Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
- last
date
SOUTHERN BRANCH,
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA,
LIBRARY,
lLOS ANGELES, CALIF.
LIBRARY
OF
PRACTICAL ELECTRICITY
VOLUME V
PUBLISHERS OF BOOKS
Electrical World
O R_,
Age
Intemacional
v
Merchandising BusTransportation
Ingenieria
Engineer
CENTKAL STATIONS
BY
TERRELL CROFT
CONSULTING ELECTRICAL ENGINEER
FIRST EDITION
TENTH IMPRESSION
LONDON:
fe
BOUVERIE
50279
ST., E. C. 4
INC.
PREFACE
A book on central stations must necessarily relate to the
generation, transmission and distribution of electrical energy.
Therefore, the present volume deals with these subjects but
it
Among
demand
PREFACE
vi
ditions,
are studied.
sidered
briefly.
Numerous
illustrations,
showing
modern
Although the proofs have been read and checked very careby a number of persons, it is possible that there remain
some undiscovered errors. Readers will confer a great favor
by advising the author of any such which may be revealed.
fully
book
will
be greatly appreciated.
TERRELL CROFT.
33
CITY,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author desires to acknowledge the assistance which has
been rendered by concerns and individuals in the preparation
of this book.
Considerable of the material is from articles
by the author, which originally appeared in some of the technical periodicals, among which are: Power, Electrical Review
and Western Electrician, National Electrical Contractor, and
Power Plant Engineering. Among the concerns which cooperated with the author in supplying data and copy for
illustrations are
The General Electric Company, Schenectady,
N. Y. The Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company,
East Pittsburgh, Pa. The Fitz Water-wheel Company, Hanover,
Pa.; The Skinner Engine Company, Erie, Pa.; The Ames Iron
:
Engineer.
vii
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE
SECTION
DISTRIBUTION-SYSTEM NOMENCLATURE
SECTION
SECTION
SECTION
15
53
SECTION
SECTION
SECTION
101
SECTION
118
SECTION
140
173
10
SECTION
.132
SECTION
11
195
SECTION
AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATORS.
73
12
.
219
CONTENTS
SECTION
13
PAQB
SECTION
229
14
SECTION
259
15
ADAPTABILITY OP
SECTION
16
SECTION
287
17
SECTION
306
18
HYDRO-ELECTRIC STATIONS
INDEX
310
.
325
CENTRAL STATIONS
SECTION
DISTRIBUTION-SYSTEM NOMENCLATURE
Considerable Confusion Exists as to the precise meanings
terms which are used to designate the different components (Fig. 1) of an electrical -energy-distribution system.
1.
of the
commonly
These definitions
used.
are, it is
words involved.
meanings of the
Fig. 2 shows diagrammatically the impor-
,Hya/ro-aecfric
Generating Station
Distributing Cen
]_^-8uMw
!
K
FIQ.
'
1.
40 Miles
Transmission
line
->J
Distributing
ln
Town
System
Tie Line
is
any other
lines.
CENTRAL STATIONS
[ART. 4
A tie line may also operate at a high voltage and extend for a
long distance but is distinguished from a transmission line in
that neither of the ends of a tie line ordinarily originates in a
generating station.
EXAMPLE.
4.
Transmission System
Meters
m}
is
electrical
transmitted for a
considerable distance from a
energy
is
trans-
A Distributing System is
is
electrical en-
distributed
to con-
illustrations.
iGenerahncfSw/on
FIQ.
2.
sion
The elements
of a transmis-
All of the
wiring in a town, industrial
plant or community between
transmission system.
NOTE. It is very difficult to distinguish between a transmission and a
distributing system, because:* "In any large system the functions of
transmission and distribution merge into one another because the prinP. H. Thomas.
SEC.
DISTRIBUTION-SYSTEM NOMENCLATURE
1]
cipal consumers
ordinarily be
ductors in a distributing system extending from the original source of energy in the installation to a distributing center
substation or a service.
D in
circuits
connected to
it
between the
Fig. 3.
A Sub -feeder
is an extension of a feeder from one distribution center to another and having no other circuit connected
A sub-feeder is a
to it between the two distribution centers.
7.
A Main
(E and G, Fig.
3) is
any supply
circuit to
which
breakers
is
is
consumers.
11. A Branch or Branch Circuit is the set of conductors,
feeding through an automatic cut-out (from a distribution
center, main or sub-main) to which one or more energy utilizing
is,
The only
[ART. 11
-Disconnecting Switch
? ^Primary Mains
Distribution Center--'
Fro.
3.
Pictorial
Branches-'
SEC.
1]
DISTRIBUTION-SYSTEM NOMENCLATURE
Transmission Line*'
-Stack
of
Generating
/'Station
CENTRAL STATIONS
[ART. 12
is
electrical
The
serves.
it
trol
and protection
tribution center
an arrangement or group
is
grouped at
of fittings
whereby
circuits are
tion center.
14.
The Nomenclature
Elements
is
The terms
of
Interior-wiring-system Circuit
feeder,
SECTION
tribution plant, the total kilowatt-hours delivered to the distribution-system lines, as recorded by the station totalizing
for,
EXAMPLE.
central station operates a 2,200-volt-primary, 110-220-volt, three-wiresecondary system. There are a large number of small transformers and
is considerable leakage where the primary-line wires come into
contact with the limbs of trees. During the year of 1914 the plant
generated and delivered to the lines 348,000 kw-hr. of energy. During
the same year the energy recorded on all of the customers' watt-hour
there
meters and otherwise accounted for was only 251,000 kw.-hr. Hence,
energy distribution loss was: 348,000
251,000 =
97,000 kw.-hr.
EXAMPLE.
In a town of
110-220-volt
formers) is
the lines 25,000 kw.-hr.
recorded 23,000 kw.-hr.
tribution loss
less
alternating-current,
The customers'
same
interval,
Hence, for this plant and this year, the diswas: 25,000 - 23,000 = 2,000 kw.-hr.
7
CENTRAL STATIONS
[ART. 16
EXAMPLE. For the year ending June 30, 1915* The Pacific Power
and Light Company, which operates in the States of Oregon and southern
Washington, generated or bought 45,473,923 kw.-hr. of energy. For
the same period, the energy delivered to customers or otherwise accounted for was only 37,746,854 kw.-hr. Hence, the distribution loss
for that year was 7,727,069 kw.-hr.
16. Distribution
Loss Includes
all
of the energy
which
is
is
not
made
Leakage
loss
(due
in
Transformer
the
to
insufficient
insulation,
grounds
like}.
loss
transformers.
plants).
(d)
Meter
loss (due to
17.
can be readily computed if the resistance of the line and the current in it is known, because: Watts
line loss
Then,
if
be the result
Since the current
seldom constant, it is necessary to recognize this condition in computing energy line loss.
The line
current will vary from hour to hour and month to month.
However, the approximate loss can be readily calculated if 24watt-hour energy
in a distribution line
is
DISTRIBUTION-LOSS FACTORS
SEC. 2]
NOTE. The line loss may be either a large or a small proportion of the
distribution loss, depending on whether large or the smallest feasible
conductors are used for the distribution lines. If the designer provides
excessively large conductors, the line loss will then be very small.
However, as plants are usually designed, the line loss is relatively small.
The matter of the economic conductor design is treated in detail in various
standard works.
18. The Leakage Loss will be determined wholly by the
thoroughness with which the line was originally constructed
and by the effectiveness of its maintenance. If the conductors
and if the trees through which the line passes are well trimmed,
the leakage loss will be very small. There is no practicable
method of computing the leakage losses. They can be deter-
mined by
test, but this is usually impracticable, because it involves the simultaneous opening of every consumers' service
switch.
19.
and
core losses.
The copper
loss of
losses
with
is
The transformer
NOTE. The transformer loss of a system may be computed approximately, if the ratings of the different transformers, theii efficiencies and
the loads and duration thereof which are imposed on them are known.
The process
19a.
is
CENTRAL STATIONS
11)
ion, greater
than the
[ART. 20
The power
line losses.
loss in the
shunt
will,
and 4 watts.
losses.
^
1
meter.
5?
age
is,
J
3
i-
?!
**!
*K
coil of
likely, in
coil
But the
occurs continuously
as long as
'
s%*
.2
is
example.
EXAMPLE.
If
'3.S?
13.1 kw.-hr.
13,140 watt-hr.
| Whether
or not
it
assumes material
1^
jL\
However, in any
be but a small
case, it is likely to
but
it is,
SEC. 2]
21.
DISTRIBUTION-LOSS FACTORS
11
from actual operating data, for the year 1913, of a centralstation plant in a city of about 6,500 inhabitants in Missouri.
The 60-cycle, two-phase, distribution system under consideration comprises 2,400 volts primary and a 110-220-volts, threewire secondary. While the distribution loss indicated in Fig.
4 is greater than it would be in a well-designed distribution
plant, there are, probably, many small central-station systems
operating in the United States which could not show a much
better performance.
ing explanation.
more
in the small-
CENTRAL STATIONS
12
22.
Example
[ART. 22
Energy
23.
Distribution-loss Factor is that value, relating to some
particular system, expressed as a percentage, which, if the
"sold" which
Therefore
/-,
is
lost
and unaccounted
--L
(2)
Hence, kw.-hr.
and
and
ace. for).
(3)
for in distribution.
dist. loss
kw.-hr. del.
and
,.
ace. for
kw.-hr.
,.
dist.
-=-
(kw.-hr. del.
loss
dist.-loss factor
- 250,000
year 1913? SOLUTION. The distribution loss was: 350,000
= 100,000 kw.-hr. Now substitute in equation (1): Dist.-loss factor =
= 100,000 -J- 250,000
(kw.-hr. dist. toss) + (kw.-hr. del and ace. for)
= 0.40 = 40 per cent. Hence, the distribution-loss factor for this
plant for this year was 40 per cent.
EXAMPLE. In a certain small town of 500 inhabitants it was estimated
that the total energy sold would be 16,370 kw.-hr. annually. If it be
DISTRIBUTION-LOSS FACTORS
SEC. 2]
13
decided that the town will be served by an alternating-current 2,400volts-primary 110-volts-secondary system and that a loss factor of 20
per cent, be assumed, how many kilowatt-hour will have to be generated
annually?
From equation
SOLUTION.
(dist.-
16,370 = 3,274
would be 3,274 kw.-hr.
is, the annual
3,274 = 19,644fcu>.-fcr.
Then, there would have to be generated 16,370
= 19,644 kw.-hr.
Or, a more direct solution is: 16,370 X 1.20
EXAMPLE. In a certain central-station plant there are 789,600 kw.-hr.
supplied to the distribution system annually. If the distribution-loss
factor for this system is assumed to be 25 per cent., how much energy is
loss
factor)
kw.-hr.
That
and
del.
(kw.-hr.
ace.
for)
distribution loss
:
delivered to customers
0.20
for annually ?
SOLUTION.
From
dd.
'
631,000 kw.-hr. Hence, 631,000 kw.hr. of energy would annually be delivered to the customers of this
system.
loss factor)
789,600
-h
1.25
will,
NOTE. For a central station where a residence-lighting load predominates and there is little power load, the distribution-loss factor
will be much higher than where the power load is predominant.
The
reason for this is that with the residence-lighting load, the transformer
loss will be proportionally large.
It is also true that distribution losses
will usually be greater, relatively, for a residence district where the consumers are widely scattered than for a district where the loading is
dense, for the reason that a few large well-loaded efficient transformers
can be used for serving the dense load while the scattered load will,
probably, be fed by many small underloaded less-efficient transformers.
25. Line-loss Factor.
A line-loss factor is a value representz
R energy loss in a feeder or
ing the ratio of the actual I
other line circuit component during a year to the I 2
energy loss that would have occurred in that feeder or other
XR
circuit
component
if it
CENTRAL STATIONS
14
mum
[ART. 26
factor
is
factor."
which
is
circuit,
hence in computing
an
SECTION
27.
which
is
time.
Demand
is
,_,
(5)
That
is:
.,
r,
sin interval =
Hour
Kw.-hr.
(6)
demand)
during
in interval).
interval
..
(hours)
consumed
(hr.
,,
(kilowatts)
hours in interval
(kw.-hr.
average
(kilowatts)
I.
day?
SOLUTION.
From
15
demand
CENTRAL STATIONS
16
=
-5-
(kw.-hr.
=
24
consumed during
interval)
[ART. 29
(hours in interval)
64,723
2,690 kw.
is*
By combining
the definitions of
demand" above
However,
year.
