
116
Activities
Urban environments

a. What are the main agricultural types found in
Africa? How do they differ to the ones in North
America, both in type and scale?
b. Apart from Africa, where else is shifting
cultivation found?
c. Which countrys land-use combinations are
most like Australias?
Urban environments are those located in a town, city, metropolitan area or

conurbation. These environments are generally non-agricultural and have common
functions including administration, education, entertainment, retailing, wholesaling,
financial services and transport. Statistical definitions of urban environments vary
from place to place and are subject to change over time. The Australian Bureau
of Statistics refers to areas as major urban environments if they have populations
of 100 000 or more people, and as urban environments if they have between 1000
and 99 999 people. There are some population clusters of 200 to 999 with urban
characteristics that also fall into this category. The earths urbanised population
is shown in figure 6.4. As with the agricultural activities map, figure 6.3, there is
considerable variation from region to region and within a particular region.
At present, half the worlds population lives in urban environments. According to
the United Nations, most of the growth in the worlds population in coming decades
will be in urban areas. The massive urban expansion in Asia and Africa will be
unprecedented in human history. The total urban population of Asia is already triple
that of highly industrialised countries, and is set to continue to grow rapidly. Chinas
urban population, for example, is predicted to grow by another 300 million between
2010 and 2030. Most of this growth will be because of rural to urban migration as
people are lured to cities like Shanghai and Guangzhou in search of better living
conditions and regular cash incomes. By 2030 around 70 per cent of Chinas total
population are likely to be living in urban environments.
The rapid growth of Australias cities has caused great impacts on the natural
environment. Urban sprawl has resulted in houses, factories, roads and shopping
centres replacing the natural bushland and wildlife habitats. Urban areas have
produced huge amounts of waste material including sewage. Local creeks and
streams carry stormwater from roads and paths and which is dumped into bays and
near beaches. At a local scale dumped garden waste can overwhelm indigenous
vegetation and the habitats of native species destroyed.
2. Make a comparison of the characteristics of the

rural environment of figure 6.1(c) and figure 9.13
(Yarra Valley) on page 180.
3. What is the difference between subsistence and
commercial agriculture, and between intensive
and extensive farming? Give an example of all four
types.
Figure 6.4
Patterns of global urbanisation
Arctic Ocean
Atlantic
Ocean
Pacific Ocean
Equator
Indian Ocean
Population in urban areas

(per cent of total population)
75 and over
5074
2549
024
N
Southern Ocean
5000 km
Equatorial Scale
Activities
Changing human environments

a. What are the locations of the earths highest
and lowest levels of urbanisation?
b. If the earths population becomes more
urbanised, which continents are likely to see
most change?
c. Compare Australias level of urbanisation with
its nearest northern neighbours.
2. Rural to urban migration can be explained in
terms of pushpull factors. What are the pull
factors luring Chinas rural migrants to urban
environments? These factors also operate in
Australia; suggest how.
3. The interface between rural environments and
urban environments is called the ruralurban
fringe. What land uses might you expect to find
there? Where is the nearest ruralurban fringe to
your home? How might the characteristics of this
fringe area differ to other urban environments?
Figure 6.5(a)
The ruins of Carthage in
present-day Tunisia
Figure 6.5(b)
The ruins of Burra in South
Australia
Over time some human activities in both rural and urban environments may not be
sustainable. As a result the human environments may collapse or decline over a
period of time. Some of the reasons for this change include:

Mineral resources may become exhausted, as in figure 6.5(b), or become

uneconomical to extract. As a result settlements linked to these resources may
be abandoned or lose a substantial part of their population.
Land may become too saline or too eroded or too dry to support farming activities
at the scale farmers need to operate successfully. Large areas of the Sahel in
Africa fit into this category.
A natural disaster such as an earthquake or flood could force people to move
away. The Christchurch earthquake of February 2011 devastated so much of
that citys central area that many people predicted the urban environment would
never fully recover.
117
118
Figure 6.6
High-rise buildings are
common features of large
urbanised centres, such as
Singapore.
Figure 6.7
Canberra, an urban
environment resulting from
political decisions
Over time human environments change in other

ways. Urban environments expand both outwards and
upwards as a result of more people moving into urban
areas as well as technological advances in developing
high-rise buildings. The strength of an urban areas
commercial and political role in a region can accelerate
change. Singapore, for example in figure 6.6, has
been able to maintain a strong economic position
in the South-East Asian region and the rest of the
world. This has been achieved through its successful
development of shipping and port facilities combined
with the development of stable and efficient financial
institutions, a comprehensive education and legal
system, and administrative and innovative excellence
in management.
In Australia, Canberras growth as an urban centre
(see figure 6.7) can be attributed to its political role in
the nation. Would the city have grown to its present
size or existed at all without this role? Would New
York, London or Tokyo be such important trade centres
without their harbours, manufacturing organisations
and financial institutions?
119
The rural environment of

Sri Lankas highlands
On a global scale, Sri Lanka is small country about
the size of Tasmania, but with a total population similar
to all of Australia. Within Sri Lankas area, there is an
enormous variety of natural environments including
tropical rainforests, hill and mountain country and
wetlands. Sri Lankas history of human activity covers
over 120 000 years. Widely different groups of people,
technological capabilities and activities have impacted
to produce todays range of human environments.
Todays land use map in figure 6.8 is evidence of this
spatial interaction between human activities and the
natural environments.
Figure 6.8
Jaffna
Sri Lankas major land uses

N
0
50 km
Scale
Trincomalee
Activities
1. Look at figure 6.5(a). What do you think might
have happened here? Carry out some research to
establish what did happen, when and why.
3. Develop a flow diagram to help explain how

harbours, education and government can help
accelerate the growth and importance of an urban
environment.
Colombo
Fig_06
2. Use figure 6.2(b) to identify three things that are

changing this environment. Where in Australia has
a similar change occurred or is being planned to
occur?
Galle
Land Use
Rice
Rubber
Tea
Coconut
Mixed rice and coconut

Scrub or second growth forest
Hardwood plantation
Population centre
Figure 6.9
A tea-growing landscape
120
Figure 6.10
Figure 6.11
Large-scale buildings for processing tea are a feature of the
Typical linear housing for labourers and their families in tea country
rural landscape.
In the late 19th century the central highlands of

Sri Lanka were transformed with the widespread
growing of tea. The highlands had a favourable natural
environment of high humidity, temperatures cooler than
the lowlands and ample rainfall to allow tea bushes
to grow all year. Economic factors played a key role:
there was a demand for tea in the United Kingdom, the
colonial power, which could also provide finance and
managerial skills.
Over 2000 square kilometres of highlands that
once supported rainforest now grow tea, producing
landscapes similar to figure 6.9. A road and rail
network to move tea to the coast for export
complements this landscape. In the highlands, large
plantations or estates complete with processing plants
(figure 6.10) and nearby worker accommodation (figure
6.11) were constructed. By 1900 around 100 000 Tamil
Indians had been brought in from southern India to
work the tea plantations. Their descendants today
form the backbone of tea plantation labour and the
population of central highlands towns. Almost one
million Sri Lankans are employed in the tea industry
including around 240 000 directly on tea plantations
and estates. Most tea plantation labour is female and
based on low wages. Moves in the 1970s to break
up the large tea estates into smaller holdings proved
unsuccessful and today most tea is still produced from
the large estates.
Tea can produce annual export revenues in excess of
US$1 billion, ranking second to the countrys booming
textile and garment exports.
Figure 6.12
Tea-pickers are mostly female.
Activities
1. Apart from tea growing, name three other agricultural land uses in Sri Lanka.
2. Identify two environmental factors and two economic factors that allowed Sri
Lankas tea industry to develop.
3. Why could the tea industry be considered as intensive agriculture? Figure 6.12
will help.
4. The growing of tea on Sri Lankas highlands is an example of which spatial
concepts? Present your answer as a table with concepts on one side, reasons on
the other.
5. Research an Australian area, local or regional, where the land cover has been
changed for agricultural use. When and why did this spatial change over time
occur?
The urban environment of Guangzhou, China

Guangzhou is one of Chinas very large urban centres.
In 2010 the urban areas population was 12 million,
making it Chinas third largest city after Shanghai and
Beijing.
Guangzhous location at the southern end of China
and in close proximity to Hong Kong has given it
significant advantages in its development as a large
urban environment. Its location near the estuary of the
Pearl River (figure 6.14) meant it could develop as a
trading centre with the outside world. Guangzhou is
an old centre, with a history stretching back over 2200
years. At various times the city has been a major entry
point for foreign traders and travellers including the
Persians in the 8th century, Portuguese in the 17th and
British in the 19th century. In a modern version of this
tradition, the city has been home to the Canton Chinese
Export Commodities Fair since 1957 a showcase to

the world for the regions manufactured products.
For most of Guangzhous long history it has been
an administrative centre, needing educated civil
servants as well as traders and financiers. Today it can
boast a wide range of education facilities, including
the massive Guangzhou University City in the southeastern suburbs designed to accommodate 200 000
students and their 20 000 teachers.
Guangzhous manufacturing base has expanded
rapidly since the economic reforms of the late
1970s were implemented throughout China. Many
manufacturers in nearby China moved into the region
to take advantage of lower labour costs. Automotive,
electronic and telecommunication equipment today
make up two-thirds of the value of the urban areas
Figure 6.13
Guangzhous skyline along
the Pearl River
Guangzhous location
Guangzhou
Macau
VIETNAM
Shenzhen
Hong Kong
Hanoi
LAOS
Hainan
South
China
Sea
N
0
300 km
Scale
ated new September 2011
River
Pearl
Figure 6.14
CHINA
_06_14_bk1_2011
Tropic of Cancer
121
122
Figure 6.15
Construction of new
freeways often intrudes into
Guangzhous neighbourhoods
Figure 6.16
A busy retail street, Beijing
Lu, attracts thousands of
shoppers in Guangzhous
centre every day.
Figure 6.17
Guangzhous new residential
apartment complexes are
usually gated and high-rise.
manufactured goods. Several million people have been

drawn into the urban area from rural environments
hoping to take advantage of the citys prosperity. On
average, its per capita income is six times higher
than the rest of China. For new arrivals, sharing in
this prosperity is not always easy, as evidenced by
persistent overcrowding in housing and temporary
housing developed on the outskirts.
The urban face of Guangzhou is rapidly changing.
High-rise buildings are emerging along the Pearl River
(figure 6.13) and in a new business district. Growing
prosperity has seen the emergence of high-rise and
gated apartment blocks (figure 6.17) replacing much of
the poorly built and maintained housing from the past.
The citys retail precincts are busy and well stocked
bearing striking resemblances to similar precincts in
other parts of the world. Growing car ownership has
necessitated an expanded road system (figure 6.15).
Guangzhou is part of a wider urban region that
includes the economically successful Hong Kong,
Macau and Shenzhen urban centres. The construction
of high-speed railways along with planning of future
infrastructure developments will help Guangzhou
remain a key part of Chinas and the global urban
economy.
Activities
1. a. Describe Guangzhous location in relation to
Hong Kong.
b. What advantages would its proximity to Hong
Kong have for Guangzhous prosperity?
2. a. Describe the spatial change over time
occurring in figure 6.15. Why do you think such
construction has been necessary?
b. Identify one other spatial change over time that
Guangzhous residents would have witnessed
since the late 1970s.
3. Name one similarity and one difference in the urban
characteristics of Guangzhou with one other urban
environment you know or have studied.
123
124
Outcomes
To describe and explain the
different types of rural and
urban environments
VIETNAM: A CHANGING HUMAN ENVIRONMENT
Vietnam:
a changing human
environment
To analyse and explain changes

due to human activities in rural
and urban environments
Key Knowledge and

Skills
of selected environments
Figure 7.1
Scenes of Vietnam
| UNIT TWO | HUMAN ENVIRONMENTS | CHAPTER SEVEN |
CHINA
Bla
ck
Fan Si Pan
3143 metres
Ri
ve
Riv
HANOI
er
Cam Pha
Haiphong
Red
River
Delta
An
na
lon
g
Bay
Gulf of
Tonkin
me
se
Co
rdi Central
lle
ra
Lowlands
THAILAND
the development of tourist resorts at locations of

natural beauty such as Halong Bay.
HANOI
Activities
Da Nang
1. Suggest between four and six images you could

use to represent the area you live in, or Australia
as a nation. Discuss in class how representative
these images are.
LAOS
Capital city
Major population
centre
Land with elevation
over 2000 metres
Land with elevation
10002000 metres
River
Hue
Da Nang
Central
Highlands
2. Which of the images in figure 7.1 are dominated by

the natural environment? Which are mostly human
environments?
Qui Nhon
CAMBODIA
Buon Me Thuot
ng
Nha Trang
ko
Me
Gulf of
Thailand
N
0
Vung Tau
Ca Mau
200 km
Scale
Cam Ranh
Bien Hoa
Ho Chi Minh City
Phu Quoc
4. Use your atlas to describe Vietnams location in

relation to Australia.
5. Compare Vietnams northsouth extent to a similar
distance where you live.
Vietnam, key features
Red
farming activities utilising the combination of a

warm, moist climate and fertile soils of the Red
River and the Mekong deltas and coastal plains
3. Referring to one of these images, describe

the interaction between parts of the natural
environment and the human environment.
Figure 7.2
Huo
ng
Rive
r
Vietnam occupies the eastern side of the South-East

Asian peninsula and has an area of 329 556 square
kilometres about 50 per cent larger than the State
of Victoria. From north to south it extends about 1650
kilometres. Vietnam is bordered by China to the north,
the South China Sea to the east and south, the Gulf of
Thailand to the south-west, and Cambodia and Laos
to the west. The capital city of Hanoi is located in the
north, while the countrys largest city, Ho Chi Minh City,
formerly Saigon, is in the south. These features are
shown on figure 7.2.
Ha
Vietnam is a rapidly changing human environment.

People living there, as well as visitors who remember
the country, or part of it, from five, ten or more years
ago, are witness to profound changes that have
impacted significantly on the nature and quality of
peoples lives and their environments.
On a global scale, Vietnam is still one of the worlds
poorest countries. In 2010 its Gross National Income
(GNI) per capita of about US$1000 ranked 176 out of
211 countries monitored by the United Nations Human
Development Report just below that of Pakistan and
Papua New Guinea. To its credit, Vietnam ranked more
favourably on the 2010 Human Development Index at
113 from 169 countries surveyed. The progress Vietnam
has been making is impressive, given that until 1975 it
was a divided nation that had been almost continually
at war for 80 years. This period had resulted in social
and economic dislocations on a scale few other
countries have experienced.
Most changes in Vietnam are the result of activities
conducted by people. The features that are formed and
modified by them characterise the human environment
of Vietnam. These activities interact with the natural
environment to varying extent, for example:
Where is Vietnam
located?
River
Introduction
Mekong
River
Delta
South
China
Sea
125
126
The impact of history

Vietnam has undergone significant changes in the last 150 years:
1859 French forces capture Saigon, starting a period of warfare and resulting in the French colony of IndoChina being declared by 1887 (see figure 7.3). French influence penetrated the region and stimulates a
nationalist movement.
1930 The Indo-Chinese Communist Party is founded by Ho Chi Minh.
1941 Japanese forces occupy Vietnam displacing the French rulers but resisted by the Communist Partys Viet
Minh group.
1945 With the defeat of Japan the Viet Minh seize power and Ho Chi Minh proclaims Vietnams
independence.
1946 The French try to reassert their authority but meet with resistance from the Viet Minh.
1954 The Viet Minh defeat the French military outpost at Dien Bien Phu. France accepts an armistice and
Vietnam is divided into North and South along the 17th parallel of latitude (see figure 7.3). North
Vietnam becomes a communist government led by Ho Chi Minh; South Vietnam receives backing from
France and the United States. For 300 days there is freedom of movement for the population.
1955 South Vietnam becomes a republic with Ngo Dinh Diem as President.
1957 Beginning of the communist insurgency in the South with weapons and fighters flowing from the North.
1961 Almost half of South Vietnam is controlled by local communist insurgents, the Viet Cong; United States
military aid is increased.
1967 Despite United States troop numbers reaching almost 500 000, the war against the Viet Cong becomes
increasingly difficult.
1969 Ho Chi Minh dies.
1972 United States heavily bombs communist-held areas and the Ho Chi Minh Trail (see figure 7.3).
1973 United States agrees to a troop withdrawal leaving the South Vietnamese army to fight the Vietcong.
1975 North Vietnamese troops invade South Vietnam and the South Vietnam Government surrenders. Millions
of people had died including 58 000 Americans.
1976 The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is proclaimed (see figure 7.3); Saigon is renamed Ho Chi Minh City.
Thousands of people flee the south as North Vietnamese officials replace local ones and the economy
becomes controlled by government agencies.
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Figure 7.3
Vietnams changing map
Indo-China, about 1900
Indo-China, 1954 - 1975
CHINA
CHINA
Tonkin
1884
Indo-China, since 1975

CHINA
Dien Bien Phu

Hanoi
Hanoi
Hanoi
NORTH
Laos
LAOS
1893
VIETNAM
LAOS
FRENCH
INDO-
SIAM
VIETNAM
Hue
THAILAND
THAILAND
CHINA
Cambodia
Annam
1863
1884
Saigon
CAMBODIA
SOUTH
CAMBODIA
VIETNAM
Ho Chi Minh City
Saigon
Cochin-China
1862
CHINA
Country
Annam Region
Hanoi Population centre

1863
Year of French occupation
Ho Chi Minh Trail

Major United States base
300 km
Scale
1986
After ten years of low productivity, including

food and energy shortages, Doi Moi, or
economic renovation, is initiated with
private control of much of the economy
occurring. Foreign investment and tourism is
encouraged. The United States lifts its 30year trade embargo and restores diplomatic
relations. Vietnam becomes a member of
ASEAN. Small family population policy is
promoted. Vietnam becomes a member of the
World Trade Organisation.
Activities
1. Research one period of Vietnamese history. What
significant changes in Vietnam came about during
this period? Did these changes have a greater
impact on the natural environment of the country or
on the people? Explain your answer.
2. How did the topography of Vietnam assist the
movement of North Vietnamese into South Vietnam
via the Ho Chi Minh Trail?
Figure 7.4
Mountain spurs sometimes reach the coast, leaving little
room for farming and settlements.
127
Vietnams changing
geographic
characteristics
There are a number of geographic characteristics
that interact with one another and continue to make
significant changes to Vietnams geography.
Vietnams natural landscapes

The northern and western sections of Vietnam
are dominated by the mountains of the Annamese
Cordillera. Figure 7.5 shows part of this mountainous
region which can reach an elevation of more than
2440 metres. A major plateau known as the Central
Highlands, although sparsely populated, supports
rubber, coffee and tea plantations.
East of the Annamese Cordillera in the north is an
alluvial plain drained by the Red River and other rivers
that flow into the Gulf of Tonkin, where an extensive
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Geographic
characteristics of selected
environments
delta has formed. In the

Red River Delta and in
the valleys of the regions
other major rivers are
found wide limestone
terraces, low hills and
extensive alluvial plains.
Off the north-east coast
are hundreds of small
islands composed mostly
of limestone
(see figure 7.1).
Figure 7.5
Part of Vietnams
mountainous region
South of the Red River Delta are the Central

Lowlands, a narrow coastal strip where the short rivers,
flowing east to west, form small but fertile deltas. Here
the Annamese Cordillera runs parallel to the coast with
several spurs jutting into the South China Sea. These
spurs, as in figure 7.4, isolate sections of the coast and
have made northsouth communication difficult.
South of the Central Lowlands is the large alluvial
plain of the Mekong River Delta, which occupies the
southern portion of the country. The Mekong River
15
20
CHINA
2. How might the gradient and volume of water of a

river affect its ability to erode or deposit?
30
Vietnams climate
28
Hue
THAILAND
Da Nang
N
200 km
Scale
25
CAMBODIA
Ho Chi Minh City

Annual rainfall, millimetres
2500 and over
10002500
Less than 1000
Temperatures, Celsius
January isotherm
July isotherm
Wind direction
January
July
HANOI
Da Nang
Capital city
Major population
centre
Vietnam has quite distinct climatic regions which in

turn have a significant impact on rural and urban life.
While the northern region is located on the edge of
the tropical climate zone, it does experience a winter
season from November to early April. During January,
the coldest month of the year, Hanoi frequently
records daily minimums below 10C (see figure 7.7).
Summers in northern Vietnam last from April or May to
October and are characterised by heat, heavy rains and
occasional typhoons.
Further south, the average annual temperatures are
higher, reaching 27C in Ho Chi Minh City (23C in
Hanoi). In central and southern Vietnam the south-west
monsoon winds, between June and November, bring
Activities
1. Research how the distinct characteristics of either
limestone scenery or a delta landscape are formed.
Include an annotated diagram or photograph as
part of your answer.
HANOI
LAOS
Delta, with its fertile, alluvial soils, is Vietnams most

productive rice-growing and most densely populated
rural environment.
Many natural processes are helping to change
Vietnams environments. The rivers in the south of the
country have gentle gradients while those in the north
are steeper. In the rainy season (see below) most rivers
flood although the severity of flooding varies from year
to year.
Figure 7.6
Vietnams climate
upadted and re-supplied Sept 2011