6.30
FIG. 5.
7-PM.
7.30
Illustrating
it
is
8-RM.
9-RM.
a30
10-PM.
10.30
II-RM.
11.30
maximum demand
ample
A.
I.
SEC. 3]
P.M. than
Then
17
is
this interval,
averaged
suggested.
arihtmetically) of the
method
is
The Unqualified Term "Maximum Demand" is Inis, a statement such as "the maximum demand
was 125 kw." does not have a specific meaning. To render
the statement of a maximum-demand value specific, it is
necessary that there be stated: (1) The duration of the period
30.
definite; that
it
such units. What unit is used in any instance should be determined by the purpose for which the maximum demand
observation was
demand
it
was made.
Maximum-
in kilowatts.
32. Demand Meters (see following illustrations) are instruments which record or indicate the maximum imposed by the
circuit in which they are connected.
They are arranged to
is
not necessarily
CENTRAL STATIONS
18
[ART. 33
of
paragraphs
Where such instruments can be used the necesmaking tedious computations (for determining the
are available.
sity of
maximum demand)
NOTE.
is
eliminated.
accordance with A.
I. E. E. STANDARDIZATION
above quoted, maximum demand may be "determined by
measurement according to specifications" several different principles
have, as will be shown, been utilized for maximum-demand meters.
Furthermore, the different meters operating under these various prin-
RULE
Since,
in
58,
ciples will
when connected
the "instantaneous
maximum demand"
demand determinations
are
made most
is
this:
Maximum-
frequently
if
not
always
Now,
effects.
so select the capacity of a device that the device will be capable of carrying continuously the kilowatt load which will be
"maximum demand"
is
SEC. 3]
19
Fio. 6.
to be
imposed on generator.
FIG.
7.
Graph
of current (amperes)
exist
CENTRAL STATIONS
20
[ART. 34
load which this graph records, is, as shown at C, about 1,100 amp. The
peaks at A, B and D represent very-short-interval demands which,
probably would not be of great consequence in choosing the proper
capacity of electrical apparatus to serve a load of the characteristics
shown in Fig. 7.
EXAMPLE. The
mum
34. The Time Interval Adopted in Practice, for maximumdemand determinations, over which the greatest demand is
averaged* varies somewhat with the characteristics of the load
Graph
FIG. 8.
of
Drum*
is
is
usually
implied.
A.
I.
There
are, likely,
but very
SEC. 3]
much
21
adopted.
35.
The Time
Intervals for
May
FIG. 9.
Typical
be Adjusted are
Meters
Time
in
Minutes
curve of a lagged-type
for a 15-minute time interval.
characteristic
made
demand meter
TimeinMinutas
FIG. 10.
adapted
for
only
One type
one
of thermostatic indicator is
interval
30 min.
"
Printometer"
CENTRAL STATIONS
22
[ART. 36
den of every 5, 10, 15, 30 or 60-min. interval. Watt-hourdemand meters can be obtained which will indicate the average
calibrations.
The
maximum-demand
"Wright"
FIQ. 11.
on
maximum
demand.
36.
Examples
Time
on the Resultant
Interval
Length of the
Maximum Demand
are
EXAMPLE
+ H = (300
them
(see
lew.
will
Fig. 11).
0.25 Ar.)
-s-
0.25 hr.
mum
demand.
EXAMPLE
kw.
min.-interval
II.
0.25 hr.)
= (400
15-min. interval: Kw. M.D. = kw.-hr. -J0.25 hr. = 100 kw.-hr. *- 0.25 hr. = 400 kw. = 15-
maximum demand.
SEC. 3]
175
demand.
=
-5-
375
EXAMPLE
fcw>.
H=
23
kw.-hr.*
0.25 hr.)
[(400 kw.
0.25 hr.)] + 0.50 hr. = (100 kw.-hr. 75 kw.-hr.)
0.50 hr.
=
30-min. -interval maximum
kw.-hr. -r- 0.50
hr.
350 kw.
30-min. interval:
(300 kw.
Kw. M.D. =
400
fcu>.
15-min. interval:
III.
fa*.)
-5-
30-min.
2] X 0.50 Ar.
min.-interval
2]
0.25 hr.
0.25 Ar.
-r
&u>.-Ar.
-r-
0.50 Ar.
350 kw.
30-
=
EXAMPLE
A. 15-min. interval: Kw. M.D. = kw.-hr. +
= 250 kw. = 15(500 kw. X 0.125 hr.) + 0.25 X 62.5 kw.-hr. + 0.25 hr.
min. -interval maximum demand.
IV.
-f-
0.50 hr.
kw.-hr.
125
fcu>.
*-
(500
far.
30-rwin.-in<ert;oZ
0.125)
maximum
demand.
= (350
B. 15-min. interval Kw. M.D. = Kw.-hr. -v0.25 Ar. = 87.5 kw. -5- 0.25 Ar. = 350 fac. = 15-min.interval maximum demand.
= (350 kw. X 0.25
B. 30-min. interval: Kw. M.D. = Kw.-hr. +
hr. -T- 0.50 Ar.) 87.5 kw'-hr. -i- 0.50 Ar. = 175 kw. = 30-min. -interval
maximum demand.
EXAMPLE
kw.
0.25
IV.
to-.)
-i-
37.
Time
The Methods
Interval to
of
obtain the
sometimes
Averages
called
so-called
an integrated
maximum demand.
(2)
is
demand
Maximum-demand
called lagged-type
demand meters
CENTRAL STATIONS
24
cause, until
conditions
some
now
specific
one
is,
[ART. 38
As
exist,
is
it
them
will
value.
below,
39.
shown
may
be
different.
Classification of
in Table 40.
Demand-measuring Instruments
While
is
Maximum Demand.
development stage.
of
SEC. 3]
25
CENTRAL STATIONS
26
[ART. 41
Determining
Ammeter
it is
Fig. 5, wherefrom the maximum-demand value over the seIf it is necessary that
lected time interval can be computed.
demand value be in kilowatts it is also necessary to observe simultaneous voltage values wherefrom the power can be
computed. On the commercial constant-potential circuits
it is usually considered unnecessary to make simultaneous
the
is
load
is
reasonably steady
it is
FIG. 12.
Knopp
being Measured
J_ '
"
'
'
'f/ux'-flBlaritylndfcator
42. An Ammeter for Direct-current Line, Maximum-demand Measurements is diagrammed in Fig. 12. This may
be utilized on either direct-current aerial line wires or on singleconductor cables without its being necessary to open the conductor under test. The device may be considered as comprising
two
M.
essential
The
a variable
resistor,
R;
polarity indicator, P.
N; and
(4)
a flux
SEC.
3]
27
and permitting current from the battery to flow through the winding
on the instrument.
This causes the flux polarity indicator to move toward the right, show-
of the relay
ing the observer that the indicating magnet is, because of the influence
of the flux due to A, making a contact with B.
Now, current is perand
mitted to flow from the battery through the ammeter winding of
by adjusting the
coil
and
this current
is
variable re-
ductor A,
When
will
magnet
with
and the
flux-polarity indi-
the instrument
will in-
The exploring
coil
may
be used at FlG
is
13.
Portable transformer
open, cable having been inserted,
.
correspondingly increased.
Maximum Demand in Alternatingcurrent Lines the currents flowing in the line can be ascertained with a portable testing transformer such as that illus43.
The complete
outfit
(Fig.
14)
of
an
manufacturers) will indicate the current intensity in the conductor under test.
CENTRAL STATIONS
28
[ART. 44
Maximum Demand
with a Graphic
merely necessary to examine the
graphic record produced by the instrument for the period under
consideration and thereby find, by inspection, the greatest
power demand that' has occurred in any time interval of
the prescribed duration. Fig. 7 shows a typical record
from a graphic ammeter while Fig. 8 shows that from a
wattmeter. These illustrations have been referred to in preit is
ceding paragraphs.
45.
15, 16
in Figs.
in stru-
Split-Type
FIG. 14.
The general
It is made only for alternating-current service.
operating principle is the same for the single-phase as for the
polyphase meter. These instruments are installed in the
same manner
demand-meter mechanism.
watts,
is
indicated
by the
pointer,
dial.
The integrating energy
the four-dial counter.
is
kilo4-in.
registered in kilowatt-hours on
SBC. 3]
CONSTRUCTION.
An
auxiliary
aluminum
29
mounted
in
The mechanism
is
The
auxiliary disc (A, Fig. 17) performs a function somewhat similar to that
of a main spring, in that it furnishes power for driving the demand pointer
and the escapement F, while the rate of progression of the demand pointer,
Mefa/Core,
Single-phase watthour
demand meter (Westinghouse Type
RO).
FIG.
15.
FIG. 16.
Polyphase
watthour
46.
this:
The
RO
Demand Meter is
Principle of Operation of the
energy flows through the meter, the main watt-
When
The
auxiliary disc
CENTRAL STATIONS
30
[AKT. 46
claw
oscillates,
the load.
may
disc
Timing Gears,--
continue to rotate
/V^ \1
H Kimillillimdll mUitM
Escapement
Claw
Escapement
^Auxiliary Shaft
"Eccentric
Wheel-'
-LightSpring
Auxiliary 0/sc-
FIG. 17.
Diagrammatic representation
of
RO demand
mechanism
pf
Westinghouse Type
meter.
between
NOTE
auxiliary shaft
is
equilibrium
when the
load
is
reduced.
SEC. 3]
31
always tend to follow the variation in load; at the same time the demand
pointer will always indicate the maximum demand up to the instant at
which the instrument was observed.
To
47.
RO Demand
Meter
explained thus:
constant load is
When
ure of the
may be
any
being
is
con-
stant.
it requires just
15 min. to reach equilibrium when
metered
is
500 watts.
Then,
if
circuit
now
Meter
The Wright
(Figs.
Demand
FIG.
13.
CENTRAL STATIONS
32
[ART. 49
be metered, flows through the resistor coil of platiwhich is wound around an enlargement A of a U-shaped hermetically sealed glass tube. The tube is partially
When current flows
filled with sulphuric acid or similar fluid.
thereof, to
noid, C,
tube.
The quantity
of liquid
increase
in
II
them in
FIG. 19.
spacing
operation
use.
device has
The
not
many
of
design of the
been altered
state that
demand-meter pointer
is
usually actuated
by the expansion
SEC. 3]
They
are
all
33
ments.
These demand meters operate in conjunction with a watthour meter, substantially as suggested in Fig. 22. The
demand-indicating element is driven electrically from the
register of the watt-hour meter.
Fig. 21
anism
of
OPERATION.
is
21)
meter.
contact
(Fig.
Whenever C
one notch.
In this
way the
friction
FIG. 20.
Alternating-current de-
repre-
pointer
to S.
is
propelled
on the
scale
is
de-
CENTRAL STATIONS
34
[ART. 50
FIG. 21.
Diagrammatic representation of operating mechanism of
alternating-current demand meter.
(General Electric Co., Type M-4,
Form AA). The corresponc ng direct-current meter (Form BA) is similar
s
that
the
disc and shaft
except
replaced by a clock mechanism.
is
working
is
of the time intervals for which the meter hasbeen a d justed (for example
SEC. 3]
35
at the end of each 15-min. interval or the end of each 30-min. interval)
the trip levers T, by the action of the cams K, will be pulled together by
FIG. 22.
Method of connecting alternating-current demand meter for
440 and 660-volt loads. For 110 and 220-volt loads, and for direct-current
loads the transformer is omitted.
The cams
are caused to
is
pulled together the clutch at
released and the spring S will return
the dog
to the zero position. But
obvious,
pointer will
assuming that
its scale
is
been in operation.
After the
maximum-demand
read-
The
type
is
direct-current
FIG.
23.
Printometer-type demeter (General Electric,
Form
Type P,
AA).
mand
of this general
CENTRAL STATIONS
36
[ART. 51
which
is
Watthour Meter,
'"Demand Meter
i
^Contact-Making Clock
for Making Contact at
Predetermined Time
Intervals
FIG. 24.
Diagrammatic representation
eter-type
of operating
demand
mechanism
of
printom-
meter.
shown
in Fig. 26.
This record shows the total energy consumption as registered by the watt-hour meter. It also shows
SEC.
3]
37
demand can be
26)
which also
hour
occurred.
it
As energy flows
(Fig. 24)
through the watt-hour meter
the meter contact is successively closed and
opened and, whenever it is closed, current
hour meter
dial.
-White
.."?bfrs
Black
FIQ.
25.
contactor
meter.
'.
and Hands
D,.<
clock
Contact-making
for printometer-type
or
demand
A " twelve-hour
FIG. 26.
"
record from a printometer
demand meter (General Electric Co. Type P)
Illustration
,
is
The contactor C (Fig. 24) on the clock makes contact at the predetermined time intervals (for example, every 15 min. or every 30 min.)
and each time that it does the kilowatt-hour consumption up to that
instant is recorded on the tape as shown in Fig. 26. Simultaneously the
50279
CENTRAL STATIONS
[ART. 52
in Fig. 26
is
obtained.
27
is
convenient.
An
Electric
Top Lug
Stylu
FIG.
27.
mand meter
A graphic
(General Electric,
FIG. 28.
demand meter
Type G-2).
field tests.
SEC. 3]
FIG. 29.
FIG. 30.
39
CENTRAL STATIONS
40
[ART. 52
When
FIG. 31.
Method
of
connecting
alternating-current
graphic
demand
meter for 440-volt circuits. For 220 and 110-volt alternating-current loads
and for direct-current loads, the transformer is omitted.
again completes the gear transmission system between the armature
and the stylus. This having been effected the demand-meter
movement is in trim to again drive the stylus over the chart during the
lever
demand meter
speed, the stylus will travel a different course over the chart during each
time interval as shown in Fig. 30. In any time interval the distance
number
of
is,
demands
line
at
The end
maximum demand.
of the longest
SEC.
3]
52a.
Meter
41
The
is
Wat 'hour
Meter Dial,
6 lass Window
FIG. 32.
RA
'Record Paper
watthour meter.
on a
four-dial
It
'Perforations to Engage
Pins in Driving Drum
FIG. 34.
Record of a 15-minutemeter.
interval
RA
FIG. 35.
Record
interval
a 30-minutemeter.
of
RA
CENTRAL STATIONS
42
[ART. 53
PRINCIPLE OP OPERATION. Under load, the gear train of the watthour meter advances the counters in the regular manner. At the same
time the gear train causes the ink-carrying pen to advance across the
record paper in proportion to the energy registered. At the end of a
predetermined time interval a stud on the reset wheel releases the pen
gear from mesh with the gear train and a balancing weight returns the
pen to zero, where it is again meshed with the gear train to repeat its
advance during the next time interval.
Just before the pen gear is released, the record paper is advanced
Ke in- by the operating spring so that the pen makes a distinct and
readily observed record of the maximum pen travel. This record shows
both the amount of integrated demand and (by the time calibration
printed on the record paper) the time of its occurrence. The meter
may be geared for 15, 30 and 60-min. time intervals.
Demand
53.
Factor*
is
"the ratio
of the
maximum demand
of
of the
system
"
expressed as a percentage. Thus, to obtain the demand
factor" of any installation, divide the maximum demand
It
is
~
,
= maximum demand
Demand factor
,-,
(7)
connected load.
(8)
/r .v
-,
Connected load
(9)
The Explanation
54.
sidered: It
maximum
demand factor.
"Demand
"receivers"
of
is
is
equal to the
sum
ampere ratings or
I.
E. E. STANDARDIZATION RULES.
SEC. 3]
NOTE.
that
It follows
demand
however
(see
maximum
43
factors are
accompanying
encountered. Also,
than 100 per cent.
The Determination
effected
if
of a
(1)
manufacturers' ratings of all of the receiver devices in the inThe values thus obtained may then be substituted
stallation.
or in kilowatts.
cases
direct-current, line-testing
connected load
is
CENTRAL STATIONS
44
[ART. 58
market, except those of the thermal types, indicate the maximum demand in watts or in kilowatts. Where ammeters,
similar to those of Figs. 13 or 14 are used, the maximumdemand value thereby obtained is, obviously, in amperes.
The thermal-type demand meters usually read in amperes.
multiplied
ampere equivalent.
NOTE.
in either kilowatts or
Hence,
circuit
it
may
is
way in
compiled to apply.
investment.
EXAMPLE. A certain residence has a connected load as follows:
four 60-watt lamps, twenty 40-watt lamps, six 10-watt lamps. With a
SEC 3]
4i>
CENTRAL STATIONS
46
demand meter
What
watts.
it is
is
the
demand
[AST. 59
maximum demand
is 838
SOLUTION.
EXAMPLE.
The connected
is
3.6
kw.
What
will,
watts.
2.2
be, probably,
about
kw.
demand
factor
is
known
to be 55 per cent.,
what
is
the
Substitute
59. The Tables of Demand Factors which are given herewith are intended merely to serve as guides. While it is
believed that they represent average conditions they must be
used with judgment. The only certain way to determine
demand
by test.
all
conditions as
it
would be to com-
certain complexion
woman
of a
SEC.
3]
47
CENTRAL STATIONS
48
[ART. 62
62. Approximate Demand Factors for Small Lighting Consumers. The following factors are those said to be used in
the
is
demand
those tabulated
if
maximum demand.
SEC. 3]
49
*
The values in the columns headed A are those which have been used
n Chicago. These values were plotted in Fig. 38. Then the smooth
jurves were drawn through them. The average taken from these smooth
rraph values are given in the columns headed B.
300
FIG. 38.
Graph showing
400
500
600
Watts Connected Load
relation of
demand
connected load.
63.
Demand
all
important
CENTRAL STATIONS
50
[ART. 64
To be of material value
studies, be determined by test.
such test should extend over an extended period because experience has shown that the demand of motor loads may be
very much greater on certain days or months than on others.
64. Approximate Demand Factors for Alternating-current
Motor Installations. Factors are based on observed data
from a number of sources on a 30-min.-interval maximum demand. In this table it is assumed that (equation 7): Demand
factor
= (maximum demand
in kva.}
-\-
(connected load
in kw.}.
65.
Approximate
Installations.
number
In
this
of sources
table
demand in
kw.)
Demand
on a short-time interval
(equation
7):
demand
maximum demand.
= (maximum
factor
SEC. 3]
66.
The Importance
of
51
The
usual tendency
when
installing transformers
transformer
always be made to ascertain the facts and determine the consumers actual maximum demand. It will be found that in
CENTRAL STATIONS
52
NOTE.
[ART. 66
by the saving
in
will result.
Where transformers
interest charge
former
stalled
their
is
it is desirable to base the capacity of the transformer to be inon the diversity factor (Art. 70) of the consumers as well as on
demand
factors.
SECTION
among:
There
is
a "diversity"
400
P.M.
Fio. 39.
serve.
Graph showing
And, as
will
diversity between
be shown
later, it is,
loads.
from an economic
That
at different times,
is,
their different
maximum demands
occur
54
CENTRAL STATIONS
[ART. 67
FOR ILLUSTRATION.
It is ob-
facturing
the
require
dinarily
greatest
ample department
erally
manufacturing establishments.
Hence, there is a diversity of
classes
Fig.
different
central-station
39 illustrates
the
load.
general
shows
It
and lighting-load
graphs for an average city and
also indicates the total-load graph
which is obtained by adding together those for the power and
the lighting loads. It will be
noted that the power-load peak
and the lighting-load peak do
not occur at the same time.
idea
graphically.
typical power
demand
is
diversity
between
their
maximum demands.
It follows that the
mum
demand on a
maxitrans-
from
that
transformer.
SEC. 4]
55
the
sum
of the
mand
area of each of the rectangles, 1 to 11, in the diagram, is proportional to the maximum demand of the corresponding group
of consumers.
Then the combined or simultaneous maxi-
mum
was found.
the 82 consumers was 9,770 kw. and it occurred about 5:00 P.M.
December. At the same hour at which this 9,770 kw. was
in
maximum demands
stations
combined maximum
an element in
were not
demand imposed on
is
If it
CENTRAL STATIONS
56
sum
of the
is
[ART. 70
maximum demands of
of the
EXAMPLE.
maximum
demand
for 100
200 kw.
-f-
150 kw.
It follows
1.33.
then that:
(11)
Sum
of ind.
of individual
= sum ^-
max. -demands
maximum demand of entire group
max. dem. = (diversity factor) X
fin\ r\*
f *
(10) Diversity factor
-,
-=
-.
/m\
(12)
if
Max
diversity factor
I.
E. E. STANDARDIZATION
RULES, Sec. 60.
SEC. 4]
in accord
is
(10)
hence,
is
with the A.
I.
57
utilized herein.
of the six
meters,
MiM*
etc.,
is:
612
118
+ 625 =
2,601
The maximum demand of the whole group as indicated on the maximum-demand indicator Mr, is only 0.86 kw. because
the maximum demands of the consumers did not all occur at the same
watts
2.601 kw.
Then:
time.
Diversity factor
sum
2.601
3.02.
max.
dem.
of
entire
0.86
group
Therefore, the diversity factor between the six consumers of Fig. 41 and
the supply main
is 3.02.
AB
Buildings
To Staffon
Diversity
FIG. 41.
'0.86
of
diversity factor.
graph
for
M M
CENTRAL STATIONS
58
375XlV. ^Jrni
s
rrans-~
former
WM
425 KW r&m\
Transformer^^
[ABT. 70
A.MHERST
Maximum Demand- 650 KwJ
400 Kw. Transformer
o^Energ
Maximum Demand
(3)
"9
FIG. 42.
in 1, 2, 3
and 4
of Fig. 43.
~<IOO
imiiiiiiiiiniiw
FIG. 43.
34567Q9/0
//Noon/2
SRC. 4]
From
59
and
Fig. 44, in
4, it is
It follows
sum
Div. fac.
NOTE
(10) be:
max. dem. of
entire
375
2.54.
650
group
maximum demand
of only 650
12
AM I
Time
FIG. 44.
345
Graph
of
73-9/0
combined loads
1, 2,
and
UNoonlZ
4.
it
is
necessary to use
maximum-demand
indicators,
which usually means that the service conductors of each consumer involved in the study must be equipped with a maximum-demand meter. Frequently maximum-demand meters
are used on the consumers services in studies of this sort.
Then, to obtain the equivalent watts demand, the maximum
is multiplied by the normal voltage
of the circuit, it being assumed that this voltage remains
H. B. Gear of the Chicago Edison Company has
constant.
made important studies of diversity, some of which are outlined in detail in his book ELECTRIC CENTRAL STATION
SYSTEMS. Most of the demand-factor values recited herein
are based on his observations.
CENTRAL STATIONS
60
[ART. 72
consumers.
'Transmission
Line-.
Substation
Transmission
Line
FIG. 45.
2.
^--Generating Station
The
diversity
among
the
demands
components
of a
of the transformers in
a group.
3.
The
diversity
different feeders
4.
The
the
on a sub-station.
diversity
different sub-stations
among
them.
5.
of
The
consumers
SEC. 4]
73. Diversity-factor
by Local Conditions.
people in a
61
community
The
characteristics
and habits
of the
will affect
components of a system may be determined in a measby the layout of the system itself, as explained in a follow-
of the
ure
Hence,
ing paragraph under residence-lighting transformers.
obvious that it is practically impossible to predict with
it is
accuracy the diversity factor that will apply for a given set
of conditions unless one is already familiar with the diversity
factor which has been ascertained by observation and test for
like conditions.
However, the factors which are suggested
below and given in Table 75 are, probably, fairly typical.
They may ordinarily be used without great error in estimating
situations similar to those to
specifically.
The Diversity of Demand Between Residence-lighting Consumers is usually, where a dozen or so consumers are
In one block
involved, represented by a factor of about 3.4.
in Chicago, which was supplied by a single transformer and
in which there were 34 consumers it was found* that the sum
of the consumer's maximum demands was 12 kw., while the
maximum demand of the group was 3.6 kw. This gave a
74.
maximum demands was 68 kw. The maximum demand imposed on the transformer serving the block was 20
kw. Hence, the diversity among these consumers was:
sumers'
68 -s- 20 = 3.40. The factor indicating the diversity between the demands of residence consumers is quite large because a residence may be drawing a considerable load one
evening and none at all the next. Furthermore, if one
CENTRAL STATIONS
62
some
[ART. 75
social function,
is
little
power.
residences
is
consumers.
much
75. Diversity
System.
Chicago.
column
Lighting
STANDARD HANDBOOK.
SEC. 4]
63
...
3Kw. Transformer
JKw. Transformers
I
Ma
imum Demand'
-Meters-
bOOKw.Max.Dem.
"
'~"~:
**
FIG. 46.
20-lKw Transformers
among the
The reason
The
CENTRAL STATIONS
64
[ART. 78
20 kw.
the load, as at 7,
-=6 kw. = 3.33.