From 2005 edition ( fig 2.2.6 )
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Fig_07_06_bk1_2011
128
Figure 7.7
Dressed for northern
Vietnams winter
rains and occasional typhoons to the eastern slopes

of the mountains and plains of the lowlands. Between
December and April there is a drier period that is
characterised by winds of the north-east monsoon and,
in the south, by high temperatures. This distribution of
temperature and rainfall which divides Vietnam into
climatic regions is shown in figure 7.6.
Vietnamese and international assessments of the
likely impact of climate change are largely negative.
A one-metre sea-level rise (a possibility by 2100,
according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change) would directly affect 5 per cent of the
countrys land area and more than 10 million people.
Erosion along Vietnams extensive coastline has
already increased with slightly rising sea levels. More
significantly the impact of seawater intrusion into the
coastal zones and freshwater rivers, such as in the
low-lying Mekong River Delta, could be disastrous for
agricultural activities and human settlements.
Nationally, rainfall totals are likely to increase
with global warming with their seasonal distribution
becoming more concentrated. Together with higher
temperatures, there could be a positive impact on
agricultural yields in northern Vietnam but a negative
one in the south. In addition, the likelihood of more
severe and more widespread typhoons poses a further
threat to the environment and its population.
Activities
1. Find the average monthly rainfall and temperature
figures for one place in Vietnam and for one
place near where you live. What similarities and
differences emerge?
2. Discuss in a group how climate can influence
human activities. Try to identify at least three ways.
3. Some parts of Vietnam average between four and
six typhoons a year. What changes to environments
could they bring?
4. Look at figure 7.17 on page 135. Identify three
different locations where flooding is likely to occur.
Justify your choices.
5. What problems are predicted to arise in Vietnam
with continued climate change? For one of these
problems suggest what could be done locally and
globally.
Vietnams changing
population
Vietnams 90 million people are distributed unevenly.
When figure 7.8 is compared with figure 7.2 (page 125),
a clear difference between the regions of the plains
and higher, steeper land, and between rural and urban
areas is evident. There is a strong spatial association
between the densely populated areas and the farming
areas of the plains and deltas. Despite Vietnams
growing urbanisation, rural areas still support over
70 per cent of the population, with the two delta
regions, the Red River and Mekong River deltas,
supporting more than half of the rural population.
Vietnams population distribution changed in the
past, is still changing and is likely to continue to
change. After partition of the country in 1954 around
900 000 people moved into South Vietnam. Between
the end of the war in 1975 and 1990 over one million
Figure 7.8
Vietnams population
distribution
CHINA
Hanoi
Haiphong
LAOS
THAILAND
Hue
Da Nang
Persons per square kilometre

2000 and over
8002000
400800
150400
Less than 150
Division boundary
CAMBODIA
City over 3 000 000
Nha Trang
City 500 0013 000 000

City 175 000500 000
Ho Chi Minh City
N
0
200 km
Scale
129
130
Figure 7.9
100+
9599
9094
8589
8084
7579
7074
6569
6064
5559
5054
4549
4044
3539
3034
2529
2024
1519
1014
59
04
Male
Population
structure 1991.
Vietnam 2031
2011, 2031
100+
9599
9094
8589
8084
7579
7074
6569
6064
5559
5054
4549
4044
3539
3034
2529
2024
1519
1014
59
04
Vietnam 2011
Male
Vietnam 1991
Female
100+
9599
9094
8589
8084
7579
7074
6569
6064
5559
5054
4549
4044
3539
3034
2529
2024
1519
1014
59
04
Male
Female
Female
Population (millions)
Figure 7.10
A young Vietnamese family
Vietnamese left the country, mostly from the southern

regions. In the reconstruction period after 1975, the Central
Highlands became the destination for both voluntary and
forced migration, helping to swell this sparsely populated
region by an additional four million by 2009.
Rural-to-urban migration has accelerated since
restrictions on population movements were eased in
the 1980s. This movement has occurred due to urban
areas becoming the focus for expanding economic
activity and the possibilities of improving living
standards. Job opportunities in factories and service
industries, especially restaurants, food stalls, retailing,
tourism and construction, have opened up as Vietnams
economy has expanded. Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi
have grown rapidly and each city now includes more
than six million people within its urban boundaries. By
2030, around 45 per cent or 43 million people could
be living in all of Vietnams urban areas. Pages 1378
look at how Hanoi is coping with this major population
movement.
Vietnams population has grown rapidly from 20 million
in 1945 to 90 million in 2011. This growth has been
uneven as wars, economic crises and boom periods
impacted. A baby boom after the end of hostilities from
1975 has produced a young population, with around
35 per cent under 20 years of age (compare Australia:
25 per cent). The 2011 age structure (figure 7.9) records
this growth with the post-war baby boomers in the 20 to
30 years age range. Family groups like the one in figure
7.10 are typical today: young couples with two children.
Since the 1980s there has been a slowing in the
birth rate (from 25 births per 1000 people in 1995 to
17 in 2011) and the fertility rate (from 2.8 children per
woman in 1995 to 1.9 in 2011). Government policies
promoting two-child families have significantly
contributed to this slowing. The 55 minority groups,
making up around 14 per cent of the population and
occupying the less productive land of the highlands,
continue to have higher birth rates and fertility rates
than the national average.
Nonetheless, Vietnams population will most likely
grow by another 10 million by 2020, due largely to
the high number of women entering the reproductive
age group. By 2031, Vietnam will have a more mature
population structure with the younger age groups less
dominant as at present. Thanks to better health care
and improved living conditions, the average life span
has increased impressively from 40 years in 1950 to
72 years in 2011.
131
Vietnams changing economy
Activities
1. Suggest why there is a strong spatial association
between the level of population density and
a. the two main river deltas
b. the highlands.
2. Give an example of a push factor moving people in
Vietnam, and an example of a pull factor.
3. Look carefully at figure 7.9.
a. Identify from the 1991 diagram a period when
birth rates were low. Give a reason for your
choice.
b. Suggest why the under 30 age groups are the
largest in the 1991 diagram.
Vietnam is a poor country by world standards. Its

development from a largely subsistent economy to a
commercial one integrated into the global economy is
taking place now.
Agriculture, and wet rice cultivation in particular,
has been central to the Vietnamese economy for
generations. Agriculture is still the primary occupation
of the population, employing about 60 per cent of the
workforce. Rice occupies over 90 per cent of Vietnams
arable land and is both the staple food crop for the
local population and a major export.
Figure 7.11
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Processes and factors
associated with different
human activities
Nature and types of human
activities producing spatial
variations
Rice growing remains a major rural activity.
c. By 2011 why are the under 20 age groups

becoming smaller?
d. Identify three differences between the 1991
diagram and the 2031 one.
e. What challenges could the 2031 projected age
structure cause for government planners?
Year
Production (millions of tonnes)
1980
11.7
1985
16.2
1990
19.2
1995
24.9
2000
32.5
2005
35.7
2010
39.9
Figure 7.12
Changing rice production
The Mekong River and Red River deltas are among

the worlds great rice-growing regions. The Mekong
River Delta (see also pages 1356) has a heavy
rainfall for part of the year, rich alluvial soils and high
temperatures highly favourable conditions for wet
rice cultivation. The Red River Delta in the north has
an extensive network of dykes, dams, canals and locks
that provide irrigation water and control the movement
of water in periods of high flow.
Vietnams rice production has increased impressively
as figure 7.12 shows. There are several factors
accounting for this development. After reunification
of the country in 1975, the northern Vietnamese
model of development through government planning
and ownership was imposed on the entire country. In
the south, efforts to collectivise agriculture met with
Figure 7.13
Textile manufacturing is labour intensive.
nation the worlds second largest rice exporter after

Thailand.
Future increases in rice production may not be as
dramatic as in the past. One reason is the loss of ricefarming land to other profitable crops such as sugar cane
and fish, and to expanding urban and industrial activities.
Between 2001 and 2006 around 300 000 hectares of
rice farming land near Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City were
lost in the latter way.
CHINA
Gulf
of
Tonkin
LAOS
Activities
132
1. Use figure 7.11 to help describe why this

environment is suitable for wet rice cultivation.
THAILAND
b. Discuss whether or not figure 7.12 represents

food security for Vietnam now and in the
future.
1200 and over

9001200
600900
Less than 600
Division boundary
South
China
Sea
CAMBODIA
Gulf
of
Thailand
N
0
200 km
Scale
Figure 7.14
Distribution of household
incomes
Created new Sept 2011
Monthly average income per

person, 2008 (thousand dongs)
Fig_07_14_bk1_2011
2. a. Summarise the main reasons for Vietnams

increases in rice production.
resistance from farmers; rice production, in particular,

was failing to keep up with population growth. Doi
Moi or economic renovation was introduced in 1986
and allowed freer market conditions for farmers and
enterprises to buy and sell produce. Individual land
ownership was re-established and peasant farmers
saw the opportunity to grow more, sell surpluses at
market prices and raise household incomes.
The increase in rice production was aided by the
widespread introduction of high-yielding varieties,
together with more effective farming techniques such
as better timing of fertiliser and water applications
as well as the all-important profit incentive. In 2010
Vietnam had around 10 million households farming rice
on an average of half to one hectare each. Because of
their enterprise, production meets Vietnams present
needs and allows for considerable exports, making the
A wide variety of secondary food crops including

maize, sweet potatoes, beans and peanuts are grown
for farm household use with surpluses sold in local
markets. Government encouragement of coffee growing
in the Central Highlands has been very successful.
Vietnam is now the worlds second largest coffee
exporter returning the country over US$1 billion a year.
Coffee production is characterised by shade-growing
methods (thus reducing the need for total vegetation
clearance), a low or no chemical use and guaranteed
minimum prices. Cotton, jute, tea, sugar cane and
rubber are significant cash crops from small farm
holdings and help to raise rural household incomes.
Vietnams aquaculture industry is another success
story. By 2005 exports of fish products, especially
shrimp, tiger prawns, catfish, carp and perch,
were worth over US$2 billion. This industry, like
its counterparts elsewhere in South-East Asia, is
often controversial: providing food mostly for export
rather than locally, involving the clearance of coastal
mangroves for ponds, and consuming food and labour
resources. There have been some successful moves to
develop organically raised shrimp within reforested or
partly cleared mangroves.
Since the introduction of Doi Moi, the structure of
the Vietnamese economy has been changing rapidly.
Agriculture in 201011 contributed less than 25 per cent
to the nations annual value of production, about half
that from 30 years previously. The manufacturing and
service sectors have grown rapidly since the mid 1980s

with a move away from a state-controlled, centrally
planned economy. One resource Vietnam does not lack
is labour, with more than one million people entering
the workforce every year. Increasingly this resource is
becoming more skilled and sophisticated as education
standards rise and technology is brought in with foreign
investment.
Two important developments are the garment and
textile industry, and the oil and gas industry. The former
is labour intensive employing 500 000 workers,
80 per cent of whom are female like the ones in figure
7.13 in thousands of small-scale enterprises. The oil
and gas industry, on the other hand, is technology and
capital intensive and usually in partnership with foreign
companies.
In addition, the development of service employment
such as finance, education, management and tourism
(see pages 1401), like much of the manufacturing
sector, is growing strongly in Vietnams cities and
towns. In turn, this attracts more and more workers to
move from rural areas and smaller towns into the larger
urban areas.
The impacts of economic changes are evident on
figure 7.14. Poverty overall has sharply reduced with
the wealthier urban and delta regions at either end
of the country standing out. The remoter, hillier, less
accessible regions remain Vietnams poorest regions
and often without the resources of the coastal and
urban locations to develop rapidly.
Vietnams future economic progress will largely
depend on the consumer demands of its own
population, along with its ability to attract foreign
investment and gain a share of world export markets.
The lifting of the United States trade embargo against
Vietnam in February 1994 allowed the Vietnamese
economy access to international money markets. There
has been a substantial increase in foreign investment
financing industrial development, hotel and resort
construction as well as infrastructure improvements.
The products of globalisation are increasingly evident
throughout the country from locally built American and
Japanese cars and scooters, to locally manufactured
international fashion labelled garments and fast foods
and drinks.
Figure 7.15
Deforested highlands have
become eroded and with a
reduced productive capacity.
133
Activities
1. Why will the transition to commercial farming bring
higher rural incomes?
2. Investigate further the location, development and
level of success of either Vietnams aquaculture or
coffee industry.
3. What is meant by the term Doi Moi? How did
Vietnam change economically after this policy was
introduced?
4. a. What spatial associations can you find between
figure 7.14 and Vietnams population distribution
(page 129)?
Key Knowledge and

Skills
human activities
b. Suggest what factors could contribute to the

differences in income distribution evident in
figure 7.14.
Environmental conditions
Vietnam is rapidly changing into an industrialcommercialurban economy and
society. Between 1995 and 2005, the value of its economy doubled, poverty levels
halved and key development indicators of life expectancy, education and income
improved, bringing significant benefits to the population. Such changes, together with
rapid population growth and its rising concentration in urban areas (see page 130),
have placed new pressures on an environment already subject to extreme natural
events. The quality of the nations land, water and air is especially vulnerable.
A particular area of concern has been the reduction in the countrys forest cover.
In 1944 forest covered 43 per cent of Vietnam, mostly in the highlands and steeper
slopes less suited to wet rice cultivation. In the latter years of the 195475 war,
defoliation of forest land was carried out by American forces to identify enemy
movements and locations. In the post-war period uncontrolled logging, clearing for
cropping and cutting for firewood had reduced forest cover by 1988 to 21 per cent.
134
7
Programme 327, which began in 1988, aims to re-green
the highlands by leasing land to be afforested to
villagers for 50 years, banning exports of raw logs and
undertaking greater surveillance of existing forests. By
2005 forests including commercial plantings covered 39
per cent of the country. Illegal cutting and clearing of
forests, particularly old forests, has continued but at a
reduced rate.
Other causes of deforestation are directly related
to population increase. For example, in the north-west
region of Vietnam, in the Ky Son District, the increasing
Kinh (minority) population has caused great strain on
their existing land available for farming. Using slash
and burn techniques, and not allowing the land to
recover from being farmed, the land rotation cycle
has been shortened. This has resulted in more forest
being cleared for farming, soil degradation and erosion
problems developing.
As the population of Vietnams cities has been
growing and motor vehicles have become more
affordable, air and noise pollution has become a major
urban issue. Vietnams 90 million people operate
over 40 million motor cycles and scooters, and their
concentration in cities like Ho Chi Minh City and
Hanoi is very obvious (see figure 7.22). The increase in
motorcycle ownership continues along with a growing
number of cars on the road. Overloaded and incomplete
public transport systems, including road networks,
concentrate the pollution generated by these vehicles.
The expansion of manufacturing activity and its
concentration in the main urban areas, while providing
employment and goods for further development and
export, is having a negative impact on the environment.
Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi and Haiphong have the
countrys highest levels of air pollution. Untreated
waste water from factories is still dumped directly into
rivers. Smoke and dust from heavy industry, including
Haiphongs cement factories, continues to pollute the
air of surrounding regions.
Environmental protection laws exist but their
enforcement has not always been very rigorous or
thorough. The government plans to relocate many
industrial activities into estates on the edge of urban
areas or adjoining resources such as coal mines. This
would provide an opportunity to update old equipment
that has been identified as another source of pollution.
In rural environments, farmers have successfully
expanded their production of foodstuffs and cash
crops. Yet some harmful practices have also emerged.
The increased use of chemical fertilisers, pesticides

and herbicides has led to increased levels of water
pollution through runoff into ponds and rivers. In the
Mekong River Delta many farmers have successfully
cleared scrub or mangroves from the wetlands and
converted them into ponds for raising shrimp or fish.
Their example has spurred others to do likewise, with
larger enterprises and cooperatives clearing on a large
scale. In the process, thousands of hectares of forest
and mangrove have been cleared.
On a large scale again, the building of dams on the
Mekong River in China, Laos, Thailand and Cambodia
is likely to alter the seasonal distribution of water
flows into southern Vietnam and with it changes in
biodiversity and groundwater supplies.
Climate change adds another layer to the complexity
of Vietnams environmental concerns. Weather
conditions are expected to be both more extreme and
unpredictable as they occur in Vietnam. The World Bank
identifies the urban areas with their concentrations of
people and infrastructures as being most at risk. Ho
Chi Minh City and Hanoi are both on low-lying areas
adjoining rivers that are already prone to flooding and
subject to storm winds. Rural households in low-lying
coastal and delta areas are potential sources of climate
refugees and are likely to add to the movement of
people to urban areas.
Activities
1. a. Why has Vietnams forest cover fluctuated so
much over time?
b. What advantages would a more extensive
forest cover give to the highlands of Vietnam?
2. Why is there a strong spatial association between
environmental problems and urban areas in
Vietnam? Give at least two pieces of evidence to
back up your answer.
3. Vietnam has a literacy rate exceeding 93 per cent
and a television network covering all of the nation.
How could these resources be used for establishing
environmental awareness and protection?
4. Research to locate the progress and impacts of dam
building on the Mekong River. Discuss in class what
the Vietnamese government could do to ensure
the Mekong River Delta region is not adversely
affected. Using the Internet site of the Mekong
River Commission and the International Rivers
Network will help your research.
A changing rural environment:

the Mekong River Delta
The Mekong River Delta
CAMBODIA
Mekong
River
The Mekong River Delta is often referred to as

Vietnams rice bowl. The region (see figure 7.16) is an
extensive delta made up of alluvial silt carried down
by the floodwaters of the Mekong River from China,
Laos, Thailand and Cambodia. The delta has been
growing into the South China Sea at an average rate of
75 metres a year and, over time, allowed the extension
of farmland.
In the future, because of dam buildings by Vietnams
neighbours on their sections of the Mekong River, this
rate of expansion could slow considerably and even
reverse because of coastal erosion. The delta currently
remains subject to seasonal flooding, sometimes
disastrously. The Mekong, its many distributaries,
wetlands, lakes and ponds can be overwhelmed with
water along with farmland and even villages.
The Mekong River Delta is densely populated. The
distances between villages and towns are small, as
the distribution of settlements on figure 7.17 indicates.
Many settlements are distributed alongside waterways
and roads; most are loose-knit clusters of farmsteads,
Figure 7.16
Bien Hoa
Thu Dau Mot
Tien
Ho Chi Minh City
VIETNAM
Ha
Gi
an
Long Xuyen
My Tho
My Thuan
an
So
Vinh Long
ng
My T
ho
Luo
So
Can Tho
Song
Ha
ng
Gi
Co
ng
Ch
Mouths
of the
Mekong
c)
sa
as
(B
ien
South
China
Sea
Population centre
Road
River
N
0
40 km
Scale
Figure 7.17
Part of the Mekong River Delta
X. Hanh
Bao Hoc
Phuoc Hung
Trung Nhi
Phu Loi
Trung Nhut
Hoa Thanh
Dong Hiep
Thanh Loc
Vinh Phu
25
Dong Nhut
Bin Thanh
N
Ben Do Ao
25
Phu Loi
Thu Dau Mot
Vinh Cu
Sai
2 km
gon
Scale
ap Dong
Rive
Cau Sang
Lan Tay
Binh Hoa
Tan Thoi
Lai Thieu
ap Nhi
Lan Trung
Hoc Mon
Highway
Secondary road
Major unsealed road
Secondary unsealed road
Track
25
Railway
Bridge
Canal
Contour, elevation
in metres
25
Tan Chanh
Urban
Houses
River, lake
Swamp
X. Moi
Thu Duc
135
136
Figure 7.18
A village alongside the
Mekong River
Key Knowledge and

Skills
variations
which in turn feed on the droppings from pigs and

ducks, which in turn feed on rice husks and rice waste.
Nutrient-enriched water from the fish ponds is diverted
into paddy fields, contributing to high yields of rice.
Thus these farming activities have a strong spatial
interaction with one another.
Near the large town of Can Tho is the floating
market of Phong Dien. Hundreds of little boats start
congregating at about 5.30 each morning to sell
their wares, mostly fruit and vegetables. Each boat
specialises in different varieties. The floating market
consists of big wholesalers boats, whose signboard is
the sold product (bananas, for example) attached to the
top of a perch.
Activities
1. Which natural features spatially interact to help
make the Mekong River Delta a major farming
region?
2. Show the spatial interaction of farming activities
on Mekong River Delta islands as a series of
sketches or diagrams.
Figure 7.19
Vegetables sold at most
markets are locally grown
for profit by farming families.
with some farmsteads scattered among the rice fields.