Assume that these 20 customers are to be served by only two transformers each feeding 10 consumers as at //. Also assume that the
same diversity factor, 3.33, would obtain between consumers. Then the
maximum demand imposed by transformers /i and I 2 would each be:
10 kw.
-r
3.33
+ 3 =6
3 kw.
The sum
of their
is:
kw.
ponent equipment.
NOTE that in the example just given, the economy in transformer
capacity resulting from the grouping of a relatively large number of
consumers on one transformer. In Case / twenty 1-kw. transformers
are required while in Case II, two 3-kw. transformers will handle the
load.
The average diversity factor among residence-lighting transformers in a number of Minnesota cities is 1.60.* This
rather high value is attributed to the fact that probably an
unnecessary large number of small transformers were used.
If
the
of transformers
Max. dem.
= (^n.^ad) X
of entire group
(dem. fact.\
diversity factor
The
by
P. J. Nilsenf
il-
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE.
inhabitants.
W.
The
utility
T. Ryan.
5,
1916, p. 230.
SEC. 4]
65
effected the distribution energy losses (energy lost and unaccounted for)
were equal to one-half the energy sold; the distribution-loss factor was
50 per cent.
original
TABLE A.
For a 53-day period during the winter the energy purchased was 2,500
was only 1,600 kw.-hr., which left 900
kw.-hr. unaccounted for. Simple calculations disclosed that the sum of
the transformer-core losses and of the meter potential-coil losses for the
53-day period totaled 738 kw.-hr. Only 162 kw.-hr. then remained unaccounted for. This was probably due to losses in the transmission and
distribution line wires which losses were not estimated.
By applying the demand and diversity factors specified in Table B
to the connected-load values of Table A the logical "proposed" transformer capacities given in column IV, Table C were computed. Thus,
kw.-hr., while the energy sold
Max. dem.
(con. load)
6.48
(dem. fac.)
of entire group
0.45
3.57
diversity factor
0.817 kva.
Then, for
Max. dem.
of entire group
(con. load)
(dem. fac.)
6.00
0.75
1.54
diversity factor
2.92 kva.
CENTRAL STATIONS
66
[ART. 78
sum
Max. dem.
0.817
of entire group
and
two
+ 2.92
1.18
diversity factor
3.16 kva.
sum
of the individual
maximum demands
of
all
of the dis-
B) thus:
TABLE B.
SBC. 4]
67
TABLE
h.p.
C.
day
Max. dem.
sum
of ind.
max. dem.
of entire group
diversity factor
3.16
1.25
+ 3.03 +
1.28
6.56 kva.
1.33
Therefore, the simultaneous maximum demand imposed on the substation transformer would be: 6.56
4.8 = 11.36 kva. (column II,
Table C) and a 15-kva. transformer (column IV, D) would be of ample
capacity to carry the entire load and provide for some growth.
It is evident from Table A that the changes resulted in a decrease in
to Oct.
1,
and then
installing
an ad-
However, the increase in investment and attendance cost involved, would offset the saving in core loss.
EXAMPLE. Consider the conditions of Fig. 47, wherein 36 residencelighting consumers are shown. The connected load of each consumer in
68
CENTRAL STATIONS
[ART. 78
SEC.
4]
69
indicated at each building. If it is decided to serve these consumers with three transformers, A, B and C, what should the capacities
of these transformers be and what will be the maximum demand imposed
watts
is
D?
It will be assumed that the consumers dethe diversity factor among these consumers is
3.35 and that the diversity factor among transformers is 1.3. SOLUTION.
670
480
The connected load of Group A is: 1,420
600
1,510
680
515
910
1,460
2,520 = 13,555 watts =
1,310
1,480
13.6 kw.
Then substituting in equation (13):
mand
factor
is
0.50, that
Max. dem.
of entire group
(con. Id.)
(dem. fac.)
diversity factor
X 0.5
--
13.6
2.00 kw.
6.65
Therefore, a 2-kva. transformer could be used at A.
The connected load of Group B is: 1,630
1,420
450
420
1,500
18 kw.
420
+
+
Then
+ 1,460 + 1,510 +
+ 960 + 2,560 +
1,310
substituting in equation
(13):
Max. dem.
of ent. group
(con.
Id.)
(dem. fac.)
diversity factor
18
0.5
320
2,560
+ 2,400 +
1,610
1,240
13,930 watts
'
7to
2,210
1,580
13.9 kw. Then
Max. dem.
of entire group
(con.
Id.)
(dem. fac.)
diversity factor
13.9
0.5
3.35
Therefore, a 2-kva. transformer would probably suffice at C.
Now to find the maximum demand imposed on primary main
sub-
Max. dem.
of entire group
2.0
2.7
1.3
2.1
6.8
5.2 kw.
1.3
Therefore, 5.2 kw. would be the maximum demand on the primary main
at D.
In actual practice it would, probably, be desirable to serve all the
CENTRAL STATIONS
70
[ART. 80
78A. The Diversity of the Demands Among Feeders appears to range in the neighborhood of about 1.15 in a welldesigned system. In other words, the maximum demands
Max. dem.
of entire group
sum
of ind.
max. dem.
diversity factor
_650+486_1 1 135
1.15
1.15
manufacturing communities
similar characteristics
or
is liable
is,
of
in the
neighborhood of 1.00.
80. The Total Diversity Factor for a System is equal to the
product of the diversity factors of all of the components of the
system.
EXAMPLE.
What
lighting load of a
is
1.30;
among
SBC. 4]
71
second column of
demands of light-
months.*
81.
per 100
factor expressed as
EXAMPLE.
a percentage by
capacity would be required, under these conditions, per 100 kw. connected residence-lighting load.
NOTE. By the above outlined process it can be shown that, for commercial-lighting loads, about 37-kw. station capacity is necessary per
100 kw. connected and for general power loads about 40 kw. per 100 kw.
In Minneapolis! (population 325,000) the ratio of the maxistation to the total connected load is
approximately 1 to 3, that is, 33-kw. station capacity per 100 kw. connected load.
connected.
mum
The
follow-
EXAMPLE.
of 100, 300,
H. B. Gear,
t W. T. Ryan.
CENTRAL STATIONS
72
[ART. 83
system
will operate
members
ment,
power during the day time is somewhat of the nature of a byproduct and can, therefore, be sold at a correspondingly lower rate than
plied for
Samuel
Insull in the
STANDARD HANDBOOK.
SECTION
of a Machine, Plant or
to the
System
is
maximum power
during
taken over a
interval of the
(1)
The Formulas
86.
mum demand"
for
which
(if
"maximum power"
is
thus:
,..,
,,
T
Load
factor
(14)
Average power
,,,,.
(16) Maximum demand
(15)
A.
I.
average power
:
maximum demand
(load factor)
(maximum demand)
average power
=
,
,
M
load factor.
73
CENTRAL STATIONS
74
[ART. 87
EXAMPLE. In the central station serving a certain city of 8,000 inhabitants the peak load or 30-min. -interval maximum demand for the
232 kw. What was the
year 1915 was 580 kw. and the average power
SOLUTION. Substituting in
30-min., annual load factor for that year?
the
demand)
MaximumDemand'SOOKw.)
-Load Factor
FIG. 48.
Two
FIG. 49.
Load graph
.-545%
for
Load
demand that
will
it will
be imposed on
handle the
it.
But
maximum power
it is
seldom, because
SEC.
5]
the
during
all
it
any equipment
will
75
have
it
is
That
continually.
money whether
it is
is,
any equipment
producing or
idle.
is
costing
Now
its
owner
money than
it is
sirable to
EXAMPLE.
If
NOTE.
it
relates
is
energy consumption
is
known.
The Effect of Increased Diversity of Demand Is to Increase Load Factor almost in direct proportion to the increase
88.
CENTRAL STATIONS
76
IABT. 89
a feature that should be understood. As the load factor demust necessarily increase.
creases, the cost of supplying energy
A central
must have
sufficient capacity
it
the
money which
ing
all
it is
SBC.
5]
77
maximum demand on
JO
50
60
40
Percent Load Factor
90
100
Fio. 51.
Graph (H. G. Stott) showing how the cost of generating energy
increases as the load factor decreases.
Graphs show only operating and
maintenance
costs.
The
NOTE. Fixed charges vary inversely as the load factor (see example
relating to Fig. 50). Operating cost* (Fig. 51) varies inversely about as
the fourth root of the load factor.
H. G.
Stott.
CENTRAL STATIONS
78
[ART. 91
The Period Over Which a Load Factor Should be Reckbe determined by the circumstances of the case.
Where an ordinary load to be supplied by a central station is
90.
oned
will
involved, it
load factor
is
which
Where no period
assumed.
such comparisons.
91. To Compute the Average Power or the Energy Consumption Over a Given Period of Time the following formulas
may be used. To calculate average power: Divide the kilowatt-hours energy expended during the period by the number of
hours in the period: the result will be the average power, in kilowatts,
,.,_,
(17)
Average power
That
kw.-hr.
= -
is:
^r
^r^
and,
(18) no. of hr. in period
also,
(av.
power)
EXAMPLE. Refer to Fig. 52. What was the average load on Generator Gi which operated 5,545 hr. during a year and developed 133,086
kw.-hr. of energy? SOLUTION.
Substitute in equation (17): Av. power
(kw.-hr.
5,545
= 24
station
SOLUTION.
G.
I.
Substituting in equation
Rhodes.
(17): Av.
power
(kw.-hr.
ex-
SEC.
5]
''Bus
>Jft#fok-Totalizing
79
Waffhour Meter
Bars
12345
Operated 7800Hr&
the Year
f. '.^T^Tyj^ during
r
Operated 5,545 Mrs. during the Year
Fio. 52.
FIG. 53.
Determination
Examples
of
in
Registers 234
!
Kw. Hr in 10 Hrs
5'Arc Lamps at
500 Watts- 2.5Kw.
Motor
\Watthour
~
!Incandescent Lamps
5.5 Kw.
\
Welding Machined
Power Inpufsl-'*-5
FIG. 54.
*"
capacity-factor problem.
13 Kw.-
CENTRAL STATIONS
80
[ART. 92
=
hr. in period) = 289,080 4- 8,760
pended during period) -^ (no. of
33 kw. = average annual load.
EXAMPLE. The watt-hour meter totaling the energy supplied to a
a certain year an
certain industrial plant (Fig. 53) indicated during
load imannual consumption of 167,302 kw.-hr. What was the average
SOLUTION. Substituting in equaposed by this plant during this year?
-f(no. of hr.
tion (17): Av. power = (kw.-hr. expended during period)
= 19.1 kw. That is, the average annual
in period) = 167,302 -^ 8,760
load imposed was 19.1 kw. Also see Fig. 54, for another example.
92.
To Determine
the Average
method
illustrated in Fig.
55 and in the
A.M.
FIG. 55.
Illustrating
method
M
maximum demand from
P.
of
computing
&
load graph.
be the average
load.
SEC.
5]
81
number
of intervals
will
be the
a 24-hr, period.
irregular
When
is
extremely
may be
to use 15-min.,
of time,
it
What
EXAMPLE.
Fig.
55?
SOLUTION.
is
33.4 kw.
Planimeter.
Drawing Board''
FIG. 56.
Weight
-Thumb Tacks^
Load Graph
Tracer Punt
CENTRAL STATIONS
82
[ART. 94
graph in inches.
average height or
power in
kilowatts.
gS
FIG. 57.
Example
of the determination of
each section and then add all of these partial areas together
Detailed directions for using planimeters accompany each instrument or may be found in books
on steam-engine or indicator practice.
of
EXAMPLE. Find the average power from the graph of Fig. 57 with a
planimeter and compute the energy thereby represented. SOLUTION.
By using the planimeter it is found that the area (ABCDEFGHIJKLMA)
within the graph, representing energy, is 27,547 sq. in. (Note that the
cut shown is only about one-third the size of the original graph on which
this
ing, to
The
9%
length,
in.
AL,
of the
9.625 in.
or ordinate of the
It will
SEC. 5]
83
is
To Determine
is
be obtained directly as
Maximum-demand
computing a load
method
may
factor, the
the
is
available.
maximum demand
problems.
NOTE.
of
an energy-receiving installation
is
CENTRAL STATIONS
84
..
PI
[ART. 96
(Graph BefngMeasureef
acing
ofnf
Thumb Tacks
Drawing Board
FIG. 58.
'
fNeedte Pole
'Tracing Point
Boiler
Wheel
Thumb
Tacks
Graph
.12
FIG. 59.
Method
10 12
4 6 8
10
/,
mean
or
The planimeter is held upside down and points P and Pi are so adjusted that the distance between them is exactly equal to the length L of the load graph. Then the arm is
clamped and the planimeter used in the usual way. However, instead of indicating
the area, the mean height of the graph may be ascertained from the readings.
Thus,
with one make of instrument, the difference between the readings at the beginning and
at the end of the operation divided by 0.4 will give the mean heieht of the graph in
inches.
Now
Example: (Second reading, 4,322)
(first
reading, 4,786) = 0.464.
0.464 ^- 0.4 = 1.16 which is the mean height of the diagram in inches.
SEC. 5]
97.
The Equation
85
Demand
the Basis of
is
/\
T
3
Load
(20)
(21)
factor
Dem.
average power
power =
(dem .factor)
rn
Average power
(22)
av
fac.
(dem.fac.)
(con. load)
(23)
(con. load)
(dem. factor)
EXAMPLE.
X (con. load}'
X (load factor)
power
(load factor)
Connected load
follows that:
it
(load factor)
of a certain theatre
is
3.2
kw.
Its
average power, consumption during the year (8,760 hr.) 1915 was 0.27
kw. If a demand factor of 49 per cent, be assumed as applying to this
class of service
what will be the annual
see accompanying Table 99
load factor for this installation? SOLUTION. Substitute in equation
(20):
Load
factor
H-
power)
(av.
= 0.27
(con. toad)]
[(dem. fac.)
= 17.2 per cent., which is the
1.57
may
(0.49
3.2)
-J-
-H
0.27
0.172
formulas.
different
loads:
Max.
dem.
(connected
load)
(demand
av.
power
(24)
power)
(av.
(diversity factor)
X (dem. factor)
X (diversity
factor)
-/.
\ /,
*j.
(load factor) X (demand factor)
(av. power) X (diversity
* Jfactor)
.-.
\ -.
(load factor) X (connected load)
(connected load)
(25)
(26)
Connected load
Demand factor
=
=*
(av.
power)
A
jr,
-;
CENTRAL STATIONS
86
= -(load /ac.) X
(27)
Av. power
(28)
Diversity factor
FIG. 60.
Example
in
[ART. 99
(con, load)
(dem. /ac.)
= (load
/ac.)
(con, load)
(dem. /ac.)
average power
of connected load,
demand
EXAMPLE. What will be the probable annual load factor (Fig. 60) of
the load imposed at A by the five manufacturing plants shown, if the
average load is 2.06 kw. It is assumed that the demand factor of their
loads
The
Then,
substituting
(diversity factor)
0.5)
(2.96
-T-T-
in
equation
(con. load)
9.9)
is
8.6
(24):
+ 3.2 + 4.1 +
Load
(dem. factor)
0.30
30 per
30 per cent.
cent.
factor
SOLUTION.
1.7
(av.
19.8 kw.
power)
(19.8
Hence, the load factor of
(2.06
1.44)
W.
Lloyd.
SEC. 5]
87
be obtained under
all
88
CENTRAL STATIONS
[ART. 100
*E. W.Lloyd.
SBC.
5]
Furniture manufacturing
Foundries
30
:
Hotels (small)
Hotels (large)
Ice-cream manufacturing
Machine shops
Newspapers
Packing houses
offices
Power buildings
Refrigeration
Railroad depots
Pneumatic tube
Soap manufacturers
Seed cleaners
Screw manufacturers
Spice mills
Saw manufacturers
Structural steel
10
25
20
35
50
45
Jewelry manufacturing
Laundries
Post
factor
15
Grain elevators
Glove manufacturing
Grocers (wholesale)
B
Demand
Forge shops
Paint, lead
A
Load
factor
'
18
25
26
20
30
23
25
26
50
27
50
50
50
25
70
80
65
65
30
Woolen
mills
Wood-working
Textile mills...
50
55
30
40
90
50
90
60
30
27
28
20
Twine
Small restaurants
75
45
50
18
Theatres
Large restaurants
75
55
55
50
40
75
50
70
55
75
55
75
55
55
40
70
55
60
60
60
25
30
20
30
22
Sheet-metal manufacturers
Stone cutters
mills
65
75
49
17
16
89
CENTRAL STATIONS
[AKT. 102
than 20 per cent.; in a large city it will be less than 25 per cent.
the addition of electric-motor and heating-appliance loads, these load
factors have been improved (see Fig. 61) from year to year during the
of less
By
1301 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 19/0 1911
1912
SEC. 5]
91
in small cities operate only during the night and industrialplant generating stations may operate only during the day.
Operating-load factors have their application for conditions
such as these.
in
What
is
is
mum demand) = 4.4 -f- 16.9 0.26 = 26 per cent. (2) The average
load over the entire year is 15,576 kw.-hr. -i- 8,760 hr. = 1.775 kw.
Hence, the annual load factor = (average power load over entire year)
=
T-
(maximum demand) =
1.775
-5-
16.9
0.105
too
"
01
3 4
5 6
8 9
10
II
12 13
14
15 16 17 18 13
20 21 22 23 24
Maximum Demand
1460 2190 2920 3650 4380 5110 5840 6570 7300 8030 8760
730
7665 83S5
1095
1825 Z5S5 3285 4015 4745 5475 6205 6335
365
Kilowatt Hours Energy Expenditure, per Year, per Kw of Maximum Demand
FIG. 62.
Graph showing
maximum demand.
103. To Compute the Energy Delivered or Consumed by
a Given Installation of Known Load Factor when the maximum
demand is known, reckon the average power by using formula
(15) and then figure the energy consumption by applying
formula (19). Where the maximum demand is not known
but where the connected load and demand and diversity
factors are
known equation
(21)
or (27)
CENTRAL STATIONS
92
examples
[ART. 104
An
EXAMPLE.
6-hr, use per day of the maximum demand and an annual energy expenditure of 2,190 kw.-hr., per kw. of maximum demand. Thus if a
certain installation has a load factor of 25 per cent, and its maximum
demand
is
is:
42
2,190
91,980 kw.-hr.
plant having a
maximum
generated
may
If
$1,200.
hr. per
year
The yearly
EXAMPLE.
Then the fixed charge per kilowatt-hour would be: $1,200 -=876,000 kw.-hr. = $0.00137 = 0.137 eta., as plotted in Fig. 50 at A. Now
if the load factor is 25 per cent., only one-half the energy would be
generated, that is, there would be generated 8,760 hr. X 25 kw. = 219,000
kw-hr. per year. Then the fixed charge per kilowatt hour would be:
$1,200 * 219,000 = $0.00548 = 0.548 cts., as plotted at B. That is,
with a load factor of 25 per cent, the fixed charge has been increased fourfold.
The other points on the graph may be determined by a similar
per year.
process.
is
(29)
Plant factor
i.e.,
= --, average
~.
load
7 1
rated capacity of
plant
(30)
Average load
(31)
(plant factor)
"*ff*l*.
plant factor
Albert F. Strouae.
t A. I. E. E. STANDARDIZATION RULES, Sec. 56.
SEC.
5]
93
in Fig.
per cent.
FIG. 63.
106.
There
May Be
may
CENTRAL STATIONS
94
[ART. 107
plant factor
may
the
may
be from 25
is
logical to
is
NOTE.*
"A
machine rated
power
A.
I.
SEC.
5]
95
load.
Thus a generator of a certain size and of a certain manufacture IB
given a normal rating of 100 kva. This means that the machine is capable of carrying continuously a load of 100 kva., and that it will also
150 kva. for 1 hr. after it has been
carry an overload of 50 per cent.
continuously carrying its 100 kva. normal load. Furthermore, this same
machine will carry 135 kva. continuously (35 per cent, over its normal
or continuous
rating) and hence can be called a 135-kva. maximum
rating machine.
The generator discussed had a normal rating of 100 kva. and a continuous or maximum rating of 135 kva. The present tendency is to
give all electrical machinery only one rating the continuous. This
will tend to minimize the confusion relating to ratings which now exists.
Practically all generators and transformers are now rated only on the
maximum
The Importance
High as Possible
will
It
is
specified.
of rating
some
sort.
output of a plant of
as relating to
the output of an energy delivering plant or to the output of any individual unit or group of equipment in the plant or station. Thus, there
may be a capacity factor for a station and a capacity factor for any generator or motor generator in a station.
more general
p. 875.
CENTRAL STATIONS
96
[ART. Ill
factor"
relate to the
(33) Average
(34)
power input
Connected load
=
=
= ^age
power input
connected load
(con.
load factor}
(con.
load)
SEC. 5]
97
relates
is
that
it
to
comparison
energy consuming apparatus.
of equation (32) with those of (14) and (29) will disclose the
distinction between this and the other factors herein considonly
ered.
connected load
is
computed.
is
equal to the
installation.
sum
method.
lighting "connected load"
of the wattages of all of the lamps in the
is
equal to the
sum
in Fig. 54
CENTRAL STATIONS
98
[ART. 115
FIG. 64.
Illustrating
an example
of
the
of
application
connected-load
factor.
mal ratings
symbols P
1.3
(con.
Now
X
Hence,
equation (32):
SEC. 5]
99
(35)
power input = (load factor) X maximum deFurthermore, it can, on the basis of definition
(Art. 116 and equation (9)), be shown that:
(36) Average
mand).
Connected load
(37)
= maximum ,demand
.
demand
factor
and
Con
(38)
-Id fac
load factor ^
(max, dem.)
(dem.fac.').
maximum demand
+ 30
+ 13
kw.
+ 7.5
kw.
+ 5.5
service
kw.
shown
in Fig. 54 is:
58.5 kw.
given in Fig. 65. The application is explained in the following examples. This graph may also, when the connectedload factor is known, be applied conveniently for determining,
by inspection, the equivalent hours used per day of the total
connected load.
*
A.
E. E.
CENTRAL STATIONS
100
[ART 117
EXAMPLE. In a certain plant the total rated capacity of all of the motors
60 h.p. The connected-load factor is known to be 25 per cent. What
will be annual energy consumption?
SOLTTTION.
The graph of Kg. 65
indicates that, with a connected-load factor of 25 per cent., the annual
energy consumption will be 1,634 kw.-hr. per h.p. installed. Hence, the
annual energy consumption will be: 60 h.p. X 1,634 = 98.040 kw.-hr.
is
01
23456
7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 J6 17 18 19 20 Zl 22 23 24
Equivalent Hours Use Per Day of Total Rated Capacity ('Connected Load)
544.6 1089
1634 2178
2723 3267 3812 4357 4901 5446 5990 65JS
272.3 816.9
1361
1906
2995 3540 4084 4629 5174 57/8 6263
2451
FIG. 65.
H> Installed
Graph showing
hr. per
day
SECTION
.WI.
FIG. 66.
Load curve
for
"I-
graph
122,356 kw.
101
24
hr.
2,937,538 kw.-hr
CENTRAL STATIONS
102
[ART. 119
for Plotting
struments are not installed, the power values for plotting the
graph may be read at equidistant intervals from indicating
instruments connected into the circuit under consideration.
The frequency with which the readings should be taken will
be determined to a large extent by the character of the load
under consideration. If the load is subject to wide and con3500
3000
PM.
FIG. 67.
Showing effect on a typical central station load graph of adding
the charging load of a hundred commercial electric vehicles.
(Station is
steam driven and in a city of 100,000 inhabitants. Graph is for Feb.
1,
1916.)
that
it will usually be
is, changes in value slowly
take a reading at the end of every 15-min. time
interval.
Where an indicating wattmeter is available, the
power values thus obtained from it may be plotted against
time into the graph. If no wattmeter is available but an
steady
sufficient to
ammeter or a voltmeter
SKC.
6]
103
NOTE. On alternating-current circuits unless the power factor happens to be 100 per cent., which is not likely to be the case, the product
of the volts and amperes will not represent watts; hence, with alternatingcurrent circuits, it is inconvenient to obtain the power-expenditure
values unless an alternating-current wattmeter is used.
EXAMPLE. The graph C of Fig. 67 was plotted from the following
values
Kilowatts power
Kilowatts power
120.
The Importance
of a
Thorough Appreciation
of the
load
Significance of Load Graphs should be understood.
graph indicates at a glance the general character of the load
which is being imposed and brings out the facts much more
The higher
forcefully than will a couple of columns of figures.
the load factor (ratio of average load to maximum demand)
the lower, in general, the cost of energy production will be.
Obviously, the more nearly the graph of a load approximates
That
is,
An
what
hours of the day the "valleys" and the "peaks" occurred and,
with this information available, suitable measures may be
CENTRAL STATIONS
104
The Unit
is
[ART. 121
Load Graph
is
FIG. 68.