Settlements like My Tho and Vinh Long (see figure 7.16)
are market centres, where people farming land on delta
islands and land abutting the local waterways bring
their produce to market. A wide range of vegetables
are grown, many ending up in markets, like the one in
figure 7.19.
Many deltaic islands have very fertile soil and can
support many small settlements cultivating vegetable
gardens and orchards. Fruit trees and vegetables
grow on raised banks between ponds containing fish,
3. Look at figure 7.17, including its key.

a. How does the number of houses in this area
suggest a high rural population density?
b. Find the village of Bin Thanh. Why might its
inhabitants be at risk after heavy rain? How far
away is the nearest village? What might the
land around the village be used for?
c. A farming family living in the village of Vinh
Phu has some pigs to sell at the Thu Dau Mot
market. Describe the route needed to get to
the market.
d. The Saigon River is a distributary of the
Mekong River. What is a distributary? Suggest
how it is an obstacle to eastwest movement

across the map area.
e. Use figure 7.16 on page 135 to describe the
location of the area shown on figure 7.17 in
relation to Ho Chi Minh City. What links might
there be between the large city and the rural
environment in figure 7.17?
4. Figure 7.17 is based on late 1970s data. Go to
Google Earth or a similar site and locate the same
area. Produce an overlay map to document the
changes that have taken place since the 1970s.
Annotate your overlay with suggested reasons for
the changes. Title your work: Spatial changes over
time in the Mekong River Delta.
A changing urban
environment: Hanoi
Vietnams cities and towns are growing rapidly as the
country transforms from a largely rural economy to a
more urban one (see also pages 1313).
Hanoi is the nations capital city and its second
largest after Ho Chi Minh City. Hanoi first became a
capital city in 1010 when the emperor moved his seat
of power to the south-west bank of the Red River
(located on figure 7.20). In subsequent decades Hanois
old quarter developed with narrow streets and shop
houses, like the ones in figures 7.21(a) and 7.21(b).
Today this quarter remains largely intact with very
busy small-scale commercial enterprises: food seller,
mechanical repairs, clothing, furniture, jewellery. The
streets are for talking, eating, selling, sitting and of
course moving from place to place. Since the 1990s
(a)
Urban core
Suburbs and rural areas
Major road
Figure 7.20
Hanois location
CHINA
HANOI
LAOS
VIETNAM
Railway
THAILAND
CAMBODIA
Ho Chi Minh City
(b)
Re
Riv
er
Figure 7.21(a), (b)

The old quarter of Hanoi
N
0
8 km
Scale
137
138
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Geographic characteristics of
selected environments
variations
Figure 7.22
Hanois crowded roads
Figure 7.23
Hanois Opera House, a
legacy of the French colonial
period
Figure 7.24
Ho Chi Minhs Mausoleum
is on the site of his
declaration of Vietnamese
independence.
many shop houses have been converted into hotels,

travel agencies and restaurants aimed at the citys
thriving tourist trade as well as a growing Vietnamese
middle class.
This regions high population density, together with
its commercial activity generates a great volume of road
traffic, mostly on scooters and motorcycles. Scenes
like figure 7.22 are familiar. Rising affluence is seeing
these vehicles give way to cars and inevitably adding to
existing problems of congestion and parking.
During the French colonial period from 1887 until
1954, Hanoi grew slowly to around 400 000 people but
took on new forms. Broad avenues, spacious villas and
planned suburbs, public buildings together with road
and rail infrastructure were added onto the older higher
density quarter. Hanoi retains much architecture and
style from this colonial period. The Opera House in figure
7.23 is an example of this influence.
As capital of an independent Vietnam from 1954,
Hanoi grew slowly due to restrictions on rural-to-urban
movements. Government departments were expanded
and significant national monuments such as Ho Chi
Minhs Mausoleum (figure 7.24) were added to the urban
mix. With the introduction of Doi Moi (i.e. economic
renovation) from 1986, movement into Hanoi and other
Vietnamese cities was easier. By 2007 Hanois urban
population had reached 3.2 million. The redrawing of
Hanois administrative boundaries has increased its
aerial extent and by 2008 the city was adding another
3.7 million people mostly rural dwellers to its
total.
Vietnams government authorities and planners see
Hanoi becoming the nations and, ideally, the South-East
Asian regions political, financial and cultural centre.
The citys expanded administrative area allows for the
planned development of new industrial, technological
and housing estates, like the one in figure 7.25, in areas
still largely rural. These new areas will hopefully avoid
the traffic congestion and the lack of open and private
space that afflicts Hanois inner, older areas. Significant
transport hubs including a huge new airport and several
road junctions have been or are being developed in the
citys ruralurban fringe. Approximately 30 kilometres
west of the urban core, Lang Hoa-Lac Hi-tech City,
with major universities and hi-tech manufacturing is
emerging as part of Vietnams knowledge-based urban
economy. A large-scale national sports complex built on
former farmland is already functioning.
Figure 7.25
A worker passes a billboard promoting Hanois new development
Activities
1. From figures 7.21(a) and (b) and 7.22, describe the appearance of the streets
in Hanois old quarter. Be sure to include references to street width, use of
footpaths and density of traffic.
2. Do you think cars should be banned from the old quarter of Hanoi? Why do you
think this argument has arisen? Who could benefit and who could lose if such a
proposal became law?
3. Suggest why people from rural areas near to Hanoi would want to move into the
city?
4. a. What advantages would enlarging Hanois administrative boundaries bring to
the urban environment?
b. How are the new land uses in Hanois ruralurban fringe likely to differ from
those in its old quarter?
c. How different are the land uses of Hanois ruralurban fringe to those of
Melbourne? Pages 1613 will help here.
5. Use figure 7.20 and an atlas map of South-East Asia to suggest which other cities
outside of Vietnam could be in competition with Hanoi to gain significant regional
influence.
6. Undertake research on one other Vietnamese urban area such as Ho Chi Minh
City, Da Nang, Hue, Hoi An or Haiphong. Discover:
location
population size
changes to urban land uses since 1975
problems faced by the inhabitants
one similarity and one difference with Hanoi.
139
140
Tourism: a growth
industry
Many less developed countries including Vietnam see
considerable advantages in developing their tourist
attractions. These advantages include:
Foreign investment in infrastructure such as
airports, roads and hotels
Training and employment of locals for tourist services
A commercial market for goods and services
ranging from souvenirs and food to transport and
banking
Reducing poverty in undeveloped regions
Providing an added incentive to preserve cultural
icons and areas of natural beauty
Developing friendly relations with people from
other parts of the globe.
Key Knowledge and

Skills
human activities
variations
Figure 7.26
Vietnams major tourist
locations
CHINA
Sapa
Dien Bien Phu
Hanoi
Ha Long Bay
Ninh Binh
Gulf
of
Tonkin
LAOS
Year
Number of international tourists

(millions)
1991
0.3
1992
0.44
1993
0.67
1994
1.0
1995
1.4
1996
1.6
1997
1.72
1998
1.52
1999
1.78
2000
2.1
2001
2.2
2002
2.4
2003
2.6
2004
2.9
2005
3.4
2006
3.8
2007
4.1
2008
4.2
2009
3.8
2010
5.05
Figure 7.27
Da Nang
Hoi An
Tourist feature
Historic
Natural environment
Coastal resort
Shopping, entertainment
CAMBODIA
Nha Trang
Gulf
of
Thailand
Cu Chi Tunnels
Phan Thiet
Ho Chi Minh City

Phu Quoc
Vung Tau
Mekong Delta
N
0
200 km
Scale
Con Dao
Created new Sept 2011
Hue
Fig_07_26_bk1_2011
THAILAND
South
China
Sea
Changing tourist numbers
Figure 7.29
International tourists often
come to enjoy Vietnams
tropical weather, its beaches
and low prices.
Figure 7.30
Sapa in the northwest is
home to some of Vietnams
ethnic minorities.
Figure 7.28
Foreign tourists are often
easily identified.
Since Doi Moi (see page 127) began in 1986,

Vietnam has been making considerable efforts to
develop international and domestic tourism. Figure
7.26 shows the location and the range of Vietnams
key tourist sites. Vietnam has a rich variety of natural
landscapes such as spectacular coastal and land-based
limestone scenery in the north (see figure 7.1), historic
sites ranging from old cities such as Hoi An (figure 7.28)
to more recent legacies of the 195475 war such as
the Cu Chi Tunnels near Ho Chi Minh City (figure 7.26).
In addition the country has a range of coastal sun sites
(figure 7.29), ethnic hill tribes (figure 7.30) and vibrant
cities with shopping opportunities.
141
142
Activities
1. Use figure 7.26,
together with
information from the
Internet and people
you know who may
have recently visited
Vietnam, to plan a
holiday there. You
have ten days. Present
your findings with
a map and some
captioned images of
what you hope to see
and do.
2. Vietnam needs
to compete more
aggressively for the
tourist dollar in the
South-East Asian
region. Discuss with a
friend if this should be
done and why.
3. Suggest who gains
from the increasing
numbers of tourists
to Vietnam. For each
group of people you
can identify, say how
they benefit.
7
Vietnams tourist industry has grown rapidly, as
figure 7.27 indicates. The largest sources for
international tourists are China (27 per cent in 2010),
Japan and South Korea (26 per cent) and South-East
Asian countries (11 per cent), with smaller proportions
coming from Australia and New Zealand, Europe and
North America. The impressive growth in foreign
tourists is tempered by the much larger total numbers
visiting nearby countries in the same period: Thailand
15.7 million, Malaysia 24 million and Indonesia 7 million.
Vietnam not only wants to raise the numbers of
visitors but also to gain a greater share of returnees,
i.e. tourists who come back again. In addition,
authorities are aiming to attract tourists who are
prepared to pay more for their holidays at multi-purpose
resorts which may offer golf, water sports and shopping
in their 5-star facilities. There is also a push to attract
people wanting to be part of sustainable, eco-friendly
tourism. Trekking in the hills, bike riding and home stays
are increasingly part of the experiences being offered.
Tourism is impacting on Vietnam in several ways.
Around 1.4 million people are employed in the industry
including tour operators, hotel and accommodation
staff, food preparers, and transport personnel. Tourism
has brought in foreign investment and expertise the
major hotel chains of the world are increasingly
represented throughout Vietnam. The World Tourist
Organization is assisting Vietnam in training people,
identifying potential sources of tourists and helping to
prioritise sites for development. The development of
tourism in the countrys ethnic minority areas, mainly in
the highlands, has provided alternative sources of
income for locals while allowing for the preservation of
their cultural identity and environment.
Some negative aspects can be identified from
Vietnams tourist industry. In a poor country tourists
may be regarded as walking ATMs who should be
persuaded to part with some of their money through
inflated prices. Tourism can thus generate envy
between the haves and have nots. Some sites may
see tourism destroying or corrupting their natural
beauty or historic value. A bus park for 50 buses
alongside an ancient temple or the disposal of waste
into the waters near a popular beach or the
construction of a golf course on former farmland are
examples where careful planning and control of
development is needed. Otherwise, the character of the
country and its people that tourists come to experience
may be destroyed.
Changing for the

future
Governments, organisations, communities and
individuals have all been significant in effecting
and managing change in Vietnams rural and urban
environments.
Figure 7.31
Luu Thi sells piglets at a local market to supplement the
family income.
Individuals
Luu Thi Xuan (figure 7.31) lives 50 kilometres from
Hanoi in a small village. She grows to feed and support
her family, earning between $200 and $300 in a year.
Through the local village credit union, Luu Thi took a
loan of approximately $30 to buy three pregnant pigs,
the offspring of which she raised and sold at a local
market for profit. The loan was paid back within a year
and Luu Thi has been able to continue raising more
pigs for sale.
Luu Thi has made a change in her life through the
cooperative banking system, which is establishing a
network of credit unions throughout the country under
a project called the Rural Finance Project. In turn the
project is being funded by the State Bank of Vietnam
and the Canadian International Development Agency.
The loans are used to buy animals, fertiliser or seed.
This has been a successful project as the people have
been able to develop small-scale local activities and

move out of a state of poverty.
Communities
Developing services and rural markets and assisting
the poor to improve productivity and their living
conditions are major concerns for the government.
Communities of farmers in local areas are being
encouraged to share experiences in farming and
income generation, as well as their difficulties.
Communities are provided with market information at
group meetings to help members ascertain the level
of demand and the likely price of goods to be found
in markets. These meetings are proving invaluable
for illiterate farmers who have little access to market
information or the written instructions on fertilisers
and pesticides.
Governments and organisations

Both overseas governments and international agencies
provide aid for Vietnam. On average, each year through
the 2000s, Vietnam has been pledged several billion
dollars (US) for a range of developments. Between
2006 and 2010 aid totalling US$14 billion was pledged.
Most of this money, in the form of loans which need to
be repaid, as well as outright donations, comes from
Japan, the World Bank and the Asian Development
Bank. Much of the aid has been going to finance
infrastructure projects including upgrading and
extending electronic communications networks.
Australias official overseas assistance to Vietnam
for 201112 was budgeted at US$102.4 million, to
be largely spent on developing feeder roads which
allow easier access to markets for farmers, water and
sanitation projects, as well as providing scholarships
to study in Australia and supporting volunteers working
in Vietnam.
In the future, Vietnam needs to:
Make the most of its natural resources in each
region as it industrialises.
Improve the infrastructure of the country. Roads,

expressways, railways, port and airports, as well
as telecommunications need to be expanded and
upgraded to link all regions of the country.
Reduce the educational gap, particularly
in vocational training. In many parts of the
country, the educational level is still low. The
poor economic conditions of households in the
countryside, in particular, make it difficult for older
143
students to receive more than the basic primary

grades.
Resolve the problem of unemployment. Job
opportunities need to be more evenly distributed
throughout the country.
Development should not be at the expense of
environmental degradation. Living standards need to
continue to improve, especially in remote, rural areas.
Activities
1. Do you think Vietnam could become too dependant
on overseas money and expertise for its
development? Discuss this topic as a class.
2. Draw a flowline showing how poor rural households
can benefit from small loans for new enterprises.
3. Select one of the following scenarios and develop
a futures wheel to show its impact on Vietnams
environment:
The tourist boom accelerates even further

Vietnamese manufactured goods fail to sell in
world markets
Illegal logging continues unchecked.
4. What are some of the problems that a high

unemployment rate could cause for a developing
country like Vietnam?
Key Knowledge and

Skills
variations
144
Assessment task: Vietnam a changing human environment
Question 1
The following multiple choice questions are designed
for pre-learning and post-learning.
VIETNAM: What do you know now?
A.

Vietnams capital city is:

a. Hanoi
b. Hue
c. Ho Chi Minh City
d. Saigon.
B.

Vietnam shares political boundaries with:

a. China, Laos and Cambodia
b. China, Thailand and Malaysia
c. Laos, Cambodia and Malaysia
d. China, India, Burma and Thailand.
C. Vietnams colonial rulers for most of the 20th

century were from:
a. France
b. China
c. Japan
d. United States.
D.

North and South Vietnam were reunified in:

a. 1954
b. 1969
c. 1975
d. 1990.
E.

Vietnams current population is closest to:

a. 10 million
b. 50 million
c. 100 million
d. 200 million.
F. Which of the following is NOT a direct part of

Vietnams modern history?
a. Ho Chi Minh Trail
b. Agent Orange
c. French rule
d. the Killing Fields
G.

Ho Chi Minh was:

a. the first president of a reunified Vietnam
b. leader of the Vietnam Communist Party
c. a communist youth movement
d. a Chinese communist who lived in Vietnam.
H.

Vietnam is most similar in area to:

a. Tasmania
b. Victoria
c. Queensland
d. Western Australia.
I. The Mekong River:

a. flows through Vietnam for most of its course
b. has formed an extensive delta in the south of
the country
c. is responsible for annual widespread flooding
over much of the country
d. supports nearly 50 per cent of the population
through farming, fishing and trade.
J.

The form of government now operating in Vietnam is:

a. communist
b. constitutional monarchy
c. democratic republic
d. military dictatorship.
K.

Vietnam is on a similar latitude band as:

a. Northern Queensland
b. central New South Wales
c. Victoria
d. most of eastern Australia.
L.

Vietnams major agricultural exports are:

a. rice and coffee
b. wheat and sugar
c. rubber and opium
d. palm oil and fruits.
M. In terms of GNI per capita, Vietnam is:

a. below Australia and China
b. below Australia and above China
c. same as Chinas
d. below Cambodia and Laos.
N. Vietnams eastern boundary is the:
a. Pacific Ocean
b. Indian Ocean
c. Gulf of Thailand
d. South China Sea.
UNIT TWO
CHAPTER SEVEN
Question 2
Question 5
Figure 7.32 is part of a shopping street in Hanoi,

northern Vietnam.
Study the following table on foreign investment

projects in Vietnam.
a.

b.
Foreign investments by economic activity, 19882009
On a copy of the photograph, identify:

i. a Buddhist flag
ii. national Vietnamese flag
iii. an indication of ethnic Chinese presence
iv. an indication of foreign influence.
In what ways does the image represent both old
and new Vietnam?
Economic activity
Question 3
575
3 838
Fishery
163
541
Mining and quarrying
130
10 980
7475
88 579
72
2 231
Construction
521
7 964
Wholesale and retail trade, repairs
322
1 041
Hotels and restaurants
379
19 403
Transport, storage and communications
554
8 435
69
1 103
1867
45 506
Education and training
128
275
Health and social work
73
1 033
Recreation, cultural
129
2 838
Community, personal services
118
658
12 575
194 29
Electricity, gas and water supply
Discuss the above statement with specific reference to

a. population changes
b. one other aspect of Vietnam.
Finance
Question 4
Real estate
Study the following data about Vietnams rice yields

before attempting the questions below.
Vietnams rice yields, 1995 and 2009
(quintals per hectare)
1995
2009
National average
36.9
52.3
Red River Delta
42.1
58.8
North Midlands and

mountain areas
27.3
45.5
a. Rank the economic activities by the number of the

most foreign investment projects, 19882009.
North Central and Central

Coast
32.4
51.2
b. Rank the economic activities by their estimated

value.
Central Highlands
24.8
46.6
South East
26.6
43.1
c. Which economic activities appear to be most

capital intensive (i.e. fewer projects but high value).
Suggest why.
Mekong River Delta
40.2
52.9
d. Which economic activities would be linked to:
a. Which district had the highest yields in 2009?