24-hr, period.
When a plant operates only 8 or 12 hr. daily
it is sufficient if the length of the graphs represents only
then
WAD
SEC. 6]
which a station
may
105
It is for this
IW
Typical 24-hour load graph for an electric lighting load.
FIG. 69.
demand
grammed
shown
in Fig. 69.
Where
there
is little
or no
energy for motors or railways, the power convary over the 24 hr. approximately as diain the illustration.
The full-line graph indicates a
for
sumption
is
will
CENTRAL STATIONS
106
[ART. 125
and many
maximum "peak"
(Fig. 66).
summer
In the
maximum
of light.
the lighting
and
"peak"
it is
is
December
imposed
in
of considerable lower
and
and
offices close in
the evening.
The load
factors for
is
mer.
126.
is
are, at
SEC. 6]
107
The principal reason for this conthat the electric heaters on the cars require considerIn some cities it may occur that
able energy in the winter.
less
dition
the
is
summer
I2NT/
traffic is
? J 4
5 6 7 8 9
A.M.
10
Jl
IZNfil
23
4 5
67
PM
it is
8 9
seldom
10 IINII2
FIG. 71.
The
that the summer peak is higher than the winter peak.
annual load factor of a load of the general characteristics indicated in Fig. 71 is about 35 per cent.
Inter J>rbbn
(Street
R lway
Winter
Sumf>err59*
I
\Ave^age*60l'
Week/A [W<n(er\=60_7.
<YtHte
liraI
FIG. 72.
23456789
A.M.
10 II IZMN.I
3456789
R M.
10 IINTR
and
is
CENTRAL STATIONS
108
[ART. 128
due to people riding home from the towns where they have
been employed or visiting. The annual load factor for a load
of this character is about 47 per cent.
6789/0 1INM
RM.
A.M.
FIG. 73.
the
456
FIG. 74.
P.M.
Typical 24-hour load graph for a combined lighting and city
railway load.
in Fig. 73.
SEC. 6]
109
is about 40 per cent, as against 23 per cent, for the uncombined lighting load of Fig. 69. Therefore, it follows that
a material economy in energy production results where loads
of Dissimilar characteristics can thus be consolidated.
129. A Combined Lighting and Street Railway Load will
produce a graph of the general contour suggested in Fig. 74.
The annual load factor resulting is only 32 per cent, as against
40 per cent, for a combined lighting and industrial load (Fig.
This is largely due to the fact that an industrial load is
73).
about the same in the summer as in winter, whereas, both
lighting and railway loads are considerably greater in the
winter than in the summer.
load
FIG. 75.
CENTRAL STATIONS
110
133
may
characteristics
IK
'
-k!
pf^lAi&p-OTl
45
inuafLoadfactor
20
KHII
23456733 W
II
A.M.
KNJil
23456783
P.M.
10 lltfM
FIG. 76.
in
FIG. 77.
111.,
day
1915.
Edison Co.)
in
(Commonwealth
typical
summer and
Edison
Company
133.
will
FIG. 78.
Typical graph of the
loads on an office-building isolated
plant.
Fig. 78.
The
SEC.
li]
111
peak at 8:00 A.M. is due, for the most part, to the energy
taken by the electric elevators. The evening peak between
4 and 6 o'clock is due largely to the power required for light
but the elevator power also has its effect at this tune.
134. A Hotel Isolated Plant will usually have imposed on it
a load which will vary with the time somewhat as outlined in
The peak, which occurs in the evening, is due, for
Fig. 79.
the most part, to electric lighting, but the electric elevator
requirements usually add an appreciable share to the demand
at this time.
135.
on
it
FIG. 79.
peak occurs quite early in the evening, just about the time
the store closes and the demand drops off abruptly after
A somewhat unusual feature which characterclosing time.
istic of
department-store loads
is
day the summer off-peak load may be greater than the load
imposed at the same hours in the winter time.
136. How the Addition of Off-peak Loads Will Improve
the Load Factor is brought out by the graph of Fig. 67.
load
is
Now,
if
CENTRAL STATION'S
112
commercial
[ART. 137
electric vehicles
be added
?500
3000
2500
2000
.5
3500\
1500
^1000
500
12
2 4 6 8
AM
r<
I
2 4 6
10 12
-September
to
\8 tO 12
-P.M.-
>rt.
February
K
k-
2 4 6 8 10
12
A.M.-
->X-
II"
March
to
2 4 6 8
10 12
>
P.M.-
August
FIG. 81.
137.
180,000 inhabitants
illustration also
FIG. 82.
is
This
(W. Rawson
of
4 years
SEC. 6]
113
in
the
6:00
morning.
A.M.
1/000
_2 4
6 8
10 12
2 4 6 8
"&
AM.
April 19, 1915
"*-
PM.
[KwHrs-l143
Ik I500
K) I?
*/000
-4
\LoadFactor -19? *h
1703
\LoodFactor -2&4*
FIG. 83.
Load graphs for a small
city central station.
(Those shown
are for McPherson, Kansas, 4200
population.)
The requirements
of the
town
water motors are operfrom 9:00 A.M. until about 2:00 P.M. In town C the
water-works pumps are operated between midnight and 4:00
those of
but in
the pneumatic
lift
ated
CENTRAL STATIONS
114
[ART. 139
WNighS
Apr//
July
Oct
1913
6AM
FIG. 85.
139.
l2(Noorj
6PM.
IZfNight)
Figs. 68
SEC. 6]
month
is
115
demand throughout
shown
in Fig. 85.*
to
saoo.
45flOQ
40000
35,000
30,000
l$000
JQOOO
PlanfBL
SOOO
456
8 9
duced.
result
is,
2 3 4 5 6
8 9
/O II h
Illustrating
The
10 II I2\l
method
FIG, 86.
When drawn on
is
Max DuBoU
in
La Lumiert
Electric,
May
8,
1915.
on the system
CENTRAL STATIONS
11G
[ART. 141
NOTE
1914 caused a sudden decrease in the demand for energy, which is clearly
by the shading of, and the contour lines on the map. A load
indicated
graph
like this,
which
is
IIOG
10CO
6
AM,-
Showing how
cate not only at which times of the day, but also at what times of the year
the energy consumption of the system is small. With this information
available, suitable efforts
will "fill
but also
overall
load factor.
141.
The Method
resultant
and
SEC. 6]
117
DE = EF +
Thus, distance
EG.
142. How a Storage Battery May Be Used for Modifying
the Load Demands Imposed on Generating Equipment is
With no storage
illustrated by the load graphs of Fig. 87.
battery the load imposed on the generating equipment is
indicated by the graph JKBCDEFGI and the load factor is
then rather low. But with a storage battery arranged for
"off-peak" charging and "on-peak" discharging, the load
imposed on the generating equipment would be represented
by the graph ABCDFGH and the load factor would be
relatively high.
SECTION
though
it
may
It follows
in
any portion
144.
the Sizes of
three, thus:
selected should be of such size: (1) that it will convey
the electrical energy to the location where it is to be utilized without
of Electric
Energy are
The wire
an
I
is,
without excessive
XR
be excessive.
145.
Selected Is
118
SBC. 7]
119
motor
may blow
is
its
<
\Generator*
Amp.--**
Volt
10 Volts
I -Current
FIG. 88.
>l
Drop
1- Current =
'--109
Volts
Ampere
Drop
= 10 Amp.
--
is
terminals.
ohm =
1 volt.
at the
Now
volts
= 109 volts.
with 10 lamps burning, as at //, the drop would then
1 volt
CENTRAL STATIONS
120
[ART. 147
tion
is
149. In
first-class
volts.
Where
is
generated by a
SEC. 7]
A number
NOTE.
121
volt installations where the voltage drop from the point of entrance to
the most remote lamp in the inside wiring installation exceeds 2 volts. A
few companies limit the drop in the inside wiring installation to 1 volt.
Sometimes, in isolated installations, where energy is produced at low cost,
a 5-volt drop is allowed on 110-volt incandescent-lamp circuits but the
results are not wholly satisfactory.
A 5-volt drop is certainly the upper
limit for a 110-volt incandescent-lamp circuit.
While the values above
enumerated apply specifically to 110-volt lamp circuits, they can be
used proportionately for lamp circuits operating at other voltages.
Drop is often expressed as a percentage, thus: The total drop on a circuit
feeding incandescent lamps should never exceed 5 per cent, of the lamp
voltage.
in
lamp
circuits
total drop which has been allowed in the entire circuit between
the feeders, mains, sub-mains and branches. In incandescent
lighting, most of the drop is confined to the feeders because,
if there is excessive drop in the mains and branches, lamps
located close together, but served by different mains and
branches, might operate at decidedly different brilliancies.
With an isolated plant where energy is generated on the
is
CENTRAL STATIONS
122
[ART. 152
Where a utility
the premises should not exceed 1 to 2 volts.
company is to give service, it should be consulted regarding
its
In any case
it is
volt drop
and to apportion the remainder of the available drop to the main circuits and feeders.
152. The Apportionment of Drop on 2,400-volt Distribu-
tion
if
current-carrying capacity table (Table 154) should be consulted, and if the wire first selected is not large enough to
safely carry the current in accordance with the value specified
SEC. 7]
123
These values
mil
0.001 in.
CENTRAL STATIONS
124
[ART. 155
Wire as copper
is
R =
(40)
(ohms)
that
is
May Be Taken
as 11
Ohms* and
UX
R =
(41)
XR
(42)
(43)
dr. mils
Wherein:
All of the
(ohms)
.|
ar. mils
(feet)
11
X
=
K
(circular
mils)
above.
157. The Drop or Loss of Voltage in Any Conductor can be
most conveniently computed by using the Ohm's law formula,
which has been so modified that the expression for resistance
given in equation (41) above is used.
Thus, from Ohm's law:*
V =
(44)
X R
(volts)
Wherein V =
:
SEC.
7]
it
125
can be substituted in
(47)
_.
(48)
dr. mils.
(49)
>
(circular mils)
in the
(*-
(feet)
10
t- N! K
<
K-
Wire;
Area =10404
Cir.
Lamps-
Mils
IQOFt.---
->1
Fio. 89.
shown
in Fig. 89.
example.
EXAMPLE. The drop in the circuit of Fig. 89, with a current of 10
amp. flowing in the circuit, which is 200 ft. long and of No. 10 wire
(area
is
10,380
cir.
V =
mils, see
11
cir.
That
is,
Table 154)
mils
10
11
220
formula (46)
2.1 volts,
10,380
the total drop in the circuit of Fig. 89, with a current of 10 amp.
flowing,
is
2.1 volts.
To Compute
Circuit,
CENTRAL STATIONS
126
length,
it is
[ART. 158
in equation (46)
Therefore, substituting 2
L.
XL
for
we have:
V =
(50)
*X 11X2 XL
cir.
(volts)
mils
=L = 100 Ft.
>
-.
>
'^Source of.U.F.
10
-(IP Amp.
^.j
100 ft
FIG. 90.
V=
(51)
Hence, from
2."
99
cir.
/,. rtN
(52)
cir.
mils
= 22x
the working
(volts)
.,
22
'
(50),
mils.
= V X-.dr.
vx
ar
L =
(53)
(54)
Lamps ->
Cir. Mils,
mils
,
XL
*
(amperes)
(feet)
*:
xL
^
(circular mils)
EXAMPLE.
What
is
SEC. 7]
10,380
(1
22
10,380)
L)
=2.1
cir.
-5-
volts.
127
Substituting
(51): V
(10 X 22 X 100) -f- 10,380 = (22,000
Therefore, the drop in the circuit of Fig. 90
SOLUTION.
mils.
cir.
mils
in
formula
=
-^
is
Observe that this is the same result that was obtained with
the other form (46) of the formula in the example given in connection
2.1 volts.
of the
same
problem but in the first the double distance I was used and in the second the single distance L. Other examples are given in the following
paragraphs.
Distribution Center- ->
--
K-
FIQ. 91.
--
200ft.
Finding
-x
size of wire.
159. To Find the Size Wire for a Circuit When the Current,
Length of Circuit and Allowable Drop are Known (this relates
specifically to direct current two-wire circuits) it
is,
obviously,
What size
a current of 50
200'
Panel Bo *-~ *
dort.
FIG. 92.
Circuit from
main
to panel box.
ft.
Now,
referring to
110,000
cir.
mils
is
CENTRAL STATIONS
128
[ART. 161
What
EXAMPLE.
-N? 8
FIG. 93.
equation (53)
-Single Distance =
Wire = 16,510
Mils
Cir.
-Q-
may
example.
EXAMPLE.
it.
group of lamps as
162.
The Formula
Conductor,
Either
75
ft.
ft.
At
SOLUTION.
(22
(almost).
/)
Sub-
(16,510
The length
of
ft.
Alternating-current
Power Loss
or
in
Any
Direct-current,
SEC. 7]
may
easily be derived
It
129
can be
shown:*
P=
(55)
(41):
P =
(56)
XR
I2
R =
R
I2
in
(watts)
(11
Z)
-f-
Then
dr. mils.
UX
X
mils
is:
(watts)
.!
cir.
163.
The Formula
for
in
Any
a single-phase alternating-current circuit) follows from equation (55) above and the fact that (see Figs. 89 and 90) double
distance equals twice single distance.
Thus:
P=
(87)
PX2X11XL = ttX/'Xj
cir.
mils
cir.
mils
hence,
(58)
(59)
L cir.
(60)
Wherein.
mils
All of the
(ampere8)
<fr -
"
aa
'
x
~
Xf
1
(feet)
(circular mils)
by the Conductors is the first operation that should be performed in making wiring calculations for any wiring installaWhere an installation of any consequence
tion, large or small.
is to be figured, blue prints are furnished and on these the loads,
in amperes, that will be imposed on the different conductors
See the author's PBACTICAL ELBCTBICITT.
9
CENTRAL STATIONS
130
[ART. 165
etc.,
into corresponding
ampere
values.
NOTE. Where the loads are thus reduced to amperes, the equivalent
values are available for substitution in the formulas for computing wire
sizes.
Furthermore, it is necessary, in nearly every case, to know the
current each conductor will carry, so that one can be certain that the
conductor is sufficiently large to safely carry it. The currents taken by
arc
and incandescent lamps and motors of the different types and capacibe found in tables given in the author's AMERICAN ELECTRICIANS'
ties will
HANDBOOK.
165. In Noting the
if
and note
Motor
Branch Circuits be of
safely carry a
current of the motor.
It
that the wire used in the branch can be readily checked for
carrying capacity.
167. The Symbol L hi the Formulas Stands for the Distance
in Feet to the Load Center of the Circuit.
This distance will
SEC. 7]
131
formula.
168. In
scale can
be made by
the drawing under consideration. The number of feet represented by each mark is indicated by the numeral opposite the
mark at one end of the scale is placed
mark. In use, the
opposite the starting point of the circuit and the paper strip
laid along the circuit.
The length of the circuit, unless it
is
too long,
strips are
See
the
author's
"Load Center."
SECTION
CURRENT CIRCUITS
169. Direct-current
Circuit
Conductors
most
are
con-
11111
FIG. 94.
examples.
feeder
Wire
sizes for
an
installation.
may be
calculated
was given
size for
EXAMPLE. What size wire should be used for a branch circuit in which
the allowable drop is 1 volt; the current is 10 amp. and the distance from
the start of the circuit to the load center is 60 ft.? SOLUTION. Substitute in formula (54) thus: Cir. mils
132
(22
L)
-i-
V =
(22
10
SEC.
DIRECT-CURRENT CIRCUITS
8]
133
X 60) -5- 1 (13,200 dr. mils. Now refer to Table 154: a 18,200-cir.
mil conductor is larger than a No. 10 wire and smaller than a No. 8.
As a rule, the next larger size should be selected; therefore, No. 8 wire
(which with rubber insulation will safely carry 35 amp.) will be used.
EXAMPLE. In Fig. 94 is shown a diagram of a distribution installation.
The wire sizes for each circuit will be computed below. The length of
circuit, or the distance to its load center, is indicated above the
circuit and the allowable drop in volts in each circuit is shown with the
each
The
lamp on any
length.
motor,
is
5 volts.
4 volts.
(consuming device) is
ampere load of each circuit is indicated at the starting point of the
circuit within a circle.
Each circuit is designated by a letter or group of
letters.
Each component will be considered separately. SOLUTION. It
will be assumed that all of the conductors will have rubber insulation;
therefore, their current-carrying capacities will be determined by the
values given in column A of Table 154.
BRANCH ABi.
Load 4 amp.; distance, 20 ft.; drop, 1 volt. Substitute in formula
(54): Or. mils = (22 X / X L) -5- V = (22 X 4 X 20) + 1 = 1,760 dr.
mils.
Now referring to Table 154, the standard size wire next larger than
This
1,760 cir. mils is No. 16, which has an area of 2,583 cir. mils.
size wire would be satisfactory were it not for the fact that the National
Electrical Code prohibits the use of any wire smaller than No. 14.
Hence,
No. 14 must be used in this case. (In outdoor service no copper wire
smaller than No. 8 or No. 6 has sufficient mechanical strength to give
No. 14 rubber insulated wire has a safe currentsatisfactory service.)
carrying capacity of 15 amp. hence,
load in circuit AB\.
BRANCH
AB
is
amply
amp.
SUB-FEEDER AB.
Load, 10 amp.; distance, 30 ft.; drop, 1 volt. Substitute in formula
Cir.
mils = (22 X / X L) -s- V - (22 X 10 X 30) + 1 = 6,600
(54):
dr. mils. Use No. 10 wire, which has an area of 10,380 cir. mils and
which will safely carry 24 amp.
BRANCH AA\.
Load, 52 amp.
(see
HANDBOOK
CENTRAL STATIONS
134
[AKT. 170
30
ft.;
BRANCH
AA
t.
(22
ft.;
drop, 1 volt.
L)
-i-
V =
(22
cir.
branch
AA
is
2.
BRANCH A A
3.
BRANCH
AA
4.
mils.
ft.;
(22
Substitute in formula
drop, 1 volt.
/ XL)
By consulting Table 154
*-
F-
it is
3
(22
40) * 1 - 2,640
found that a No. 14 wire should
be used.
SUB-FEEDER AA.
Load, 65 amp.; distance, 20 ft.; drop, 1 volt. Substitute in formula
(54): Cir. mils = (22 X / X L) -H V = (22 X 65 X 20) -^ 1 = 28,600
cir. mils.
Now, referring to Table 154, No. 5 wire, which has an area of
33,100 cir. mils, would satisfy the conditions as to drop. However,
on sub-feeder A A, is, as indicated in Fig. 94, 65 amp. Therefore, it
would be necessary to use a No. 4 conductor which has a safe currentcarrying capacity (Table 154) of 70 amp. Furthermore, it should be
noted that it was necessary to use No. 4 wire for branch AAi. Therefore,
a wire at least as large as No. 4 wire will probably be required for subfeeder A A.
In some localities the inspector might require the installation of No. 3 for sub-feeder A A.
FEEDER A.
Load, 75 amp.; distance, 80 ft.; drop, 2 volts. Substitute in formula
(54): Cir. mils = (22 X / X L) -{- V = (22 X 75 X 80) *- 2 = 66,000
DIRECT-CURRENT CIRCUITS
SEC. 8]
135
(22
X L)
-J-
165,000 cir. mils. Referring to Table 154, the next largest standard size wire is No. 000, which
has an area of 167,000 cir. mils and will safely carry 272 amp. with either
slow-burning or weather-proof insulation. Hence, No. 000 is the wire
size that should be used.
500)
-=-
10
1,650,000
-=-
10
Jakes ISO
Amperes-
FIG. 95.
motor
line.
The Calculations for Direct-current Three-wire Cirmade in essentially the same manner as are those for
direct-current two- wire circuits.
With the "balanced" three171.
cuits are
In practice
CENTRAL STATIONS
136
[ART. 172
is
made by
cause
it is
(Siffe Circuits
it
carries
= (40
Amp, f 50 Amp. +10 Amp.) + 2
no current.
( 100 Amp.}
[outside Circuit
Total Assumed/
FIG. 96.
Illustrating
how
Load
-r
The
2 =50Amp.
=30 Amp.
=-80 Amp.
circuit
neutral
may* be made
is
SOfJ.
FIG. 97.
-4
Volts
of Fig. 97.
DIRECT-CURRENT CIRCUITS
SBC. 8]
137
the two sides of the circuit, it would be assumed in practical wiring calit is balanced.
Actually, with the loads as shown in
culations that
Fig. 97, 11
in the
in
4
outside wires), or (5
6
5) -*- 2 = 10 amp., would flow in
each outside wire. Hence: load, 10 amp.; distance, 50 ft.; drop, 4 volts.
Substitute in formula (54): Cir. mils = (22 X 7 X L) -e- V = (22 X 10
X 50) -:- 4 = 2,750 dr. mils. From Table 154 it is evident that the
next larger size than one having 2,750 cir. mils area is a No. 14 which has
an area of 4,107 cir. mils and which will safely carry 12 amp. Hence,
No. 14 is the wire to use.
+ + +
173.
The Actual Voltage Drop in an Unbalanced Threemay be calculated by using the formula (46).
wire Circuit
The operation
will
EXAMPLE.
FIG. 98.
Drop
in
unbalanced three-wire
circuit.
V =
mils
10
373)
4,107
i)
-s-
cir.
I)
-s-
cir.
mils
(11
373) -=-4,107
CCi.
(11 X / X
1)
cir.
mils
(11
373)
(11
(11
-=-
10
volts.
V =
(11
volts.
FOR WIRE
V =
is
-=-
4,107
The voltage across the two outside wires A iCi at the end
obtained by subtracting the sum of the drops in the two
1 volt.
outside wires
- 11 = 189
1) = 200
(10
volts.
Therefore, 189 volts is the pressure across the two outside wires
at the end of the circuit.
The voltage at the end of the circuit between
of the circuit
CENTRAL STATIONS
138
[ART. 174
the neutral and the upper outside wire is (see Fig. 98) 81 volts and the
pressure between the neutral and the lower outside wire is 108 volts.
The method
tion of Fig.
which
is
174.
99 which
illustrates the
Circuits Will
Be Balanced
any
fraction thereof.
Circuit Diagram
I
FIQ. 99.
this reason,
Effect of unbalance
amount
For
on a three-wire circuit.
of energy
is
DIRECT-CURRENT CIRCUITS
SEC. 8]
139
lamps are lighted on one side circuit of a three-wire system and very few
on the other side. In the event of such a contingency the drop in voltage
would be about twice its normal value on the side circuit having the
larger number of lamps connected to it and the voltage across the lamps
feeding from that side circuit would be correspondingly decreased.
Simultaneously, the voltage across the lamps on the other side circuit
might be raised. See Fig. 99, which shows an exaggerated example.
The
is,
par-
4~ 100 Amp.--
*
FIQ. 100.
may
is
occur
if
is
not systematical
where considerable
SECTION
CURRENT CIRCUITS
176.
putation of Alternating-current Circuits which are not encountered with direct-current circuits. The phenomena to
which these
effects are
(1)
power
(2)
high-voltage circuits.
Hence, these permittance effects are
not treated. The method for designing that is, for computing
Power Factors
of the Apparatus or
known
Equipment which
The
sideration.
Effect of Line
Practically
all
These phenomena are discussed and explained in more detail in the author's
PRACTICAL ELECTRICITY.
t See the author's AMERICAN ELECTRICIANS' HANDBOOK for a comprehensive list of
operating power factor of different kinds of apparatus.
140
SEC.
ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS
9]
141
effect of in-
may
conductors of which are of large cross-sections or widely separated should be investigated for line reactance drop
ing the methods outlined in Art. 190.
by
utiliz-
minimum
spacing specified
by the National
Electrical
CWe.f
then lie
with them
The
is
other
ordinarily negligible.
way
See the author's PRACTICAL ELECTRICITY for a discussion of electromagnetic inductance and reactance.
t See the author's WIRING FOR LIGHT AND POWER.
CENTRAL STATIONS
142
[ART. 181
500.000
Cir.
Mils
Condud
Conduct,
.;IOO.OOO Cir. Mils
Circuit B-~*
-Not Subdivided
H- Subdivided
FIG. 101.
some
of the numerical
181.
The Arrangement
of
the
The
calculation
circuit
directions for
of
conductors
polyphase
which are
FIG.
102.
twoArrangement
phase conductors on cross arms.
182.
Be
The Two
Circuits of a
Ralph Mershon.
t Westinghouse Electric
&
Manufacturing
No
Inductive Interaction, f
Company
publication.
SEC.
ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS
9]
Transposition-
FIG. 103.
-,_
Arrangement
on crossarm.
of two-phase conductors
the flux lines due to one of the circuits can cut the other.