Which had the lowest? Were these the same
districts in 1995?
b. Which three districts have shown the biggest
improvement in rice yields?
c. Why does the Vietnamese government see it as
important to raise rice yields in all districts?
d. Suggest two ways rice yields can be raised.
Estimated value
of projects
(US$m)
Agriculture and forestry
Manufacturing
Vietnam is changing. This is very obvious in many

aspects of the Vietnamese landscape, population and
culture.
Number of
projects
Total
i. expansion of tourist facilities
ii. improvements in living standards?
Justify your reasons for selection.
Figure 7.32
Changing Vietnam
145
146
MELBOURNE: AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT
Melbourne:
an urban environment
Outcome 1
To describe and explain the
different types of urban
environments.
Outcome 2
To analyse and explain
changes due to human
activities in rural and urban
environments.
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Changes in the nature and
distribution
Importance of human
activities and human
processes contributing to
spatial changes
Introduction
In the beginning
Urban environments are a major component of

Australias human environments. Our capital cities
dominate most of their respective states in population
size, politics, finance, manufacturing, education and
health services, and cultural activity. Melbourne fits
comfortably within this generalisation, as can be seen
by these characteristics:
the largest city of Victoria, with four million people
in a State with a total population of five million
seat of State Parliament and administrative
departments
major banking, insurance enterprises and a major
stock exchange
key manufacturing including motor vehicles
major universities, training colleges, research
centres and health centres
many venues for live theatre, art galleries, music
scenes and emerging talent
major events centres for sports including large
stadiums and raceways.
Melbourne is a young city by world standards (for example,

London is over 2000 years old and Hanoi over 1000 years
old) but its growth has been and continues to be rapid.
Founded by John Batman in 1835, Melbourne was
to be a trading and pastoral centre. In 1837 Robert
Hoddle, a surveyor, planned what is now the central
business district (or CBD) with its distinct grid of streets
running northsouth and eastwest.
With the separation of the Victorian colony from
New South Wales in 1850 and the discoveries of gold
in central Victoria from 1851, Melbourne underwent
its first major boom. Thousands of immigrants, mostly
from the British Isles and other Australian colonies
and seeking their fortunes, arrived at the Melbourne
and Geelong ports, along with huge quantities of
supplies. Melbourne became a boom town with
personal fortunes being invested in land and buildings.
Businesses were set up to take advantage of available
wealth and the needs of construction, consumer goods
and personal services.
| U N I T T W O | H U M A N E N V I R O N M E N T S | C H A P T E R ei g ht |
By the 1880s Melbourne had grown to become

Australias major financial centre. There was
considerable optimism and flamboyance evident in
the city, as demonstrated by its new buildings (see
figure 8.2) and a belief that Melbourne would be a
counterbalance to the great cities of the northern
hemisphere. At the same time Melbournes population
growth swamped its limited infrastructure. Shanty
towns appeared in todays Richmond, Collingwood and
St Kilda, and other parts of the now inner urban area.
Throughout the 20th century Melbourne grew
outwards and upwards, especially in the post World
War II period. Growth has been spatially uneven,
being mostly to the south-east and east of the original
settlement. The city has also battled with infrastructure
demands of water, sewage, electricity supplies and
transport systems.
Physical factors
influencing growth
The success of Melbourne as a major settlement in
south-east Australia is due in part to the characteristics
of the regions natural environment. These
characteristics are listed below.
Access to the Yarra River. It initially provided a

source of freshwater although this resource was
soon overwhelmed by rapid population growth in
the 1850s.
Ability to establish a port for trade, especially wool
but later for people, gold and wheat. Melbournes
port facilitated a strong spatial interaction between
the rest of Australia and other parts of the world.
Close proximity to the grazing land that stretched
from the coast to inland Victoria
Gentle topography that allowed a relatively easy
development of a central business core adjoining
the port as well as associated residential districts.
The sandy beaches of the eastern side of Port
Sunbury
Bacchus
Marsh
Deer Park
Sunshine
Footscray
Hoppers
Crossing
dates from 1880 when it was built to showcase the colonys
Lara
St Leonards
prosperous but not without

problems
Carrum
Downs
Mount Eliza
Somerville
Mornington
Urban area
National park
Freeway
Main road
CBD
Hastings
Rosebud
Rye
Pakenham
Tooradin
Warneet
Queenscliff
Portsea
Sorrento
Cardinia
Reservoir
Berwick
Cranbourne
Phillip
Frankston
Bellarine
Peninsula
Ocean
Grove
century: important, growing,
10 km
Scale
Drysdale
Melbourne in the 21st
Dandenong
Port
Geelong
Coldstream
Lilydale
South
Burwood
Melbourne
Caulfield
Glen
Williamstown
Belgrave
Waverley
Brighton
Oakleigh
Moorabbin
Rowville
Sandringham
Springvale
Clayton
Mordialloc
Yarra Glen
Croydon
Ringwood
Bayswater
MELBOURNE
Mentone
Avalon
Airport
Portarlington
Leopold
Doncaster
Carlton
Laverton
Point
Cook
Werribee
achievements.
Yan Yean
Reservoir
Mernda
Hurstbridge
Sugarloaf
Epping
Reservoir
Broadmeadows Greensborough
ver
i
Eltham R
Keilor
Coburg
Yarra
Preston
Essendon
Melton
The Exhibition Building, now listed as a World Heritage site,
Melbournes spatial extent
Melbourne
Airport
Figure 8.2
Figure 8.1
Craigieburn
Figure 8.3
Mornington
Peninsula
Crib
Point
Cowes
Flinders
Phillip
Island
Western
Port
French
Island
Corinella
San Remo
147
148
8
Phillip encouraged Melbournes sprawl to St Kilda,
Brighton and beyond to Frankston by the end of the
19th century.
A climate that appeared lacking in harsh variations,

with cool wet winters and warm to hot dry
summers.
Today
Melbournes four million people are distributed over
9000 square kilometres including its original location
south-west towards Geelong, west to Bacchus
Marsh, north past Craigieburn, east into the Yarra
Valley and towards Gippsland, and south-east into the
Mornington Peninsula. This huge area has absorbed
smaller separate settlements such as Frankston and
Dandenong and will probably soon encompass Sunbury
and Hastings amongst others. Figure 8.3 shows the
2012 extent of Melbourne.
It is possible to identify four major zones within this
large urban area:
The CBD (figure 8.1 and pages 14952) consisting

mainly of offices, retail outlets, entertainment
venues and some high-density housing
An inner mixed zone generally surrounding the CBD
and with a mixed land use and population character
(see also pages 153-6). It is a zone undergoing
major spatial changes over time.
A suburban zone that accounts for the majority
of Melbournes urban area and is characterised
by low-density housing, a dependency on cars
for personal and business movements, strips of
shopping outlets, together with large scale and
moderately scaled purpose-built shopping centres
(see also pages 15760)
A ruralurban fringe at considerable distance from
older urban areas and representing a zone of great
population growth. This zone experiences rapid
spatial change over time as newer urban land uses
replace older rural ones (see also pages 16164).
Activities
1. Draw an outline of the Melbourne regions coastline
from figure 8.3. Use this to annotate the natural
features that made Melbournes growth possible.
Add an appropriate title to your map.
2. Research to find an image of central Melbourne
streets before the 1920s (the La Trobe Library on
the Internet is a useful starting point). Identify three
urban characteristics from the image. Suggest how
similar or different this area would be today.
3. Speculate on Melbournes growth, area and
importance if:
no gold had been discovered in Victoria
the Yarra River was deeper and wider
rainfall was more abundant and reliable
wide sandy beaches were found on both sides

of Port Phillip.
149
At the centre: the CBD

People often remember cities by their central areas: the
historic and important buildings, tall office blocks, busy
streets, things to see and to buy there, or simply as a
way to get from one location to another.
The traditional boundaries of Melbournes CBD
are shown in figure 8.4. Since the 1960s office, retail

and entertainment functions have expanded south of
the Yarra River (see figure 8.1) and, since the 1990s,
westwards into the Docklands area.
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Figure 8.4
Rive
Flagstaff
Gardens
Melbourne
Central
Parliament
Flagstaff
CENTRAL
BUSINESS
DISTRICT
Southern
Cross
Flinders
Street
Crown
Entertainment
Complex
South
Wharf
Melbourne
Exhibition
Centre
N
0
Carlton
Gardens
Victoria
Harbour
Queen
Victoria
Market
EAST MELBOURNE
Treasury Fitzroy
Gardens Gardens
Federation
Square
Melbourne
Cricket
Ground
The Arts
Centre
Melbourne
Park
SOUTHBANK
Kings
Domain
500 m
Scale
PORT MELBOURNE

distribution
Importance of human
spatial changes
Melbournes CBD
created new September 2011
Yarr
a
New Quay
DOCKLANDS
Etihad
Victoria
Stadium
Harbour
NORTH MELBOURNE
FITZROY
Fig_08_04_bk1_2011
Freeway
Freeway tunnel
Road
Railway
Park
Figure 8.5
SOUTH MELBOURNE
Public transport routes focus

on the CBD.
Figure 8.6
Flinders Street Station, a landmark CBD building and
transport node
Sunbury
Bacchus
Marsh
Craigieburn
Hurstbridge
Epping
Melbourne
Airport
Melton
Greensborough Rive
Keilor
Yarra
Coburg
Sunshine
Lilydale
Doncaster
MELBOURNE
Hoppers
Crossing
Ringwood
Burwood
Glen
Waverley
Williamstown
Werribee
Belgrave
Sandringham
Dandenong
Lara
Mordialloc
Avalon
Airport
0
10 km
Bellarine
Peninsula
Pakenham
Frankston
Tooradin
Mornington
Queenscliff
Sorrento
Urban area
Railway
Main road
CBD
Cranbourne
Phillip
Scale
Geelong
Berwick
Port
Hastings
Rosebud
Mornington
Peninsula
Crib
Point
Phillip
Island
Western
Port
French
Island
150
Figure 8.7
Retailings shrinking
importance
Figure 8.8
Bourke Street Mall
Figure 8.9
The CBDs new apartment
complexes
8
Year
Value of retail sales (percentage of total)
195657
27
1970
15
1985
2005
Characteristics
Melbournes CBD has four major characteristics:
A central location. While Melbournes CBD is no
longer at the geographic centre of the urban area,
the focus of major roads and public transport routes
is the routes to and from the CBD, as figure 8.5
shows. This makes the CBD accessible to most
Melburnians, often via transport nodes such as
Flinders Street Station (figure 8.6) and Southern
Cross Station.
High land values. The central and accessible

location together with traditional major business
functions makes CBD land and space the most
expensive of all urban land to buy or rent. One
way to maximise the high cost of land is to build
upwards and often grandly, thus gaining more
rent and prestige while accommodating more
businesses and people. Problems can arise,
however, as the next section discusses.
A dominance of business activities. Most land in
the CBD is for businesses such as offices of banks,
finance companies, government departments,
legal firms and company headquarters. Prominent
organisations such as the Stock Exchange and BHP
Billiton have their presence in the CBD and attract
other users such as banks and legal firms.
Busy days and nights. The concentration of
business, retail and entertainment functions in a
small area results in busy streets with a constant
movement of people. Over 300 000 people
travel in and out of the CBD every day for work,
often creating traffic congestion at peak periods
before and after work hours. At night, theatres,
restaurants and clubs attract more users. At
weekends nearby sporting venues and special
events attract users for several hours at a time.
Generally, day times during the working week are
the CBDs busiest periods, with large areas very
quiet after dark.
Changes, problems and

solutions
Melbournes CBD is now at the centre of a very large
area, with an influence extending beyond its urban
area to the rest of Australia and different parts of the
world. As Melbourne continues to grow in area and
population, the CBD has had to change and will change
further in the future.
Retail changes
Figure 8.7 shows the dramatic fall in the CBDs role as
the dominant retail provider for the Melbourne region.
While total retail sales for all of Melbourne have risen
enormously since the 1950s, the CBD has lost out.
Few large department stores remain, although there
are hundreds of smaller specialist shops. A major
explanation for this decline has been the development
of large-scale suburban shopping centres (see
page 160) such as Southland. For people living in the
outer suburban areas, a journey into the CBD can be
long and often expensive. Local shopping centres with
a wide range of goods, together with lots of car parking
spaces, have become more attractive than the CBD.
Converting part of Bourke Street into a mall
(figure 8.8) provides an almost traffic-free, pleasant
environment where people are more relaxed and more
inclined to spend. Open spaces such as Federation
Square with its special displays and events encourage
more visitors who, hopefully, will spend in retail and
entertainment venues.
Activities
1. a.

b.
What would attract you into the CBD

during the week?
at a weekend or holiday period?
What might discourage you from using the CBD
in both of these periods?
2. Why do developers build high within the CBD?

3. As a successful company director, you plan to
move your investment company to Frankston, about
one hours car journey from the CBD. Discuss two
advantages and two disadvantages this move could
have.
4. People travel daily into the CBD to work in offices.
Which spatial concepts (see page 312) does this
illustrate?
151
152
Traffic congestion
The movement of cars into and out of the CBD before
and after traditional work hours is a major cause of
traffic congestion, time loss and frustration for drivers
and passengers. Many inner city roads were built
before the era of widespread car ownership and use.
Widening roads and diverting traffic sounds easy but is
expensive and often brings even more cars into an area.
Limiting car parking and/or charging higher parking fees
for visitors and workers can discourage car use, but also
deter shoppers.
The CBD has a dense network of public transport
routes, and movement within the CBD is relatively
easy. However, getting into the CBD via public transport
is another matter. Finding solutions is complex.
Melbournes rail system has limited capacity to cope
with increasing numbers of travellers during peak
hours and, with much of the infrastructure dated, the
solutions are likely to be long term and expensive.
Staggering work hours, promoting work from home and
in local centres could ease the burden considerably.
Reducing the number of users of the public transport
system reduces revenues, as well as the incentive and
means to upgrade the system. Making car use into the
CBD more expensive than public transport swaps the
burden from one system of travel to another.
Residential boom
For most of the 20th century few people lived in
Melbournes CBD. Now, because of changing lifestyles
and a CBD with increased activities beyond the
workplace, the CBD is again fashionable. Apartment
complexes like those in figure 8.9 occupy older office
and manufacturing sites. By 2010 the CBD was home
to around 10 000 people. In Southbank and Docklands
adjoining the CBD (see figure 8.4), another 15 000
people live. As a growing residential area, this offers
a new market for CBD retailers and, most probably, a
reduction in residents using cars every day.
Aesthetics
Building in the CBD has often been unplanned or
subject to changes in planning regulations. Older, lower
buildings can become overshadowed by taller, glassfaced ones. As a result, much of the CBD can appear as
a jumble of architectural styles and functions.
Activity
There should be more free public transport days into
the CBD and cars should be taxed as they enter the
CBD. That would make it a more pleasant place to
work, shop and live.
a. How far do you agree with this point of view?
b. What problems might it cause as well as solve?
c. What else could make the CBD a more pleasant
place?
153
Near the city centre: the IMZ

The inner suburbs, such as St Kilda, South Melbourne, Richmond, Brunswick and
Footscray, have a mixed land use and very mixed population. This helps to give these
inner urban areas a markedly different character to the rest of the urban area.
Characteristics
Mixed land use. The mixed land use of this zone originates from Melbournes
development in the 19th and early 20th centuries. People needed to live close
to their workplace, which was either in the CBD or in nearby factories an
excellent example of both spatial association and spatial interaction. Housing
areas for different income groups developed. Higher income areas such as East
Melbourne, St Kilda Road, Toorak and South Yarra mostly developed on large,
spacious blocks of land, like the one in figure 8.10. These were in contrast to the
smaller housing of skilled and unskilled working families many of which still
remain. The houses featured in figure 8.11 are in Abbotsford.
Key Knowledge and

Skills
distribution
Importance of human
spatial changes
Figure 8.10
Housing, originating in the
late 19th century, of wealthy
inner urban residents
Empty nesters, retirees

Since the 1990s, singles
and couples downsizing
Young singles, couples

Usually without children,
finding the IMZ friendly,
able to afford to renovate
19thCentury housing or live
in new townhouses
Young couples
Starting families, wanting
more space and the
affordability of the outer
suburbs
Overseas born
Buying their own homes in established and
newer suburbs such as Doncaster, Oakleigh
Overseas arrivals
Since the 1950s particularly
from Italy, Greece, Malta,
former Yugoslavia, Vietnam,
Cambodia and in the 2000s
from South Asia and Northeast
Africa because
close to work places
availability of rental
accommodation
dense public transport
network
support from own cultural
network
Low income singles
Often as students and for
a short period
Figure 8.12
Population movements and
the inner mixed zone
Figure 8.11
Housing originating in
the late 19th century for
working families
Figure 8.13
High-rise apartment blocks,
a product of the 1960s and
1970s, from the Housing
Commission
154
Figure 8.14
The renovation of workers houses has taken place
by a more affluent society
Figure 8.15
New townhouses under construction on land in
South Yarra formerly used for manufacturing
Figure 8.16
This factory complex in Collingwood has been
converted into apartments and some retail outlets.
High land values. Space in the inner suburbs

is much sought after, partly because of its
closeness to the CBD and because of its unique
urban character. Population groups (see below),
companies who find the CBD too expensive, and
some remaining manufacturing and warehousing
enterprises often are competing for small parcels
of land, pushing prices higher.
Mixed population. Melbournes inner suburbs
are a mix of population low income, middle
income, high income, Australian-born, overseas
born, young, old, single, couples. The origin of this
population mix can be seen in figure 8.12.

solutions
Demolish, renovate or rebuild? Much of the

inner suburbs housing had been built hastily and,
even before the middle of the 20th century, was in
poor condition. In the 1950s, the State Government
planned for a mixture of high-rise blocks and
walk-ups (i.e. no lifts) to replace virtually all of
Melbournes inner-city housing. This costly and
ambitious rebuilding program was stopped in the
early 1970s but over 65 hectares underwent a
dramatic spatial change over time. The majority of
structures from this period remain, as in
figure 8.13.
Individual house owners have sought to rebuild,
renovate and/or extend on the 19th and early 20th
century housing of the inner mixed zone (IMZ).
Groups of houses in streets like those in figure 8.14
retain much of their original appearance but have
been extensively altered inside, with larger living
areas, internal bathrooms and toilets, and even an
additional storey.
Since the 1990s there has been large-scale
rebuilding in the IMZ. Sites once occupied by
factories and warehouses have become prime sites
for new apartments and townhouses, like those in
figure 8.15 and 8.16. Developers aim to cater for
the demand from small households, often singleperson households, who want the benefits of innercity living. Higher density development on these
sites ensures the higher land values are capitalised
on. On Southbank and Docklands even larger scale
changes have occurred (see pages 156-8).
Population changes: Figure 8.12 illustrates the

major population movements linked to the IMZ. On
balance, since the 1950s the inner suburbs have
lost more than half their total population as well
as changed their characteristics. For example, the
inner suburb of Richmond had a population of
35 213 in 1954. By 2010 this had fallen to 22 900.
The largely Greek component of Richmonds
overseas-born population in the 1960s and 1970s
was replaced by Vietnamese, Cambodians,
Timorese and a number of other ethnicities.
This sharp drop in population is due only in part
to the movements outlined in figure 8.12. Falls in
household size have played a key role, with many
people choosing to live without having children early in
their life or at all. In addition, this reduced population
has seen a fall in services such as schools but an
increase in services catering for people with higher
incomes restaurants, cafes, clubs and fashion
outlets for example.
Activities
1. How similar or different are the images of the IMZ
compared to the area you live in?
2. a. Why did overseas arrivals to Melbourne find the
IMZ a suitable place to start life in Australia?
b. Why does the IMZ support fewer people now
than 100 years ago?
c. Since the 1990s, population declines in the
IMZ have levelled out and in some cases have
started to rise. Suggest how figure 8.15 and
other similar examples could help explain this.
3. a. The inner mixed zone is no longer a major
factory zone. Suggest why.
b. What is happening to many of the IMZs factory
buildings and sites today?
4. The State Governments clearance and rebuilding
policy for the IMZ during the 1950s seemed the
best option at the time. Discuss why a similar policy
does not exist today.
5. Suggest why car parking is a problem for many of
todays IMZ households. What do you think could be
done about it?
6. Use Domain.com to find the range in values of twobedroom apartments in at least three different IMZ
locations. What helps to differentiate these values?
155
156
Docklands: large-scale change in the IMZ
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Role of governments,
organisations affecting and
managing change
Figure 8.17
Docklands has already
undergone extensive
spatial changes.
Melbournes docklands are an example of spatial

change over time. The 190-hectare site (146 hectares
of land and 44 hectares of water) is located west of
the CBD, as figure 8.4 on page 149 shows. This region
has undergone substantial change: from a wetlands
and hunting ground of the Wurundjeri to a thriving,
then declining, port by the 1970s. The larger container
ships were able to dock at newer locations further
downstream.
In 1990 the State Government set up a taskforce to
determine the best options for the future of this space.
An Olympic Games site and a Grand Prix circuit were
two of the suggestions. There was even a plan for
the worlds tallest building on Batmans Hill. A mix of
residential, business, retail and recreational land and
water uses was decided on.
By 2012 Docklands had been transformed. A
major sports stadium for sporting and other events,
apartments, waterfront promenades with stylish bars,
cafes and restaurants were operating. Significant office
areas included the headquarters of the ANZ Bank and
the Bureau of Meteorology, while retail outlets such
as Harbour Town Shopping Centre are yet to reach a

thriving stage.
Spatial interaction between Docklands and other
areas of Melbourne, particularly the CBD, has been
facilitated by road, train and tram links. Collins, Bourke
and Latrobe streets, for example, have been extended
from the CBD into Docklands, allowing residents,
visitors and workers to move easily in and out of the
region.
Development of Docklands still has some way to
go before it can be regarded as finished. In 2010,
after $6 billion of investment, 38 per cent of the area
was developed. The region does lack the vibrancy
and buzz evident in the CBD and IMZ precinct such as
Chapel Street (Prahran-South Yarra), Brunswick Street
(Brunswick), Lygon Street (Carlton) and Ackland Street
(St Kilda). A larger residential population (forecast
to reach around 16 000 by 2025), together with more
retail and entertainment facilities, will promote
this atmosphere. Figure 8.18 summarises some the
projected population changes for Docklands.
Visitors and some residents complain of the division

of Docklands. People living on one side of Docklands
find themselves worlds apart from those on the other
side. Car parking for visitors may seem to be in short
supply while some of the open walking areas can prove
uncomfortable in poor weather conditions. Docklands
is still developing and maturing, creating a different
lifestyle and appearance to the rest of Melbourne.
Residential population
Working population
Visitors
Year
Population
2002
300
2010
6 000
2025
15 790
2002
1 000
2010
19 000
2025
40 000
2002
2 900 000
2010
10 000 000
2025
20 000 000
In the suburbs
Suburbs are the largest land users of Melbournes entire
urban area. Despite pronounced differences between
suburbs, there are major common characteristics.
Figure 8.18
Docklands: key facts
Activities
1. Describe the location of Docklands in relation
to the CBD and the IMZ. What advantages is its
location for likely success?
2. Why did the Docklands region need to change its
functions from that of a port?
3. Over two-thirds of Docklands population are
couples without children. What could this suggest
to planners and developers about:
a. the regions population structure
b. services to be provided?
4. Visit the Melbourne Docklands website and view
their ideas for the second decade of development.
Even better, visit Docklands and evaluate its
current and future potential as a vibrant urban
region.
Figure 8.20
Green, spacious and low rise
Figure 8.19
Part of Melbournes suburbs
157
Figure 8.21
Sunbury
time
Deer Park
Greensborough
Key Knowledge and

Skills
distribution
Importance of human
spatial changes
managing change
Melbournes expansion over
Tullamarine
Melton
Ringwood
MELBOURNE
Werribee
Dandenong
Lara
Fig_08_21_bk1_2011
158
Port
Pakenham
Phillip
Geelong
Frankston
Mornington
Western
Port
Hastings
Bass Strait
1888 Population: 450,000

1928 Population: 1.1 million
N
0
15 km
Scale
Figure 8.22
Southland, a major regional
shopping centre
Activities
1. Why are population
densities lower in the
suburban areas of
Melbourne than in the
IMZ?
Characteristics
2. Apart from housing,

what other land uses
can be found in the
suburbs?
3. Look at figure 8.21 to
discover which of the
following statements
are correct. Where the
statement is incorrect,
write a correct
version:
a. Urban growth
has followed the
east coast of Port
Phillip.
b. Urban growth
to the east and
south-east seems
to follow railway
lines.
c. There are more
suburbs to the
west of the CBD
than to the east.
d. Melbournes urban
area covers more
than 75 kilometres
eastwards from
the CBD.
e. Since the 1980s
the suburbs
of Werribee,
Dandenong and
Deer Park have
grown rapidly.
f. Melbourne and
Geelong have
almost joined
together as one
urban area.
Most Melburnians live in the suburbs. Excluding

the City of Melbourne and some of the inner
suburbs, the suburbs support over 3 500 000 of
Melbournes total population of 4.1 million.

solutions
Suburbs cover a very large area, as figure 8.21

shows. This is because most suburban areas are
made up of single-storey houses with a front
and back garden area and parking spaces for
cars, like the ones in figures 8.19 and 8.20. The
repercussions of this characteristic are discussed
below.
Suburban growth and existence has become largely
dependant on cars. With increasing distance from
the CBD and IMZ, access to public transport is
less. Older suburbs such as Malvern, Box Hill and
Camberwell developed close to railway stations
and along tram routes. Newer suburbs such as
Doncaster and Caroline Springs have developed
independently of these transport networks, with
residents mostly relying on personal car ownership.
Generally, suburbs are newer further out from
the inner area. Older suburbs tend to have less
spacious homes, often with limited off-street car
parking. The latter feature can be explained by
their development prior to the 1950s when car
ownership was less common. Parts of these older
suburbs are increasingly subject to redevelopment,
not unlike the IMZ.
There are differences in land uses within the
largely residential suburbs. Retailing, education and
recreation are significant land users in the suburban
zone. Manufacturing zones exist in Moorabbin,
Sunshine, Dandenong and Broadmeadows.
Universities at Clayton (Monash) and Bundoora (La
Trobe) form nodes of education buildings, research
centres and student accommodation. Differences
in affluence have produced differences in house
and land sizes and the nature of shops: Balwyn,
Mt Eliza and Camberwell are very different to
Springvale, Preston or Ardeer.
With increasing car ownership since the 1950s,

government authorities have invested large
amounts of money in improving roads, and
extending and widening key ones; since the 1970s,
authorities have begun establishing an integrated
freeway network. This has been at the expense of
the public transport networks, with much of the
outer suburban areas now poorly served by rail and
usually not at all by trams. In turn, the development
of the road network has promoted car usage which
in turn has necessitated spending more on roads.
There is usually a physical and financial limit on the
capacity to widen existing roads. Traffic congestion
is an ongoing problem resulting in longer travelling
times to work, shopping and recreation centres.
The expansion of Melbournes road network has

encouraged the spread of its urban area. For
example, with the opening of the Eastlink Freeway
from Frankston to inner Melbourne in the early
2000s, journey time over that distance was cut by
up to 30 minutes a further incentive for people
to live further out in newer suburbs.
Building new rail lines has associated problems.

Land for routes may already be built on, costs
are very high and the time taken to develop an
extension of several kilometres can be in excess of
five years. The capacity of the existing lines to take
on more trains is limited, partly because the lines
focus on the central Melbourne area.
Melbournes urban spread is often referred to

as a sprawl. In other words it appears as mostly
unplanned and uncontrolled growth, often
absorbing outlying distinct settlements such
as Dandenong, Frankston and Melton. While
Melbourne has had some growth restrictions
placed on it (see below, page 165), the demand
for space for low-density housing has seen a fairly
constant outward movement of suburbs. Reduction
in house block size and the regeneration of the
inner suburbs can slow this outward movement but
it is unlikely to halt it. The development of higher
density housing, including low-rise apartments in
both the suburban and fringe areas, is an option
slowly gaining acceptance.
159
160
Within the suburban zone, retailing has changed

significantly. Shopping centres are important focus
points within the suburbs and range from individual
outlets (such as a petrol station plus food), to a
strip of shops along a busy street (as in figure 8.23),
to large-scale regional shopping centres. The latter
are characterised by a wide range of goods and
services on offer together with an area of parking
space often larger than the retail space. Regional
shopping centres such as Southland, Northland
and Chadstone draw customers from a very wide
area. Southland, in figure 8.22, boasts it serves
a population in excess of 500 000 people in the
south-east region of Melbourne.
Larger scale shopping centres with their wide

range of goods, entertainment and car parking
are often held responsible for taking customers
away from smaller suburban shopping centres,
especially those close to the large centres. People
living in the suburbs have become increasingly
used to one-stop shopping at these larger centres.
Some suburban retail centres have effectively
reinvigorated themselves offering cleaner, greener
and friendlier environments or a specialist range
of goods such as fashion clothing or homewares
as well as enlarged parking areas. Centres in
Brighton, Oakleigh, Box Hill and Mentone have
been successful in this change.
Figure 8.23
Strip shopping still has an
important role in suburban
life
One problem associated with living in suburban

areas is that many people have little knowledge
or understanding of other parts of the urban area.
Many people may only know a small area of
Melbourne simply because other areas seem too
far away or seemingly impossible to get to. Such

isolation may mean people concern themselves only
with local problems such as traffic noise or the need
for recreational facilities and not with the issues
affecting the urban area as a whole.
Activities
1. What factors account for the extent of Melbournes
urban area sprawl?
2. a. What problems are there in extending existing
rail lines into the outer suburbs?
b. What problems would such extensions hope to
reduce?
3. a. What is a RSC?
b. How are RSCs able to attract more people
and from a wider area than smaller shopping
centres?
4. What effect has the success of RSCs had on:
a. small shopping centres nearby?
b. retail outlets in the CBD?
5. Discuss why a proposal to build a $200 million
section of freeway through several suburbs to
relieve traffic congestion will cause different
reactions from:
a. people living near the proposed freeway
b. potential users of the freeway
c. people living considerable distances from the
freeway.
6. Who should pay the cost of solving Melbournes
problems? How will the money be raised to meet
these costs? Discuss these ideas with at least two
other people.
7. Visit Domain.com which not only advertises
residences for sale but gives a summary of the
characteristics of the area where the property is
located. Make a comparison between two suburbs
including the cost of a three-bedroom house or
two-bedroom apartment together with the proximity
to services. Prepare a poster or computer display
including a location map of the two suburbs, types
of housing, population characteristics and available
services.
161
The ruralurban fringe

Near the edge of Melbournes urban areas, rural land
uses can be found, such as farmland, forests and
scrubland. As new housing and large-scale factories
meet this rural land, a ruralurban fringe forms.
Landscapes like that in figure 8.24 are common. It is
not a single, unbroken or particularly clear line at times.
If you drive out of Melbourne you may come across
grazing land, a new housing estate, possibly more
farmland and houses, and again more new houses or
perhaps a cluster of factories.
As Melbourne has grown outwards, the location of
the ruralurban fringe has been forced further out. Way
back in the 1830s and 1840s, the ruralurban fringe
was on the edge of todays CBD, while by 1900 it was
approximately 1015 kilometres from the CBD. Looking
at figure 8.21 on page 158 you can see the ruralurban
fringe is at varying distances and directions from the
CBD.
slow in providing for educational, health and

transport services to new urban areas.
Living on the ruralurban fringe may have great

advantages. There is likely to be greater ease
of access to rural areas such as the surf coasts,
combined with a relative low cost for house and
land packages sold by developers. However, if
employment is in the CBD, workers have a long
distance to travel and, in the absence of public
transport, a car becomes essential. Ruralurban
communities like Tarneit are essentially car-based
ones.
Key Knowledge and

Skills
distribution
Importance of human
spatial changes
Characteristics, changes,
problems and solutions
The characteristics of Melbournes ruralurban fringe
are ones of change; these in turn generate problems
that can suggest solutions.
As urban land uses replace rural ones, valuable

farmland used for fruit and vegetable production
and grazing is lost. The produce from these areas
now needs to be transported from distances further
from the urban area.
The outward growth of Melbourne has been close

to major roads stretching east into Gippsland,
north towards Whittlesea, west past Melton and
south-west towards and past Geelong. A very large
conurbation made up of Melbourne and its suburbs,
together with smaller centres, is emerging. This
huge urban mass will place great demands on
infrastructure, especially transport and water, as
well as the environment (see page 162).
Residents on the ruralurban fringe often suffer
from a lack of services close to their homes. Local
governments may be unable to provide money
to develop recreation facilities, child care and
libraries, for example. As more people move into
the area and pay rates, local government income
rises and over time these services can be provided.
State governments have often proved notoriously
Not all changes in land use in the ruralurban

fringe are linked to housing. There is a strong
spatial association between areas where land
is flat, allowing for extensive factory buildings
with assembly lines, and closeness to a major
transport route. The development of manufacturing
at Campbellfield and Dandenong followed this
process. Large-scale retail outlets for furniture,
motor vehicles and hardware find sites in the
ruralurban fringe and on the major transport
routes attractive locations to lure customers.
Airports and recreational facilities are further
competitors for large areas of land on the fringe.
The rising costs of infrastructure, including roads,
public transport, water, sewerage, gas, electricity
and telecommunications together with services
such as schools and hospitals need to be provided
either at the time of development or eventually. Who
should pay for these and how is worth discussing.
Figure 8.24
Part of Melbournes
ruralurban fringe
RD
Freeway
Road
Railway
Built-up area
Shopping
Park
RD
DOHERTYS
RD
PALMERS
RD
162
TRUGANINA
TARNEIT
rri
We
SAYERS
AN
DERRIMUT
LL
Presidents
Park
WYNDHAM
VALE
HEATHS
HOPPERS
CROSSING
RD
OL
To
Melbourne
Figure 8.26
Y
A new street in Tarneit
HW
RD
WERRIBEE
C
IN
PR
DU
NC
A
PR
FW
(M
BY
ALT
S)
S
PA
BY
RD
GE
To
Geelong
Point Cook
Coastal Park
EL
ON
RD
NS
E
INC
POINT COOK
ES
Werribee
Park WERRIBEE
SOUTH
BA
RD
NG
LO
E
GE
Fig_08_25_bk1_2011
WILLIAMS
LANDING
River
created new September 2011
TARNEIT
bee
RD
2 km
Scale
Figure 8.25
Location of Tarneit
Figure 8.28
Moving in: a common sight in new suburbs
Figure 8.27
A developers sales map for part of Tarneit
Figure 8.29
Tarneits future is presented
positively.
Figure 8.30
Rating Tarneit
Neighbourly spirit
Night life
Gyms and fitness
Peace and quiet
Safe and sound
Pest and rodent free
Resale value
Factor
Medical facilities
Child care
Eating out
Shopping options
Internet access
Traffic
Clean and green
Cost of living
Public transport
Schools
Parks and recreation
0
20
40
60
80
Approval rating (percentage)
100
Rezoning the land by state and local government

authorities gives the legal go-ahead for change in
this zone. It also enables these authorities to regulate
and direct development such as leaving areas for
recreation, future retail developments, schools and
transport hubs. Planning of developments is essential
by both government authorities and private developers
to minimise the problems outlined above.
Activities
Tarneit: on the fringe
2. Why do the following land uses find a location on

the ruralurban fringe advantageous:
large factories
airports
speed car circuits?
In the early 2000s, the City of Wyndham became one

of the fastest-growing local government areas in
Australia. Tarneit is part of this growth. Its location 25
kilometres from the CBD with its house and land prices
lower than sites closer to the city centre have attracted
many first home buyers and renters.
Tarneit is undergoing a rapid spatial change over
time. Scenes like those in figures 8.25, 8.26 and 8.27
have been common. Development on what had been
farmland was permitted by the State Government,
VicUrban and the City of Wyndham. Developers bid for
parcels of land which they could develop into housing
estates and retail areas. Additional areas were set
aside for schools, health centres and office functions
all within a predetermined plan of streets, drains
and a potential rail link.
Look over the data in figures 8.25 to 8.30 to gain an
impression of one of Melbournes newest suburbs.
1. a. What do you think could be the major

advantage that draws people to live on the
ruralurban fringe of Melbourne?
b. In what ways might the disadvantages of
living on the ruralurban fringe outweigh the
advantages?
3. How might the owners of farmland on the rural

urban fringe benefit from the outward expansion of
Melbourne?
163
164
Key Knowledge and

Skills
distribution
Importance of human
spatial changes
managing change
Concept and practicality of
sustainability
Activities
Melbournes future
1. Which of the images on pages 00000 best

demonstrates there is a spatial change over time
occurring in Tarneit? Give at least one reason for
your choice.
Melbourne could be a very different place in 20 to 30

years time or possibly a city very similar to the one
we have now. Some trends are, however, very evident.
2. What evidence is there that Tarneits housing areas

are still very new?
3. Figure 8.26 is a developers plan for part of Tarneit

together with house blocks already sold.
a. How successful does the developer appear to
have been when the photograph was taken?
b. What evidence is there that population changes
have been incorporated into the plans?
4. a. Who do you think the large billboard in figure
8.29 is meant for?
b. Do you think it is an effective way of giving
information of this type?
c. Design your own billboard to positively promote
the advantages of living in Tarneit. The
information in figure 8.30 can help here.
5. Figure 8.30 is an evaluation of Tarneit made in May
2010.
a. Identify two population characteristics of
residents and would-be residents.
b. What advantages does the suburb appear to
have for new residents?
c. As a property investor, what could discourage
you from targeting Tarneit? What could change
your mind?
6. a. Suggest why government authorities did not
provide Tarneit with a rail link before housing
construction started.
b. What other infrastructure do you think is
needed before residents move in to a new
suburb?
7. Using either Google Earth or Nearmap on the
Internet locate Tarneit.
a. Describe any natural features visible.
b. Does the main road pattern appear planned or
unplanned? Say how.
c. Do the minor roads follow the same pattern?
Suggest why or why not.
d. What evidence is there that rapid spatial
change over time could be occurring here?
e. Tarneit is low-density housing. How can you
tell?
Rapid growth
By 2012 Melbournes population passed 4 million, with
a likelihood of at least another one million people in
the next 25 to 30 years. Some analysts, however, are
predicting it could increase by another two million. In
200910 Melbourne was gaining an average of 1500
new residents every week. Figure 8.31 shows where
Melbourne has been growing. Clearly the outer areas,
including the ruralurban fringe, are the major growth
areas although the inner areas, including the IMZ, are
still an important location for residents. It is not just
Melbournes numbers that will change. The structure of
this population is already altering considerably.
Changing population structure
From existing data analysts can extrapolate, making
estimates of levels of different aspects of an issue.
While circumstances can change in a period of
20 to 30 years, there are some clear trends. These
include:
New residents will continue to want to settle in

Melbourne if there are employment opportunities
and the quality of life remains high. There is most
likely to be a continuance of a multicultural society,
with more new entrants likely to be moving into
Melbourne from New Zealand, eastern and south
Asia, Europe and north-east Africa.
The population is ageing (this includes its
overseas-born populations), due to lower birth
rates and increased life expectancies.
There is an increase in one-person and two-person
households. In particular, the former catergory will
grow for both young persons and retirees. Average
household sizes have been declining since the
1970s and were still slowly declining in the late
2000s to around 2.5 persons per household.
Melbournes growth has raised serious concerns
from residents, environmentalists, planners and
developers. Planning of Melbournes development
has been irregular with frequent changes to
regulations and overall plans. It has largely been
ineffectual in preventing the massive outward
expansion, or sprawl, of the urban area.
Net growth in population per year (thousands)
Figure 8.31
Melbournes population
100
Outer-growth
growth by regions
Outer
80
Middle
42.6
Inner
Centre
60
40
20
25.7
31.9
37.6
30.8
28.7
4.9
6.1
8.0
3.0
5.1
8.5
3.3
5.6
7.8
2002
2003
2004
27.0
27.2
16.2
11.1
9.4
6.2
8.8
45.7
12.8
16.5
12.9
8.2
7.3
8.2
2005
2006
2007
8.9
17.3
18.8
6.8
7.3
6.1
2008
2009
2010
11.7
Year
Figure 8.32
Sunbury
Melbournes planned activity
Craigieburn
centres, Melbourne, 2030
Melton
Greensborough
Eltham
Keilor
Lilydale
MELBOURNE
Ringwood
Williamstown
Werribee
Glen Waverley
Belgrave
Brighton
Dandenong
Berwick
Port
Phillip
Pakenham
Cranbourne
Frankston
Geelong
N
0
10 km
Scale
Existing urban area

Urban growth boundary
Area serviced by trams
Bus and tram network (existing and proposed)
Melbourne metropolitan rail network
Freeway, Highway
Road
Central activites district
Principal activity centre
Major activity centre
Western
Port
165
166
Figure 8.33
Benalla
Melbourne and regional

Bendigo
development, Melbourne,
2030
Nagambie
Regional transport corridor

Planning area
Maryborough
Castlemaine
Daylesford
Creswick
Ballarat
Kyneton
Existing urban area

Mansfield
Major road
Seymour
Kilmore
Rail network
Broadford
Woodend
Wallan
Macedon
Marysville
Kinglake
Gisborne
Sunbury
Bacchus
Marsh
Melton
Healesville
METROPOLITAN
Warburton
MELBOURNE
0
Werribee
Lara
Geelong
Port
Phillip
N
40 km
Scale
Pakenham
Warragul
Moe
Morwell
Traralgon
Churchill
Leongatha
Figure 8.34
Reaction to redevelopment is
often stormy.
During the prolonged drought of the 1990s and

2000s, there were major concerns about how
sustainable a larger city could be without a
guaranteed water supply. Furthermore, a larger city
would continue to add to air pollution, particularly
that generated by motor vehicles. Melbournes
road system is increasingly associated with traffic
congestion, especially at peak times. Longer and
slower travel times together with more cars will
compound existing problems of congestion and
exhaust emissions. Would Melbourne continue to
be such a liveable city?
Looking for solutions

In October 2002 the Victorian Government released
Melbourne 2030: Planning for Sustainable Growth. It
included an action plan for the development of a more
compact and sustainable city, a city that forms part of a
tight regional network of urban and rural environments
throughout Victoria. Figures 8.32 and 8.33 summarise
the spatial impacts of this plan. Melbourne 2030
aimed to build on previous initiatives, while tackling
new issues. It focussed largely on developing a vision
for Melbourne to foster the liveability of established
areas, and to support urban consolidation rather than
continued urban sprawl. This ambitious plan set out a
series of key initiatives namely:
reducing new development on the ruralurban

fringe to about 40 per cent of new construction
(down from 60 per cent)
promoting development in activity centres close to
public transport and thus reducing the daily use of
private vehicles
legislating urban growth boundaries to contain
urban growth and protect rural land
protecting open spaces referred to as green
wedges left between developed areas.
A key component of the Melbourne 2030 plan was

the activity centres. They were existing retail and
services centres, mostly located near public transport
nodes such as railway stations or along tram routes.
These varied in size, with the CBD being the most
important, followed by large centres including Box Hill,
Broadmeadows, Dandenong and Ringwood. There were
an additional 93 major activity centres and another 900
local neighbourhood activity centres. Most of these
are shown on figure 8.32. Activity centres were to
attract more intensive residential, retail, service and
office developments, with local and state government
approval for new developments that met approved
guidelines being fast tracked. Activity centres would
thus reduce the pressure for new building on the
ruralurban fringe and reduce traffic movements, since
many more people would now be living, working and
playing locally. Obviously, life in and around these
activity centres would involve much spatial interaction
between the various facilities. Movement to other
centres would be facilitated by greater use of nearby
public transport.
After less than ten years, the Melbourne 2030
plan showed significant flaws in its assumptions and
practices. In particular, these included:
Existing residents in the areas of activity centres

have often strongly objected to redevelopment,
especially in relation to the approval of mediumrise multiple dwellings and the potential loss
of neighbourhood ambience. Many residents of
Camberwell have been particularly active, as figure
8.34 shows.
It was assumed that more empty nesters (i.e.
adults living in the large family home even though
their children have left) would move to smaller
houses, probably in the IMZ. But the majority of
empty nesters seem to want to age where they are
now living.
Bigger may not be better for

Melbourne
By John Masanauskas
elbourne should not become bigger at the expense of its
liveability, says a key State Government minister.
Planning Minister Matthew Guy blamed the former Labor
government for seeking unchecked population growth.
I think the days of focusing on being the biggest for the sake of
being the biggest are over, he told the Herald Sun.
Its no use being the biggest if youre going to sacrifice
liveability.
In 2005, then Premier Steve Bracks welcomed Melbournes
rampant growth, saying we could become the largest capital city in
the country, its a possibility.
Melbournes population has grown from 3.6 million in 200304
to more than four million today and is tipped to pass five million by
2026 given high migrant intakes.
Mr Guy said the Government supported population growth
provided people were housed in the right areas.
A lot of the problem with planning in the last four or five years in
particular, theres been an element of uncertainty, he said.
The Government has wound back Labors Melbourne 2030 policy
that envisaged established suburbs dotted with a series of highdensity housing developments to soak up population growth.
Mr Guy said that high-density projects should focus on transport
hubs, and growth be concentrated on the urban fringe and in surplus
suburban land such as the VicRoads site in Kew, a CSIRO facility in
Highett and former Defence Department land in Maribyrnong.
Environment Protection Authority chief executive John Merritt
said that population intensity was a threat to the quality of the
environment.
Mary Drost, from residents action group Planning Backlash, said
that huge population growth was making Melbourne more and more
unliveable.
We are all suffering in the trains, on the roads and in the schools,
she said.
We are gradually strangling our city to death.
Herald Sun, 15 February 2011
Figure 8.35
Bigger may not be better for
our capital.
167
168
8
A large proportion of people living in the outer
suburbs and the ruralurban fringe tend to work
close to where they live; therefore they are not
adding greatly to traffic congestion by travelling
long distances.
Most outer suburban housing is cheaper than in
the older established suburbs, and certainly much
cheaper than most IMZ residences. As services
improve, residents know the value of their homes
will rise. As a result this promotes the value of
moving to the outer suburbs.
Release of more land by government authorities
for housing, even though it was beyond the urban
growth boundary, has meant that land that was
once zoned as farmland has now been rezoned
for other uses. The urban growth boundary was
extended towards Melton and Point Cook in 2010.

The development of the Eastlink Freeway and other
outer urban freeways and bypasses will put more
pressure on rural land near to the urban area to be
converted to housing. Locations along the Western
Highway near Bacchus Marsh and the Calder
Freeway past Diggers Rest are emerging centres of
fast residential development, for example.
In late 2010 the political leadership of the Victorian
Government changed. The incoming Liberal-National
Government sought to review the Melbourne 2030
plan, believing it was flawed and already becoming
outdated by changing circumstances. Figure 8.35 is a
newspaper article flagging some likely changes to the
plan.
Activities
1. Explain how at least two events could help Melbourne increase or decrease its population growth rate in the
future.
2. If the average household size continues to remain at around two persons, or fall slightly, what impacts could
this have on the type of housing that will be demanded?
3. a. What is meant by the term sustainable?
b. Why was Melbournes future sustainability questioned in the 1990s and 2000s?
c. Do you think this questioning was justifiable and why?
4. a. What is the purpose of an urban growth boundary?
b. Why do you think government authorities keep altering these boundaries around Melbourne?
5. Look at figure 8.32.
a. With which features are the principal and major activity centres strongly spatially associated?
b. Suggest why this has been so planned.
c. Identify the location of at least two activity centres that are not strongly spatially associated with this
feature.
6. Describe how activity centres in an established suburb could:
a. reduce road vehicle movements
b. raise land values
c. reduce the pressure for changing farmland into urbanland on the rural urban fringe.
7. Read carefully the article in figure 8.35.
a. What does the planning minister of the time suggest will harm Melbournes liveability?
b. Identify three types of location the minister believes will absorb population growth in the future.
c. In what way does the new plan being discussed appear to be the same, slightly different or very different
to the previous Melbourne 2030 plan?
8. Debate in class: Melbournes growth should be slowed considerably and most new population growth should
take place in Victorias regional centres.
169
170
Student-assessed coursework
Assessment task:
Melbourne an urban environment
Question 1
Look carefully at the four images of various parts of
Melbourne.
a. For each of the images shown identify two main
land uses.
b. Suggest the location of each image choosing from
the following four categories: central business
district, inner mixed zone, suburbs and ruralurban
fringe. For each location give the reason for your
choice.
Figure 8.36
c. Which location is likely to have the highest

residential density and why?
d. How might the population characteristics of the
residents vary with each location?
Question 2
Explain how two different factors are operating to
bring about change in one of the following zones of
Melbourne:
Figure 8.37
central business district
inner mixed zone
suburbs
ruralurban fringe.
Question 3
Consider the following statement about Melbourne:
Higher density housing is one solution to Melbournes
problem of urban sprawl.
a. What is meant by the terms urban sprawl and
higher density housing?
b. How would the solution suggested reduce
Melbournes urban sprawl?
c. What other strategies could be used to reduce
Melbournes urban sprawl?
d. On balance, how far do you agree with the above
statement?
Figure 8.38
UNIT TWO
Question 4
Carry out research (on Domain.com, Google Earth
and the relevant local government websites) on the
characteristics of two Melbourne suburbs. Locate some
images of what you consider to be typical housing and
retail areas in these suburbs. Suggest why there are
similarities and differences in these two suburbs.
Question 5
Match up the characteristics of parts of Melbourne in
the left-hand column with a location in the right-hand
column.
Figure 8.39
Characteristics
Location
Many high-rise buildings
St Kilda
A regional shopping centre
Docklands
Between Geelong and Melbourne
Mentone
No longer Melbournes port
Southland
A rapidly growing outer suburb
Central Business District
An older inner suburb
Werribee
A southern bayside suburb
Cranbourne
Question 6
In 200910, the four fastest growing local government
areas in Australia were all located on Melbournes
ruralurban fringe: Wyndham, Melton, Whittlesea and
Cardinia.
a. What spatial change over time are the landscapes
of these areas likely to have seen and will see
more of in the future?
b. Explain why the changes are happening in these
areas.
c. What are two major consequences of these
changes?
d. Evaluate one way of slowing or controlling these
changes.
student- assessed coursework
C H A P T E R eight
171
172
Y A R R A V A L L E Y: A R U R A L E N V I R O N M E N T
Yarra Valley:
A rural environment
Outcome 1
describe and explain the
different types of rural and
urban environments.
Outcome 2
analyse and explain changes
due to human activities in
rural and urban environments.
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Definition and classification
of rural environments
of a rural environments
of selected human
environments in different
locations at two different
scales.
The Yarra Valley is about a one hours drive east from

the city of Melbourne. It is one of Australias premier
wine regions, coupled with specialist farming that can
range from olives to berries to lavender as well as wine
grapes. This has attracted tourists, which in turn has
spawned the growth in bed and breakfast and shortterm accommodation facilities. The spatial changes
over time in the Yarra Valley region and the changes in
agricultural production, as well as social patterns, are
the subject of this chapter.
Geographic
characteristics
Location
There are many small towns distributed throughout
the Yarra Valley varying in size from small hamlets
with only a few houses and perhaps a single shop, to
larger centres such as Healesville with a population
of over 7200 people. Yet the region still maintains its
rural nature. This could be defined as having lower
population density than many metropolitan suburbs,
a sense of geographic isolation from the mainstream

of Melbourne and a workforce employed mainly in
agriculture. The Yarra Valley lies just outside the
metropolitan boundary; yet within a short distance of
that boundary the urban nature of Melbourne is left
behind, with the appearance now of much larger blocks
of land, the agistment of horses in paddocks, the sale
of ride-on lawnmowers, open space and the retention
of stands of trees.
Central to any study of the Yarra Valley is the Yarra
River. The Yarra River stretches from its source in
the Eastern Highlands to its mouth in Port Phillip, a
distance of more than 245 kilometres. Its influences
stretch well beyond its banks. The soils of the region
have been influenced by the development of the
floodplain by the Yarra River. Its rich alluvial deposits
have created fertile land that together with the mild,
wet climate supports a very wide range of agricultural
products.
Figure 9.1
A balloon flight over the Yarra Valley, popular with tourists
g ht |
| | UUNNI TI TTTWWOO | | HHUUMMAANNEENNVVI RI ROONNMMEENNTTSS | | CCHHAAPPTTEERReinine
The actual region of the Yarra Valley is hard to

define. There is both a natural boundary created by
the Yarra River basin and a political boundary created
by the Shires of Yarra Ranges and Nillumbik. These
two adjoining councils both have jurisdiction in the
Yarra Valley catchment especially in the region where
agricultural production takes place.
Climate
The region has a cool climate with most rainfall coming
during winter and spring. It averages somewhere
between 750 and 950 millimetres, but this can vary as
the region can experience periods of below average
rainfall, as well as excessive amounts. There is not an
even pattern to the levels of temperature and rainfall
as there can be great variation over small distances.
Some sites are subjected to severe spring frosts and
strong winds while others can experience temperature
extremes during the grape-ripening process, as
was the case in 2009. With low summer rainfall
some farmers need to use drip irrigation to maintain
agricultural production.
the alluvial soils brought down by the Yarra River over

many centuries.
Soils
Topography
The Yarra Valley can be divided into two distinct

regions. The northern side of the valley has soils
ranging from loamy sand to clay, often with large rocks.
Soils can also be characterised as low in fertility, acidic
yet well drained. On the southern side of the valley can
be found fertile and deep volcanic soils. The fertility of
the soils in this part of the valley can also be traced to
There is a wide range of different landscapes found

in the Yarra Valley. The Yarra River has cut through its
own floodplain, and river flats or terraces now provide
suitable land for agricultural production. Elevation can
vary from 50 to 450 metres. The region also contains
some very steep hills, with the most favourable aspect
being the north-facing slopes.
Varying topography of the

Yarra Valley near Coldstream
Figure 9.2
Location map of the Yarra
Valley and the municipal
boundaries
Lake Mountain
HWY
Marysville
Yan Yean
Reservoir
Kinglake
National
Park
HWY
HUME
FWY
Whittlesea
Figure 9.3
Sugarloaf
Reservoir
Yarra Glen
H
DA
ON
O
R
A
MELBOURNE
Ringwood
Lilydale
AR
O
M
YARRA
RANGES
Coldstream
Doncaster
Yarra
Ranges
National
Park
Yarra
Ranges
National
Park
Healesville
River
rra
Ya
HWY
H
DA
LBA
Maroondah
Reservoir
ME
NILLUMBUK
Eltham
Craigieburn
WARBURTON
Upper Yarra
Reservoir
Warburton
HWY
Dandenong
Ranges
National
Park Mount Dandenong
Municipal boundary
Freeway
Major road
Road
10 km
Scale
Silvan
Reservoir
National park
Public land
N
0
River
173
174
Figure 9.4
Climate graphs of
Healesville and Melbourne
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Analyse data about changes
to human environments
produced by the interaction
between human processes
and activities.
Collect, sort, process and
represent spatial data, which
may include fieldwork data,
related to the formation of
human environments using a
range of geographic
techniques and media.
8
9
Temp. (C)
30
Rain (mm)
300
YMAERLRBAO U
VR
AN
L LEE: Y:
A NA URRUBRAANL E N V I R O N M E N T
Temp. (C)
30
Rain (mm)
300
25
250
25
250
20
200
20
200
15
150
15
150
10
100
10
100
50
50
J F M A M J
J A S O N D
J F M A M J
Healesville
J A S O N D
Melbourne
Activities
1. Refer to figures 9.1, 9.2 and 9.3.
a. Suggest why the Yarra Valley is so popular with day trippers.
b. With the regions increasing popularity which towns do you think will grow in
population?
c. What types of new functions (or facilities) do you think these towns will need
to offer?
d. What activities could be carried out north-west of Healesville, approximately
30 kilometres away?
2. Refer to fig 9.4.
a. Calculate the total rainfall for each of the centres and suggest reasons for the
differences.
b. Were the wettest months the same for each place? State the differences you
found.
c. What was the warmest and coldest temperature for each place?
d. Why is a northern aspect so important for farmers?
3. Look carefully at the topographic map of a section of the Yarra Valley (figure 9.5).
By using the key and your mapping skills answer the following questions.
a. Explain why the growth of Yarra Glen did not take place to the south-east.
b. What is located at grid reference 565306 and at grid reference 565310?
Explain their importance in relation to the topography and vegetation to the
west of the township.
c. Describe the importance of the recreational facility directly to the east of
Yarra Glen.
d. What is located at grid reference 604334? Account for its location in relation
to the contour lines.
e. Draw a cross section from A to B.
f. What does the resultant pattern indicate about the topography of the Yarra
Valley?
g ht |
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
34
34
33
33
B
32
32
31
31
30
30
A
29
29
28
28
27
27
26
26
25
25
55
56
57
Figure 9.5
Extract from a topographic
map of an area in the Yarra
Valley around Yarra Glen
2 km
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
175
176
8
9
YMAERLRBAO U
VR
AN
L LEE: Y:
Change over time in the Yarra Valley

History
Key Knowledge and

Skills
The importance of human
spatial changes in rural
environments.
Analyse data about changes
to human environments
between human processes
and activities.
Figure 9.6
Yarra Glen,
1962
The area known as the Yarra Valley was, and still

is, home to the Wurundjeri tribe. In the past they
hunted animals and gathered plant food in the open
woodlands adjacent to the river. European settlement
dislodged these people and forced them away from the
region. Change in what is currently known as the Yarra
Ranges Shire began in the 1830s, when pastoralists
took up land along the Yarra River near the presentday towns of Coldstream and Yering. Vines were first
planted in the area in 1838 and this led to the rapid
development of the viticulture industry in the 1860s
and 1870s. Twenty years later there was a decline in

grape production and an expansion of other agricultural
activities, such as orcharding and dairying as well as
sheep and beef cattle production.
Declining soil fertility coupled with a move in
Australia towards fortified wine production resulted
in the end of the regions wine production in 1921.
The Depression, together with adverse environmental
conditions, resulted in the conversion of all vineyards
to pasture by 1937. The modern renaissance of the
boutique wine industry began in the mid 1960s. During
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the 1980s many large-scale wine producers such as de

Bortoli and Moet and Chandon became established in
the area. By the end of the 20th century huge amounts
of money had been poured into the region, with large
tracts of land planted under vines. Many millions of
dollars were also invested in wineries and tourist
facilities. At the start of this century, there has been
a strong push to promote wine from this region into
the expanding Chinese and Indian markets. As these
countries modernise, their standard of living is raised,

and wine becomes part of their consumption habits.
Today the region can claim to be one of the premier
quality wine locations in Australia with over 80 wineries
in operation. The industry provides the region with
many job opportunities, in production of wine as well
as in the related industries of tourism and gourmet food
production.
Figure 9.7
Yarra Glen, 2007
177
178
Figure 9.8
Change over time in number
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Year
of wineries established in
Victoria
Key Knowledge and

Skills
Describe and analyse data
about changes in the
of human environments
of human processes.
109
1990
169
1995
256
2000
336
2005
560
2010
724
Source: The Australian and New Zealand Wine Industry

Directory, 2010.
Activities
1. By studying figures 9.6 and 9.7, you can observe
the changes that have taken place over a 45-year
period. Outline these changes by using the spatial
concepts of direction, distribution, location and
change over time in your answer.
2. Use the text to complete the following:
a. Create a timeline of the events that have taken
place in the Yarra Valley highlighting those
specific dates when there was a very important
spatial change over time in the development
in the region. Justify your choice of dates by
saying why these had the greatest impact on
the region.
b. Carry out further research on one of the aspects
along the timeline or on one of the families that
settled in the region. What influence did they
have on the Yarra Valley?
3. Identify the key factors contributing to:
Figure 9.9
Population change in Yarra
the decline of the wine industry in the 1930s

the rehabilitation of the wine industry in the
1960s
the boom in the wine industry in the 1980s.
Population change in Nillumbik Shire

80 000
150 000
60 000
Forecast population
Forecast population
200 000
100 000
50 000
40 000
20 000
2006
There has been an increase in population in the Yarra

Valley region over the last 20 years from 1991 to 2011,
with future projections indicating a continued growth.
New housing developments are taking place in such
towns as Yarra Glen, as can be seen in photos 9.11 and
9.12.
There has always been a desire for some people
to seek a change from living in the city. They have
either wanted to head towards the coast hence
the term sea change or they have been drawn to
the country, to live what they believe will be an ideal
rural existence. This has been called a tree change.
However, not all of the moves from city to country have
been successful. Careful management of people and
the land must be undertaken to reduce conflict between
new arrivals and long-term inhabitants and make the
process a sustainable one.
There is a strong spatial interaction displayed in
the trend of people moving to rural areas seeking a
country lifestyle while still being able to commute
to the city for work. Conflict can arise between this
new group of residents and the locals who see their
quiet lives becoming threatened by the arrival of
townies from Melbourne, with their demands for
urban facilities such as restaurants, bars and larger
shopping centres. The basic aim of the shire councils
is to make sure that the different points of view can
be aired and misunderstandings smoothed over.
Through funding by the State Government Agribusiness
Networks and in conjunction with the local shire, a
program called Building Harmony between Rural
Neighbours was established almost ten years ago and
has continued into this decade with the publication
Figure 9.10
Ranges Shire
Change and human activities
Number of wineries
1985
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2011
2016
2021
Forecast year (ending June 30)
2026
2031
2006
2011
2016
2021
Forecast year (ending June 30)
2026
2031
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of new pamphlets in 2010 detailing the process. This

has been reinforced in the 2020 Vision Statement
published by the Yarra Ranges Shire council in its
200913 Strategic Resources Plan, in which Strong,
Healthy and Connected Communities are still regarded
as a high priority. This program was not only about
social behaviour but also focussed on sustainable land
use practices so that finite natural resources can be
managed for future generations.
Both the Shire of Nillumbik and the Shire of
Yarra Ranges have identified the need to preserve
agricultural zones as the continued movement of those
people termed hobby farmers or people seeking a
tree change continues to grow. Three main problems
have been identified from this continued growth.
Valuable farming land is being lost to housing and

what is called the 20-acre lifestyle block. This can
be broadly described as a property that is owned
by people who live in the city and who come out
to the country on weekends to enjoy the fresh air
and country living. They are not usually permanent
residents but like to think of themselves as having
escaped from the stress and fast pace of the city
for a while.
Figure 9.11
New housing located in Yarra Glen
The local people feel that they must compromise

their legitimate right to be on the land and farm
it without restricting their activities, so as not to
offend the new chums to the area with noise
levels from machinery and early and late daily
farming activities.
Local farmers are concerned that the lifestyle
farmers are letting their land become degraded,
as their level of knowledge of rural land practices
often is limited.
Figure 9.12
New shopping centre located in Yarra Glen
179
180
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Current land use

The different types of broad land uses for the Yarra
Valley are evident in figure 9.16. These land uses
Key Knowledge and

Skills
The role and influence of
governments, organisations,
communities and
individuals in affecting and
managing change in rural
and urban environments at
two different scales
The concept and practicality
of sustainability in selected
rural and urban
environments
generate a wide diversity of agricultural commodities.

Many of these products have components sourced from
both within and outside the region, as well as produce
that is sourced outside the region and value-added
inside. For example, bread is made using the locally

sourced yeast, but the organic wheat comes from
interstate.
Many of the products for sale in specialist food
shops and markets in the Yarra Valley region have
changed from the raw product to a processed food
Figure 9.14
Land use in the Yarra
Valley a winery with
vines under nets in the
background
Figure 9.13
Major land uses in the Yarra
Valley
N
0
20 km
Scale
River
rra
Ya
Very tall forest (Ash), Tall forest (Mixed species)

Very tall forest (Ash)
Tall forest (Mixed species)
Tall forest (Mixed species), Very tall forest (Ash)
Tall forest, Low forest (Mixed species)
Low forest (Mixed species)

Grazing/Broad acre cropping
Irrigated land/Intensive cropping
Urban/Industrial
Water
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181
Figure 9.15
RD
WILLS
ES
S
RD
EA
HW
BL
RD
LA
RD
SV
ILL
HEALES VILL
HO
LA
LA
YARRA
GLEN
GULLY
HW
LONG
RD
OL
SC
Yarra Glen
TARRAWARRA
BA
MEL
Maroondah
Reservoir
RD
RD
HEALE
OLD
RD
Yarr
Tou a Valle
y
rist
Rail
way
Healesville
MT RIDDELL RD
Y
NS RD
RD
LA
RTS
SKYE RD
RD
HWY
BAD GE
ST HUBE
RD
RD
RD
P
EE RU
BRIARTY
RD
KOO W
4 km
Scale
MEDHURST
KILLARA
MADDENS
DAH
OON
MAR
HILL
PINE
WEIR
RD
DON
TOOLB
E
RD WO
NG
MELBA
RD
RD
MAROONDAH
er
Riv
McMEIKA
ER
RD
R LIE
BAD G
AI
Yarra
DO
HW
EE
EK
CR
CRE
CREE
Arts, crafts and antiques

Accommodation
Cafes and restaurants
Markets and produce
Parks, gardens and nurseries
Recreation and entertainment
Special attractions
Weddings and conferences
Wineries and breweries
UM
STEELS
GULF
CH
Dixons
Creek
RD
LORIM
ER
LA
National park
State park
Other park or reserve
Highway
Major road
Minor road
Other road
Tourist railway
Walking track
AV
Badger
Creek
RD
Figure 9.16
Activities in the Healesville
region
originally from 3rd edition (fig 2.4.18)
AC
L
MYER
NN
PI
Fig_09_16_bk1_2011
Steels
Creek
updated and re-supplied September 2011
Land use in the Yarra Valley
182
Figure 9.17
Yering Station and Chateau
Yering surrounded by black
earth after fire swept
through the Yarra Valley
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item, for example raspberry jam. The raspberries
themselves can be picked and sold in punnets to the
public for approximately $4 a punnet. The same punnet
of raspberries can be value-added, by adding sugar
and making jam, a jar of which can be sold for $8 or
more. Many of the growers see the need to develop an
export market for their goods, as well as developing
and marketing a Yarra Valley brand to promote local
produce.
In April 2004 a website was produced
(www.yarravalleybrand.com) to promote local
producers and businesses, and the pristine, natural
environment of the region. Many of the local farmers
are trying to gain accreditation so that they can label
their produce as organic. This is in response to the
growing demand by consumers for chemical-free food.
As well as organic produce, there is a demand for
exotic gourmet products, and cottage industries have
flourished over recent years.
In 1998 the Yarra Valley Regional Food Group was
established in response to this movement and, 14 years
later, is flourishing. Their basic aims are to endorse
and publicise primary production in the region, and
to encourage purity and freshness in all products. To
further promote the unique produce of the region, the
Yarra Valley Farmers Market operates on the third
Sunday of the month at The Barn at Yering Station
Winery. It is at such locations that the diversity of
produce from the region can be experienced. This
could range from fresh fruit and vegetables, to jams
and chutneys and buffalo sausages. The success of
the region has really grown with a strong spatial
association between food, wine and tourism.
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The Yarra Valley has been attracting tourists from

Melbourne for many years, and the wineries have
played a major role. The local wine industry responded
to the increasing popularity of wine drinking by adding
tasting rooms and cellar-door sales to their bottling
and grape-growing activities. The popularity of wine,
food and entertainment is evident in the success of the
annual Grape Grazing Festival. Busloads of people flock
to this event, where participants purchase a wine glass
as part of the entry fee with movement then taking
place from winery to winery around the region.
Effect of the fires on the region

After another winter of lower than average rainfall,
coupled with a summer heatwave with temperatures in
the 30s for many days, 7 February 2009 built towards
the perfect storm. The temperature had soared into the
mid 40s and the wind was gusting up to 100 kilometres
per hour, setting the scene for a calamitous day. By
evening the wind direction changed, and the fire and
smoke moved from areas in to the north and east
into areas that had previously been unaffected by the
maelstrom. There were 173 people killed and over 2000
homes destroyed, plus loss of farm infrastructure and
property, including stock and crops, both within the
Yarra Valley at Steels Creek, Dixons Creek and Chum
Creek and in the neighbouring shire of Murrindindi.
In relation to grape production during that time, the
effects of the fires were not that dramatic, with only
3 per cent of the total area under vines being affected.
The grapes from this small region were tainted by
smoke damage and thus were not fit to be turned into
wine. The spell of very hot weather leading up to the
fires had much more effect on the grapes, with reports
of bunches being sunburnt as well as causing stress
to the vines themselves. Coupled with these damages
were the financial and personal losses that many
people suffered in the region.
Effects of phylloxera on vines

Vineyards can suffer from a variety of pests and
diseases from moulds caused by warm wet weather
to small bugs and insects attacking the vines and the
actual fruit. A report was undertaken in April 2010
to determine the extent of an outbreak of phylloxera
in some vineyards. Phylloxera is a small aphid-like
insect that lives and feeds exclusively on the roots of
grapevines. Phylloxera, regarded as the worlds worst
grapevine pest, sucks the nutrients from the roots and
slowly starves the vine. The plant goes into decline,
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Figure 9.18(a)(e)
Stallholders at the Farmers
(a)
Market, Yering Station
(b)
(e)
(c)
(d)
183
184
Figure 9.19
Local produce is sold in
shops around the region that
operate all week, not just at
the monthly farmers market.
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9
with a dramatic decrease in fruit. If not detected early

and unless proper quarantine measures are set up, the
fear is that with movement of people from one vineyard
to the next, the insect will be carried on their footwear
and subsequently infect another vineyard. The losses
to the region and the local economy would be very
serious. The outbreaks in the Yarra Valley have been
well managed and the losses have been minimal.
The regions increasing popularity has resulted in the
rapid expansion of accommodation options, as visitors
seek overnight and long-weekend accommodation.
Brochures from the Yarra Valley Visitors Information
Centre provide extensive accommodation options,
from a simple cottage on a farm to upmarket
resorts and conference centres widely distributed
around Healesville. Its popularity has also led to the
development of a wide range of tourist activities,
including ballooning, arts and crafts, antiques,
shopping for local produce and visiting markets, cafes
and restaurants, festivals, tours, parks, gardens and
nurseries, and events including international artists
performing at the wineries.
Figure 9.20
Phylloxera sign at
Coldstream Hills vineyard
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Activities
1. Use figure 9.9 and 9.10 on page 178 to complete
the following:
a. What is the predicted general trend in the
population characteristics from 2006 to 2031?
b. Explain why this might occur.
a. How many different types of land use can you
identify on the map using the key provided?
b. What is the predominant land use found on the
map?
c. What is the most important activity in the
north-east region of the map?
d. What happens to the land use as you move
from the far north-east of the Yarra Valley to
the south-west?
e. What has already happened to some of the
forested areas? Is this likely to continue?
a. Describe the distribution pattern of the
major types of tourist activities centred on
Healesville.
b. Suggest the type of spatial interaction that
could take place between at least two pairs of
activities.
c. If you had the financial ability to establish a
tourist facility in the area shown on the map:

What would it be?

Where would you locate it?

What background research would you need
to do first?

What resources would you need from the
local township?

How would you promote your activity, and
how would it differ from others nearby that
are similar?
(A useful start could be researching tourism in
the Yarra Valley on the Internet.)
4. Refer to the photos in figure 9.18 which were taken
at the monthly Farmers Market.
a. What difficulties do you think these stallholders
might face?
b. What benefits would they gain from being part
of the monthly market?
c. What problem might the seasonality of many
products cause?
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Managing change
There has been a need for rigorous planning at all
levels to manage the extent and variety of the changes
in the Yarra Valley during the last 20 years.
Individuals
Individuals such as farmers and other small-scale
producers have found that it is definitely advantageous
to belong to an organisation such as the Yarra Valley
Regional Food Group rather than to operate alone.
Apart from being able to get advice and information at
growers meetings or at a Landcare seminar, growers
have become savvy and have used electronic commerce
to establish a much wider market for themselves. The
yarravalleybrand is very useful as a way of registering
companies that source their produce from in and around
the valley.
Local government
Local government plays a very important role in the
community as there is a very effective agribusiness
department within the Yarra Valley Shire council
structure. This department has demonstrated and
formulated plans for all levels of the community, from
developing a brochure for those people wishing to start
a vineyard to suggesting ways of handling disputes
between residents. Some also believe that the councils
pay more attention to the newly arrived lifestyle
residents than to the needs of agribusiness. The
council also sees the need to build partnerships with
local and regional businesses to create and sustain
economic development for the area.
Regional organisations
There are representative organisations set up for
each of the separate types of activities in the Yarra
Valley region, such as the Yarra Valley Wine Growers
Association or the Victorian Strawberry Growers
Association. The Yarra Valley Regional Food Group
lists over 65 different commercial activities and
organisations that regularly share ideas and help
over an online forum. Other local groups are set up in
places like the Yarra Valley but are linked to a wider
organisation such as the Rural Womens Network which
was set up in 1986. The Rural Womens Network has
two major objectives:
To link womens groups and interested individuals

into a network, sharing resources and skills to meet
the needs of rural women.
185
To enable women in rural Victoria, through their

own contact and support network, to have a more
active and influential role in government decisions
which affect their lives and those of their families.
State government
The role of government departments is to make
policy decisions that affect councils, local groups and
individuals. It is their role, through such departments
as tourism, primary industry and natural resources and
environment, to provide the best living, working and
recreational opportunities to the citizens of Victoria,
and by association to the people living in the Yarra
Valley.
An important role of the State Government is to
ensure that we have sustainable supplies of water.
By creating water restrictions and a comprehensive
set of obligations, rules and disincentives as well as
attempting to educate the public on water use, a more
sustainable use of this resource has been achieved.
It has also meant that there has been a reduction in
the amount of water use as well. This was noticeable
with the Target 155 Campaign that proved to be very
effective.
Activities
1. What would be the advantages and disadvantages
of belonging to an organisation such as The
Victorian Strawberry Growers Association or the
Rural Womens Network?
2. Imagine that you are the Minister for Local
Government which is now part of the Department
for Victorian Communities. Representatives
from the Yarra Shire Council as well as from the
Nillumbik Council have come to your office to make
a request for funding for a new tourism information
centre that will be state of the art and employ
a wide range of people. There is $25 million
funding available for one information centre in
the region. Devise a list of ideas to be considered
before making a judgement on which council gets
the funding. This could be set up as a simulated
meeting in government offices. Students could be
on one of two teams, with representatives each
taking their turn to make representation to the
minister.
Key Knowlege and

Skills
governments,
organisations, communities
and individuals in affecting
and managing change in
rural environments at two
different scales
Analyse data about
changes to human
environments produced by
the interaction between
human processes and
activities
186
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Sustainability in the
Yarra Valley
Key Knowlege and

Skills
governments, organisations,
communities and
individuals in affecting and
managing change in rural
and urban environments at
two different scales
The concept and practicality
of sustainability in selected
rural environments
Sustainability implies that development can proceed

as long as the rate of use of natural resources does not
exceed the rate at which the resources can be replaced.
As well, the development must not affect the quality of
other aspects of the natural and human environments
nor compromise the needs of future generations.
The former Victorian State Government, in their
policy documents for sustainable development, discuss
on a broad scale many of the ideas expressed in the
vision statement put out by the Yarra Ranges Shire
Council.
A strategic plan centred around sustainability over a
five-year period, 200914, was released by the former
Labor Government. It outlines six goals:
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Strong resistance to further fragmenting rural

agricultural land and the subdivision of that land for
urban development. No more bushland is expected
to be cleared for farming purposes.
An expectation that value-adding will continue to
grow within the shire, and that this will encourage
local investment as well as research and,
subsequently, local jobs.
Farms will become more sustainable by adopting
practices such as the following:
Shelter belts can be created by growing
indigenous trees and shrubs. These can
be linked to existing vegetation to provide
corridors for native animals.
1. Encourage business, communities and governments

to make more sustainable choices.
Organic wastes such as cardboard and fruit can

be made into a type of compost and added to
the soil.
2. Create capacity for sustainable products and

services.
Erosion will be controlled with sediment traps

and planting of riverside vegetation.
3. Grow the supply of energy from diverse renewable

energy sources.
Water quality in local dams and creeks will be

monitored, with steps taken to locate runoff
problems; local farmers and residents will
be educated to eliminate improper disposal
procedures.
4. Influence the sustainability performance and use of

new and existing buildings.
5. Encourage sustainable precincts and communities.
6. Create capacity and demand for green collar jobs.
Since the demise of the Brumby Labor Government
in 2011, the Liberal/National Party Coalition have
released their Living Melbourne, Living Victoria
Roadmap outlining their strategies in relation to a
sustainable future for Melbourne and Victoria, with a
strong emphasis on the use of water. Their website
concludes: By being smarter with how we use water
we can continue to build a liveable, sustainable and
productive Melbourne.
On a local scale, the Yarra Ranges Shire Council
released a vision statement for the year 2020, which
looks at a number of changes that the shire and
surrounding areas will undergo for the period 200520.
This statement places the environment in a very
prominent position, and stresses the importance of
sustainability. Some of the key points made in their
statement include:
An expectation that the land under agricultural

production will not increase; rather that the land
will be farmed more productively.
Land will not be further cut up into small hobby

farmer blocks of between 5 and 20 hectares; this
may lead to a dramatic reduction in the amount of
land becoming degraded and underused, a concern
of the present council.
To protect streams and other waterways in
the area, better water conservation and land
management programs have been established on
rural properties to increase their sustainability.
Most farmers in the Yarra Valley would consider
that their day-to-day farming involves a degree of
sustainability. This can vary from those biodynamic
farmers who feel that many farmers have been
farming in an unsustainable manner for decades,
to those who believe that they are looking after the
land as best as possible, so as to pass the property
on to the next generation without too much
degradation to the land. Many farmers are trying
to reduce the use of fertilisers and other chemicals
on their crops and are using biological control
measures where possible. There is a concern in
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the region about the sustainable use of water,

as many of the larger vineyards are establishing
large dams. These cause problems when downhill
farmers miss out on water supplies captured by
their uphill neighbours.
Water sustainability
Government authorities argue that a reliable supply of
water to farms is clearly linked to capital-intensive,
high-value agricultural activities such as grape
growing, which require a regular water supply. It
follows that areas where there is a less than reliable
water flow will attract less investment and produce
lower-value agriculture. The last thing that the Yarra
Valley region needs is overuse or exploitation of water,
as this would cause an environmental degradation of
that water. The consequence would be the destruction
of the economic value of that resource and subsequent
farming activities. To be better able to manage this
water sustainably, it may be necessary to introduce
some form of licensing for all water harvested by
individual farmers, which would otherwise end up in
local creeks and catchments.
The future
Melbourne is the fastest growing city in Australia,
and there is an increasing demand for housing. This
is usually located on the outer perimeter of the urban
area on large estates, as was announced in April
2011, with the construction of 4000 new homes in the
western suburbs. Growth has also been seen in the
outer eastern suburbs as well, including key towns
such as Yarra Glen in the Yarra Valley. The increase
in population also places a demand on our tourism
facilities as well as our increasing appetite for a larger
variety and quantity of quality food. This will place
the Yarra Valley, which is a short distance from the
urbanrural fringe, in a strong position to continue
to expand. The demand for high quality wines for the
growing Asian market all bodes well for the continued
expansion of the Yarra Valley, with councils placing a
high priority on the sustainable development of
the region.
Activities
1. Do you think that the key points of the Yarra
Ranges Shire Council vision statement are realistic,
especially with the growth of population in the
region, as well as a growth of population in
Melbourne and Victoria as a whole?
2. How do you think council will be able to meet some
of these targets? What will suffer?
3. What organisations would provide farmers with the
necessary expertise to manage their properties in a
sustainable manner?
4. How would these organisations help?
5. Imagine looking forward into the future, to the year
2050. Describe the changes that you would expect
to see in the Yarra Valley. Using a sheet of tracing
paper placed over the Melbourne Metropolitan
Area (you could locate a suitable map in a street
directory), show how Melbourne has expanded over
this time. Annotate this overlay to show the effects
this growth will have in the Yarra Valley.
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Assessment task: Yarra Valley a rural environment
Figure 9.21
Question 1
The distribution of Victorias
a. Describe the distribution of the wine regions of Victoria as shown above.
wine regions indicating the
b. Describe the location of the Yarra Valley wine region in relation to:
region
i. Melbourne
ii. Other wine regions.
c. The grape-growing regions around Mildura and Swan Hill rely on irrigation,
unlike the Yarra Valley. Explain this difference.
d. What value does wine production bring to regions like the Yarra Valley?
location of the Yarra Valley
UNIT TWO
S C H O O L - assessed coursework
Question 2
a. On a copy of the
photosketch mark on the
following:
i. two natural
components of the
landscape
ii. two human components
of the landscape.
b. Mark on and annotate an
example of where spatial
interaction is likely to take
place.
c. Explain why grape vines
are planted on slopes
rather than on the flatter
valley floor.
Figure 9.22
A photograph (top) and sketch (right)
of the Yarra Valley near Coldstream.
Question 3
A tourist development, including a wine-tasting centre, six overnight accommodation units, restaurant and car park,
is planned for the area shown in the photograph above. There is to be minimal disruption to the existing landscape.
a. Suggest where this development could be located within the area of the photograph.
b. What form do you think it should take?
c. Suggest who are the likely winners and losers if such a development went ahead.
C H A P T E R nine
189
190
GLOSSARY
Agistment: An area to graze horses, cattle or sheep on another persons
property in exchange for payment.
Agriculture: The growing of crops and the care of livestock; the process of
farming.
Alluvial: The material deposited by a river on the floodplain.
Aspect: The direction that a slope faces; in the southern hemisphere, northfacing slopes are sunnier and drier than south-facing slopes.
Biodynamic: A method of organic farming that treats the farm as one entity.
Biological control: The use of natural organisms to fight pests and disease in
plants and animals.
Catchment: An area of land that catches precipitation and drains into a river
basin.
CBD: Central Business District; a focus of business activity and high land values.
Delta: An extensive deposit of alluvium at a rivers mouth.
Distributary: A river channel branching from the main river and not rejoining it.
Doi moi: Economic renovation in Vietnam allowing freer market conditions for
farmers and overseas investors.
Erosion: The wearing away of the land surface by the action of wind, water and
ice.
Ethnic minority: A population group with different cultural and sometimes
racial characteristics to the dominant population of an area.
Fragmenting: The breaking up of a farm into smaller sections, usually so
owners children get a portion or it is sub-divided for sale.
Green wedge: Non-urban land between urban areas, often farmland or
recreation areas.
Green-collar jobs: Occupations that involve protection of the environment.
Hamlet: A small settlement with a few houses and possibly a general store.
Human Development Index (HDI): A ranking of countries based on life
expectancy, educational attainment and standard of living.
Inner Mixed Zone (IMZ): The older residential and industrial area nearest the
CBD and subject to extensive renewal.
Indigenous: Local to that area.
Infrastructure: The roads, railways, public utilities including water and
electricity that form the basis of economic activity and social well-being.
Orchard: An organised area growing fruit such as oranges on a farm.
Pastoralist: Farmer who looks after livestock such as sheep and cattle.
Phylloxera: A disease that affects the roots of vines.
Population density: The number of people living in a specific area; usually
measured per square kilometre.
Regional shopping centre: Large-scale shopping centre with considerable
car-parking areas attracting people from a wide region.
Renewable energy sources: Sources such as hydro power, solar, wind and
geothermal energy where the resource itself is replenished naturally.
Retailing: Selling of goods and service from specialist shops or department
stores.
Ruralurban fringe: Area where the countryside gives way to urban land uses.
Source: The start or headwaters of a river.
Sprawl: The spread of an urban area away from its original centre. Can be
poorly planned and with a low population density.
Sustainability: The rate of use of a resource, so that the amount used will not
affect its ability to renew itself and therefore be able to be used by future
generations.
Topography: The shape of the land; can be flat, undulating or mountainous.
Typhoons: Also referred to as tropical cyclones; an intense low pressure area
formed over tropical waters and associated with strong winds and torrential
rainfall.
Urbanrural fringe: The zone of transition from the city and its suburbs to the
countryside.
Value-added: A process whereby a raw material is changed so that its worth
increases.
Viticulture: The growing of grapes.
Zoning: Designating an area of land for a certain type of land use.
UNIT TWO
| G L O S S A R Y |
191
192
INDEX
abrasion 84, 92
absolute location 4
agriculture 115
Sri Lanka 120
Vietnam 1312, 134, 1356
Yarra Valley 1778, 179, 180, 181
agroforestry 68
air pollution 29
alluvial processes 87
aquaculture, Vietnam 132, 136
arches 923
artificial structures, affecting movement of
coastal sediments 98100
aspect, and vegetation 61
atmosphere 21, 57, 81
attrition 84
banksias 62
basalt plateaus 37, 39
basalt rock 43
batholiths 38
bays 93
beach litter 101
beach nourishment 99
beach system 25
beaches 82, 87, 93
safety and amenity 102
biosphere 21, 23, 57, 58, 81
blowholes 93
breakwaters 98, 99
bushfires
Victorias forests 70, 71, 72, 74, 75
Yarra Valley 182
calderas 38, 39
carbon cycle 57, 58
carbon dioxide 57
carbon storage, Victorian forests 57
CBD, Melbourne 148, 14952
aesthetics 152
characteristics 151
residential boom 152
retail changes 151
traffic congestion 152
cinder cones 37, 39
clear-felling 70
cliffed coasts 82
climate
and forest type 61
Vietnam 1289
climate change 27, 70
and changing sea level 88, 8990, 101,
102, 129
impact on coastal regions 1013, 106
impact on Vietnam 134
coastal development 98, 1056
coastal environments 80
climate change impacts on 1013, 106

and the earths natural systems 80, 81
human activities affecting 96103
landforms located in 924
management 1045
natural processes that shape and change
8490
rate and scale of natural processes along
95
what are they? 81
coastal geomorphology 88, 89, 90
coastal landforms 924
created by deposition 934
created by erosion 923
coastal pollution, and water quality 1001,
105
coastal resources, value of 105
coastal sediments, artificial structures
affecting movement of 98100
coastal species and habitat, loss of 101
coastal systems 23
coastal vegetation 87
coastal wetlands 82
coasts
distribution of different types of 83
sustainable development 1056
types of 62
coloniser plants 63
columnar jointing 43
commercial farms 115
community development, Vietnam 143
competition 63
components 22
composite volcanoes 378, 39
continental plates 33
convergent plate movement 33
cool temperate rainforest 65, 68, 72, 75
cooperative banking system, Vietnam 1423
coral reef coasts 82
corrasion 84
corrosion 84
cuspate spit 94
cycling of matter in forests 245, 578
cyclones 27, 867
dams, irrigation channels, and change 28
deforestation, Vietnam 1334
deposition 934
desert systems 234
desertification 28
distance 5
distribution 56
Earths tectonic plates 32
distribution patterns 56
divergent plate movement 33
Docklands development, Melbourne 1567
domino method of land clearance 72
dune blowouts 84
dykes 40
dynamic equilibrium 28
earthquakes 27, 32, 90
Earths four spheres 212
interactions between 235
Earths structure 31
East African Rift Valley system 33
economic factors 15
economy, Vietnam 1313, 139, 1423
energy and cycling of matter in forests 245,
578
environmental factors 15
erosion 26, 84, 85, 923
erosional processes operating on the coast 84
estuaries 87
eucalypt woodlands 65, 67
eucalypts 55, 60, 62, 71
Exclusive Economic Zone 104, 105
extreme weather events, impact on coasts
867
extrusive volcanic landforms 37
from constructive processes 378, 39
from destructive processes 38, 39
Eyjafjallajokull volcano, Iceland 46, 48
impact of the eruption 478
fire
and vegetation distribution 62
see also bushfires
fissure eruptions 35, 46
floods 27
food, wine and tourism, Yarra Valley 1803,
184
forest ecosystems 634
forest environments 22, 54
Victoria 546, 6077
Forest Stewardship Council 77
forest systems
carbon cycle 57, 58
cycling of matter 24, 578
nitrogen cycle 57
water cycle 589
forest types, Victoria 657
forests
dynamics 634
global distribution 54
natural system of 578
Otway Ranges 689
Strzelecki Ranges 725
succession 63, 68
Future Coasts Program 106
describing 1314
Victorias forests 602
| I N D E X |
Vietnam 1279
Yarra Valley 1724
geographic data 3
organising 1315
geographic factors 15
geography
instructional wording 16
what is it? 3
geological changes 27
geological processes 90
geothermal energy 50, 51
global scale 5
global urbanisation 116
graphs, describing and interpreting 1415
Great Otway National Park 68, 77
groynes 98, 99
Guangzhou, China, urban environment 1213
Gunaikurnai people 75
Hanoi, Vietnam, changing urban environment
1379
Hawaiian Islands 334
headlands 923
historic factors 15
hobby farmers 179
human activities
affecting coastal environments 96103
and changes to natural environments 289
impact on distribution of Victorias forests
62
human environments 114
changing 11723
Melbourne 14669
Vietnam 12443
Yarra Valley 17287
see also rural environments; urban
environments
hydraulic action 84, 92, 93
hydrosphere 21, 23, 24, 57, 81
Indo-China 126
inner mixed zone (IMZ), Melbourne 148,
1535
characteristics 1535
demolish, renovate or rebuild? 154, 155
Docklands 1568
population change 155
inputs 22
instructional wording used in geography 16
international aid, Vietnam 143
intrusive volcanic landforms 38, 40
irrigation 28
Kanawinka Global Geopark 43
koalas 634
lagoons 94
landforms
coastal 924
volcanic 3740
landforms/elevation, and vegetation
distribution 601
large-scale maps 4
lava 36
lava caves 43
lava domes 38, 39
lava tubes 38, 39
lithosphere 21, 23, 24, 57, 81
location 4
logging 68, 701, 745, 77
longshore drift 85, 98
low open eucalypt forests 65
natural processes 268

affecting the coast 95
affecting distribution of volcanic
environments 334
that shape and change coastal
environments 8490
natural systems 21
changes in 268
Earths four spheres 212
energy and cycling of matter 245
forests 578
inputs and outputs 223
interactions between spheres 235
neap tides 86
nitrogen cycle 58
nutrient cycling 66
maar volcanoes 38, 39, 42

magma 30, 35, 37, 38, 50
mallee eucalypt forest 65, 67
managed retreat (coasts) 99
mangroves 87, 94
mantle 30, 31, 33
map scales 4
marine pests 101
mass movement 84
medium open eucalypt forests 65, 66, 68, 72
Mekong River Delta, Vietnam, changing rural
environment 1356
Melbourne 2030 plan 167
flaws in 1678
Melbourne
CBD 148, 14952
changing population structure 1648
Docklands 1567
future direction 1647
inner mixed zone 148, 1537
origins 1467
physical factors influencing growth 1478
population growth 164
rural-urban fringe 148, 1613
suburban zone 148, 15760
today 148
urban environment 14669
minerals 50
movement 9
Mt Noorat, Victoria 445
mudflats 94
mutualism 64
mycorrhizae 64
oceanic plates 33
organising geographic data 1315
Otway Ranges forests 689
and agroforestry 68
current use 68, 69
fire impacts 68
outputs 22
oxygen 57
national scale 45
natural environments 20
changes due to human activity 289
characteristics 21
natural changes 268
natural landscapes, Vietnam 1278
photosynthesis 57, 61
phylloxera 182, 184
physical factors 15
pioneer plants 63
plantations 68, 71, 75
plants, and water availability 60
plugs 40
political factors 15
population change
Melbourne 1648
Vietnam 12930, 134, 139
PQE method 56, 14
predation 634
primary data 3
primary succession 63
processes 22
pyroclastic rocks 36
rabbits 63
rainforest, Victoria 65, 68, 72, 75, 79
regional maps 4
regional scale 4
regions 78
relative location 4
renewable energy 50, 51
respiration 57
revetment walls 99
rural environments 115, 117
Mekong River Delta, Vietnam 1356
Sri Lankas highlands 11920
Yarra Valley 1727
193
194
INDEX
Rural Womens Network 185
rural-urban fringe, Melbourne 148, 1613
characteristics, changes, problems and
solutions 1623
Tarneit 161, 162, 163
salt marsh communities 94
sand cycle 85
sand dunes 93
sandbars 94
Sandringham Harbour, impact of structures
on 98, 100
scale 45
scoria cones 37, 39, 42, 43, 45
sea change 178
sea level changes 88, 8990, 101, 102, 103,
129
sea walls 99
seagrass meadows 82, 87
secondary data 3
secondary succession 63
selective logging 70
SHEEPT (geographic factors) 15
shield volcanoes 37, 39, 42
shopping centres 160
sills 40
social factors 15
soils
components 60
impact on forest environment 60
spatial association 9, 10
spatial change over time 12, 27, 80, 85, 86,
156
spatial concepts 312, 13
spatial interaction 1112
spits 94
spring tides 86
Sri Lankas highlands, rural environment
11920
stony rises 42
storm surges 86
stormwater 29, 1001
strong spatial association 10
Strzelecki forests 725
bushfires 72, 74, 75
clearing and use 72, 745
conservation 75
joint management 75
plantations 75
rehabilitation 75
traditional owners 75
sub-aerial erosion 84, 92
subsistence farms 115
suburban zone, Melbourne 148, 15760
changes, problems, solutions 15960
characteristics 159
succession, forests 63, 68
sulphur 47, 49
sunlight, and vegetation 61
sustainable development
coasts 1056
Yarra Valley 1867
systems 21
tall open eucalypt forests 65, 66, 68, 72, 75
Tarneit, Victoria 161, 162, 163
Tarra Bulga National Park 75, 77
tea plantations 120
technological factors 15
tectonic plates 30
distribution 312
types of movement 33, 50
temperature, and vegetation distribution 60,
61
tides 856
tourism
Vietnam 1402
Yarra Valley 182, 184
tree change 178, 179
tsunamis 90
tumuli 42
urban areas, and pollution 29
urban environments 116
changing 11719
Guangzhou, China 1213
Hanoi, Vietnam 1379
Melbourne 14669
urban sprawl 159
vegetation, role in coastal environments 87
vegetation distribution
fire effects 62
landforms/elevation effects 601
sunlight and aspect effects 61
temperature effects 60, 61
vent eruptions 35
veteran trees 68
Victorian Coastal Council 104
Victorian Coastal Strategy 1056
Victorias coastline, distribution of different
types of coasts 83
Victorias forests 546
bushfires 70, 71
carbon storage 57
changes to 701
distribution 55, 56, 602
dynamics 634
forest cover 55
forest types 657
future outlook 77
geographic characteristics 602
logging operations 68, 701, 745, 77
Otway Ranges 689
structure 55
Strzelecki Ranges 725
Vietnam 12443
agriculture 1312, 134, 1356
aquaculture 132, 136
changing for the future 1423
climate 1289
community development 143
deforestation 1334
economy 1313, 139, 1423
environmental conditions 1334
Hanoi 1379
impact of history 1267
individual economic change 1423
location 125
Mekong River Delta 1356
natural landscapes 1278
overseas government and international
agency aid 143
population change 12930, 134, 139
tourism 1402
village credit unions, Vietnam 1423
volcanic activity
benefits of 50, 51
impacts of 4950
management and prediction of 50
volcanic ash 38, 46, 478, 50
volcanic environments
changes 416
characteristics 301
Eyjafjallajokull, Iceland 468
global distribution 312
Indonesia 53
natural processes affecting distribution of
334
Western Plains of Victoria 415
volcanic eruptions, types of 356
Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) 36, 48
volcanic gases 36, 47, 49
volcanic landforms 3740
extrusive 378, 39
intrusive 38, 40
volcanic materials, types of 36
volcanic rocks 43, 50
volcano tourism 48
warm temperate rainforest 65, 79
water availability, and plants 60
water cycle 589
water pollution 29
from coastal runoff 1001, 105
water sustainability, Yarra Valley 187
wave and wind action 845
wave-cut platforms 92
wave reflection 88, 89
wave refraction 88, 89, 92, 93
| I N D E X |
weak spatial association 10

weathering 26, 84
weeds 63, 101
Western Plains of Victoria 415
changes in natural environment 43
land use 43, 45
volcanic features 423
wildlife corridors 68, 69
wine industry, Yarra Valley 1767, 182
impact of phylloxera on vines 182, 184
woodland eucalypt forest 65, 67
Yan Yan Gurt catchment, Otway Ranges 689
Yarra Ranges Shire Council, vision statement
186
Yarra Valley
bushfires 182
change and human activities 1789
climate 173, 174
current land use 1804
food, wine and tourism 1802, 183, 184
future direction 187
history 1767
individual change 185
local government role 185
location 1723
managing change 185
regional organisations 185
rural environment 1727
soils 173
State Government role 185
sustainability 1867
topography 173, 175
water sustainability 187
wine industry 1767, 182, 184
Yarra Valley Regional Food Group 185
195
196
Geography Teachers Association of Victoria Inc.
Acknowledgements
Reg. No: A 003 050 SZ
The Geography Teachers Association of Victoria

gratefully acknowledges the support provided by the
following individuals:
P.O. Box 2066 Camberwell West, 3124

First edition published by the Geography Teachers
Association of Victoria, 2012.
Reprinted with corrections, 2013.
ISBN 9781876703219
Copyright Geography Teachers Association of Victoria
Inc.
All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under
copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may
be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means
(electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise) without the prior written permission of the
publisher of this book.
Project Manager: Judy Mraz, Geography Teachers
Association of Victoria
Editor: Diane Furness
Design, illustration and layout: Infographics,
Melbourne
Cartography: Country Cartographics, Victoria
Permissions and copyright: Wendy Duncan
Indexer: Max McMaster
Printing and binding: arranged by The Australian Book
Connection, Melbourne
Cataloguing-in-Publication data:
Geography Environments: VCE units 1 and 2
ISBN 9781876703219 (pbk)
General editor, Raymond Pask ; authors, Andrew
Chisholm ... [and others].
Other titles: New perspectives
Description:174 p. : col. ill., maps.
Subjects: Geography
910 GEO a14
910 GEO 22
General Editor
Raymond Pask
Authors
Andrew Chisholm
Trish Douglas
Terry McMeekin
Raymond Pask
Susy Puszka
Alon Kaiser
The editorial team acknowledges the significant
involvement of past contributors and suggestions made
by practising teachers who helped in the production of
this textbook.
The publisher would also like to thank the following
people and organisations for supplying source
information, for permission to use copyright material or
for supplying photographs, images and data:
Cover image: Photolibrary. AAP (figure 8.34);
Airline Route Maps.com (figure 1.14); American
Meteorological Society: reprinted with permission
(figure 3.6a); Floor Anthoni (figure 5.15); Beachwiki
(figure 5.24); Leonie Brown (figures 3.17g, 3.20); Bureau
of Meteorology (figure 4.12); Andrew Chisholm (figures
4.2, 4.10, 4.13,4.18, 4.24, 4.25, 4.26, 4.27, 4.28, 4.30);
Corbis Images (figure 3.27); Peter Corkill (figure 4.19);
Department of Sustainability and Environment (figures
1.12, 3.18, 4.22, 9.5; Eric Bird 5.31c, 5.31d, 5.31e);
Trish Douglas (figures 3.8, 3.16, 3.17b, 3.17c, 3.17d,
3.17e); Dreamstime/Jerry Dupree (figure 3.14); Fairfax
(figures 5.11, 5.35a, 8.8, 8.19, 8.22; Craig Abraham
9.17); Getty Images (pp. 11819, figures 3.23, 5.7, 5.10a,
5.10b, 7.28, 7.29, 7.30, 8.1, 8.6; AFP/Paul Crock 2.11,);
Global Ballooning/www.globalballooning.com.au (pp.
11213, figure 9.1); Herald Sun (figure 8.35); informed
decisions online demographic forecasts www.id.com.
au http://www.id.com.au (figures 9.9, 9.10); Alon Kaiser
(figures 9.3, 9.11, 9.12, 9.14, 9.15, 9.18a-e, 9.19, 9.20,
9.22); Kanawinka Global Geopark (figure 3.17f); Terry
McMeekin (figures 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 1.15, 1.17, 1.18, 1.19,
1.20, 1.25, 1.26, 1.27, 1.28, 1.29); Judy Mraz (figure
4.14); NASA Images/NASA Earth Observatory Collection
(figures 1.3, 4.31); National Library Australia (figure 1.21);
Newspix (figure 8.10); NOAA (figure 5.9); Open Training
Education Network (figure 4.3); Raymond Pask (figures
1.4, 2.1, 2.3, 2.5, 2.7, 2.8, 2.10, 2.12, 2.14, 2.15, 2.16,
3.12, 3.24, 3.25, 3.26, 5.3b, 5.18, 5.20, 5.21, 5.23, 5.30,
5.31b, 5.35, 5.36, 5.37, 5.38, 5.39, 6.1a, b, c, 6.2b, 6.5a,
b, 6.9, 6.10, 6.11, 6.12, 6.13, 6.15, 6.16, 6.17, 7.1, 7.7,
7.10, 7.13, 7.21, 7.22, 7.23, 7.24, 7.25, 7.32, 8.9, 8.11,
8.13, 8.14, 8.15, 8.16, 8.23, 8.24, 8.26, 8.27, 8.28, 8.29,
8.36, 8.37, 8.38, 3.39); Photolibrary (figures 1.31, 6.7; 8.2,
Ewing Krainin 3.10); Photos.com (figure 3.1); Susy Puszka

(figures 5.2, 5.3a, 5.3c, 5.12, 5.22, 5.27, 5.29, 5.31a,
5.33); John Ramsdale (figure 2.9); Risk Management
Solutions (RMS) (figure 3.22); Shutterstock (figures 4.15,
6.6, 7.11, 7.15, Robyn Butler 4.9; Irina Tischenko 5.3d);
State of Victoria, Department of Primary Industries
(figures 3.17a, 4.4, 5.34b); State Library of Victoria (figure
5.31f); Traralgon & District Historical Society (figure 4.23);
UNEP/GRID Arendal/Philippe Rekacewicz assisted by
Cecile Marin, Agnes Stienne, Guilio Frigieri, Riccardo
Pravettoni, Laura Margueritte and Marion Lecoquierre
http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/changing-global-forestcover (figure 4.1); United Photo and Graphic Services
(figures 9.6, 9.7); U.S. Geological Survey (figure 3.21);
Victorian Aboriginal Corporation for Languages (figure
1.13); Victorian Coastal Strategy (figure 5.28); Victorian
Environmental Assessment Council (figure 4.20); Peter
Wheeler (figures 5.3e, 5.32a, 5.32b); Marilyn Wiber
(figures 7.18, 7.19, 7.31).
Disclaimer: Every effort has been made to trace
ownership of copyright material. Information that will
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be welcome. Please contact the publisher.

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Units 1 and 2.

It incorporates text, case studies, data

The accompanying Geography Environments CD-ROM

Also available in the New Perspectives series is Resources

VCE Geography Units 1 & 2

VCE GEOGRAPHY UNITS 1 & 2

meet the needs of the VCE Geography 2006 Study Design,

Geography Environments has been specifically written to

VCE Geography Units 1 & 2

Characteristics of Victorias forests 65

Chapter 1 Essential skills 1

Case study: Forests of the Otways 68

Changes to Victorias forest environments 70

Applying spatial concepts 3

Case study: Forests of the Strzeleckis 72

Organising geographic data 13

Future of Victorian forest environments 77

Interpreting the instructional wording used in

Chapter 2 Introduction to natural

The coastal environment and the earths natural

Characteristics of natural environments 21

What is a coastal environment? 81

Inputs and outputs 22

The natural processes that shape and change coastal

Change in natural environments 26

The landforms located in coastal environments 92

Chapter 3 Volcanic environments 30

The nature, rate and scale of natural processes along

Characteristics of volcanic environments 30

Chapter 5 Coastal environments 80

Global distribution of volcanic environments 31

The human activities that shape and change coastal

Natural processes affecting the distribution of volcanic

The nature, rate and scale of human activities along

Factors affecting types of volcanic activity 35

The management of coastal environments 104

The sustainability of our coast 105

Changes in volcanic environments 41

Student-assessed coursework 108

Case Study: Eyjafjallajokull, Iceland 46

Glossary Natural Environments 110

Impact of the eruption 47

Unit 2: Human Environments

Chapter 9 Yarra Valley: a rural

Chapter 6 Introduction to human

Geographic characteristics 172

Rural environments 115

Change over time in the Yarra Valley 176

Urban environments 116

Current land use 180

Changing human environments 117

Managing change 185

Chapter 7 Vietnam: a changing human

Sustainability in the Yarra Valley 186

Where is Vietnam located? 125

Glossary Human Environments 190

Vietnams changing geographic characteristics 127

Vietnams changing population 129

Vietnams changing economy 131

Applying spatial concepts

Organising geographical data

Interpreting the instructional

Skills and Units 1 and 2

Describing the geography of natural and human

G&E 2013 Reprint

G&E 2013 Reprint