Fig. 103
circuits side
vided
it
is
preserved through-
out)
b
by the same
number
of opposite linkages in
the other half of the transmission.
Fio. 104.
Symmetrical arrangement
,,
Figs. 104
of effecting this
arrangement.
CENTRAL STATIONS
144
One
transposition, A,
is
[AKT. 184
tance and the other, B, at two-thirds of the transmission disIn Fig. 104, since each of the wires carries the same
tance.
current and because of the symmetrical arrangement of the
conductors, the inductive interaction between any one wire
and the remaining two is the same regardless of which wire is
considered.
With the arrangement of Fig. 105 the same condition holds
and can be
verified
by
B
FIG. 105.
NOTE.
Arrangement
The arrangement
of conductors
of Fig. 105
may
on crossarm.
be used where
all
of the
power
is
The
first
circuit,
7,
runs straight
ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS
SEC. 9]
145
is
angle, II
etc.
Then 77
the same crossarm, as in Fig. 105.
and 777 is the second circuit and so on.
\/
2
1 ~\
r
\/
'
/"""
\/
\ /"""
"~\
/"
'V
'\l
E"~l
"\ /"
Jrr-A,
'
'
F~l
the
first circuit
\/
\ /
^\_^_^_A__
\/.
IT"?
FIG. 106.
- - -
Transposition Points
,.
is
H~~i
"^
f\
-.
V~l
"
\,
j"
185. If
an
Employed
No two
CENTRAL STATIONS
146
They
[ART. 186
EXAMPLE.
186. In Calculating Wire Sizes for Single-phase Alternatingcurrent Incandescent-lighting Interior Circuits formula (54)
/ X L)
is ordinarily used.
That is, dr. mils = (22
+V
may
way as if the
circuit
were
NOTE. Experience has shown that the results obtained by using formula (54) are sufficiently accurate for practical circuit design for wiring
small and medium-sized residences, stores, factories and the like, for incandescent lighting. Where the conductors are carried in conduit, the
results will be quite accurate for any size wire used in practice.
Formula
(54) can always be used with safety for
for interior incandescent lighting or where
computing branch
circuits
mam
or feeder circuits, composed of conductors of, say, larger than No. 2 wire and separated from
one another more than a few inches, are being designed. The wire size
indicated
theoretically
ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS
SEC. 9]
147
EXAMPLE.
Any
nating-current circuits
As noted,
this
is
187. The Method of Computing the Wire Size for a Singlephase Alternating-current Circuit Where the Line Has No
Reactance or may be assumed to have no reactance, will now
be considered. For an approximate solution formula (54) may
be used. This will always give a result which is on the safe
side provided the line has practically no reactance.
How-
Wire
Fio. 107.
size for
ever, in applying formula (54) for alternating-current circuits, the value of 7, in amperes, must be the actual current
-i-
(watts)
(voltage
What
EXAMPLE.
power factor).
circuit
of Fig. 107?
..
cir.
mils
size wire
The
circuit is
- -22X/X
y
--
L = 22 X
102
^2
400
74,800
cir.
mils
Referring to Table 154, the next larger wire size is No. 1 which has an
area of 83,690 cir. mils and safely carries, for exposed wire (slow-burning
or weather-proof insulation) 150
amp.
CENTRAL STATIONS
148
[ART. 188
Since to conform to National Electric Code rules a motor branch cirmust be capable of carrying at least 25 per cent, over-current the
wires to this motor (Fig. 107) must be capable of safely carrying 102: X
The No. 1 wire will do this. It should be understood
1.25 = 127.5 amp.
cuit
that the result, 74,800 cir. mils, obtained above is not exactly accurate.
With 102 amp. flowing and the load at 80 per cent, power factor the volts
loss in the line (assuming no line reactance) will be something less than
12 volts, as explained in the following article.
The Actual Volts Loss in a Single-phase AlternatingWhere It Has No Reactance Can Be Determined
by Drawing a Vector Diagram to scale, as explained in the
188.
current Line
following example.
of
any problem
in
which the
Scale
Fro. 108.
FIG.
109.
in \Alts
Solution of problem of
Fig. 107.
DIRECTIONS. See Fig. 108. Find the power factor of the load or use
an assumed power factor. Refer to a table of cosines* and find the lag
angle to which this power factor corresponds.
Lay out the angle equal
to the lag angle.
Measure off distance AB proportional to the voltage
impressed on a load. Lay off EC, parallel to AD, proportional to the
resistance drop in the line.
Then AC will be proportional in length to
the voltage impressed on the line.
The difference in length between AB
and BC will then be proportional to the actual volts loss in the line.
This difference is obtained by striking the arcs EE 1 and FF 1 and measur1
ing the distance between them, as for example, GG
EXAMPLE. Fig. 109 shows the problem of Fig. 107 solved graphically
from which it is apparent that the true volts loss in the line would be 9
volts, whereas the formula (54), as shown in preceding Art. 183, indicates
that the loss would be 12 volts. Actually, 12 volts is the resistance drop
<f>
AMERICAN
ELECTRICIANS' HANDBOOK.
ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS
SEC. 9]
149
It
Where
189.
It Is
Necessary
to
What
EXAMPLE.
1
wire
190A
Now
when
it is
it is
22
air.
X L
mtis
~~
22
102
400
= 997,600 "
for a
method
is
checking
must be tried or the circuit must be subdivided, as suggested in a preceding article, until an arrangement of conductors is found which will maintain the drop within the
size
limit.
The graphic method is best explained by
the solution of specific examples. Figs. 110 and 111 show
typical voltage vector diagrams for circuits, the component
specified
EXAMPLE.
What
112?
sizp wire
The load
consists of twelve
CENTRAL STATIONS
150
[ART. 190
^.-Reactance Drop
\ihLine
onUne
FIQ. 110.
Fio. 111.
E'
,A.C.Genertor 60 Cycles
Current =
510.
-525 ft.-
Find
than
F'
2 Amp.
PIG. 112.
less
60.000 '<*
SEC.
ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS
9]
SOLUTION.
P
" 60,000
VxjJ. 120X0.98
510 2
'
151
amp
60,000 watts
of 6,000 watts
= 6,000
may be
dr. mils
/*
XL
22
510.2
510.2
X 525 =
510,000 dr. mils.
Scale in Volts
Fio. 113.
That
<t>
That
is,
XR =
510.2
0.035^
525 /*.
_ QA
BD is then laid
off
is
9.4 volts.
In the
CENTRAL STATIONS
152
Now
lay off
drop of the
1,000
ft.
at right angles to
BD
line.
line current).
quency
DC
[ART. 190
of 60 cycles
actance drop
now
is
ft.
of conductor)
of 8
in.,
for a fre-
is,
0.144 ohm.
The
re-
calculated thus:
XX
The true
lengths
OB
and OC.
It
is
is
Scale
FIG. 114.
in
Volts
cent.,
The
which
and can,
is
(Fig. 113)
by decreasing the reactance. The reactance could be made smaller by bringing the wires closer together but
therefore, be decreased
the example (Fig. 112) specifies that conductors are to be 8 in. apart.
The other method of decreasing the reactance drop is to subdivide the
circuit.
This will now be tried. Two circuits of 300,000 cir. mils conductors in parallel will be considered instead of one 600,000-cir.-mil cir-
SEC.
9]
ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS
igo
:2
-<N
Hi
.--
:~ :j
-"
ill
I3SI sa2 SSI s2s!
-
- -
5c
j:i
&*
4J
8&.~
o.
*?
sS;
S8S
IK
1H
iigi
-i
S|S
oooo
"Ot>ClO
t^OOO
*~
mo m
IM
t^O
OOOO OOOO
"""
153
CENTRAL STATIONS
"
0.10
'
~\<~
-.
Fio. 115.
0.90
0.80
^-'Power. Factors
of Loeaf-
5
T.---J*-
10
2530
55
15
10
Drop in Per Cent of E.M.F. Delivered
40
>l
and application.
ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS
SBC. 8]
oa
222"^
Ml
dddd oooo
lili
'o'o'o oooo
ooo'<
c^ ci t^^j
iii
gsg
Sill
.SJ^
2
Jill
gss
ooo
ddd
-HCJ
iii
ooo
^HXCOCO *-<oa
ooco^
ss sss
oooo oooo oooo ooo ooo
sss?
oooo
dddd
oor^tt^ti
sill
oooo.
c4*-<o
sss
oooo
i||g
oooo oo<
ills ilis liii ill i
ss SS88
dddd dddd
i~<
WCMINCN
StfS^W
ooo oooo
dddd dddd odd odd dodo
lllll
Ills Isll
!!
ior--i opo oo o
OWO^H
ICOO
NWCO OOQ
<">5
r-lrtrtN
II!
155
CENTRAL STATIONS
156
[ART. 191
With the two 300,000-cir. mil circuits, the resistance drop will
remain the same as before, because, although each conductor is one-half
the size it was formerly, it carries but one-half the current that it did
cuit.
formerly.
like
The
angle
</>
will again
be 11
To
CD, which
lay out
is
in the line, refer to Table 190A and note that the reactance of 2,000 ft.
of 300,000 cir. mil conductor (1,000 ft. of circuit) is, for an 8-in. separa-
tion
DC
The
XX =
(Fig. 114)
line
OC
is
is,
(255.1 amp.)
is,
21.4
volts.
centage drop
it is
line, G, is
Wire Size
Where
of the
not available.
Furthermore,
if
one understands
the method of Figs. 112 and 113 he will more readily comprehend the application of the Mershon diagram.
NOTE.
tically the
In using the Mershon diagram, the general procedure is pracsame as with the graphical method. The conductor size is
will
SEC.
ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS
9]
157
arrangement of conduc-
must be used.
EXAMPLE. What size wire should be used for the feeder circuit of
The load consists of 24 kw. (24,000 watts) of mercury vapor
Fig. 116?
lamps. The circuit is 100 ft. long. The pressure at the receiver end
should be 240 volts. The wires are carried in conduit. The power facThe frequency is
tor of the mercury vapor lamp load is 98 per cent.
60 cycles. The energy loss should not exceed 2 per cent. The true volt
tors
line
Switch
FIG. 116.
Determination of
Line current
To compute
formula (60)
cir.
mils
is
72
Should be-'
240 Volts Here
''-Wrought Iron
Conduit
Bars
an alternating-current
24,000
X 0.98
SOLUTION.
Allowable
240
100
O98
102
circuit
mp
"
22
X L
102
102 X 22
2^n
100
~~
current multiplied
by
XR =
(102)
-QQQ
problem
2.5 vote.
is:
2.5 *
CENTRAL STATIONS
158
in conduit are
about
in.
between centers)
is
[ART. 191
0.028 ohm.
XX
(102)
is:
0.028
0.286
100
is,
0.286
Then the
ft.
volts.
1,000
240
0.00119
0.12
per
cent.
FIG. 117.
to the
problem
of Art. 191.
Find the vertical line in the diagram corresponding to the power factor
98 per cent, in this example of the load and follow it, AB, upward
until it intersects the smallest circle marked 0.
From this point of
intersection lay off to the right horizontally the percentage resistance
drop, that is, 1.04 (about 1 horizontal division in length) and from this
last point lay off vertically
drop, 0.29
Ho
of 1 vertical division).
This last point lies just inside of the
1 per cent, circle so the true volts loss with a No. 1 wire would be about
(about
1
per cent.
That
is,
240
volts
2.4
volts.
ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS
SEC. 9]
159
+ 2.4
volts, is well within the 4.8-volt limit specified in the example and the
energy loss will be less than 2 per cent, because it was necessary to use
No.
1 wire to
EXAMPLE.
A 4 per cent, energy loss is allowable and the true volts line drop must
not exceed 6 or 7 per cent. SOLUTION. First find the load in apparent
watts:
Apparent watts
'
Line current
apparent watts
Source of Energy
(A.C.6enerator)
200 amp.
Volt.
Single:
------------ .......
48.758
Jj
Motor Efficiency
Power Factor
FIG. 118.
Another example
in computing size of
circuit conductor.
is
is 90% ;
65%
an alternating-current
, ma, ,
JlxfxL
aooxaooxMoxa
mjmjm _
318,000 dr. mils.
Find
300,000-cir. mil conductor which safely carries 275 amp.
the resistance and reactance drops in the line in the same way as in the
Try a
XX =
resistance drop
(200)
'
13 4
1
9.0
600
-*
240
16.1 volts.
CENTRAL STATION'S
160
[ART. 192
Now
0.80
FIG. 119.
.0.90
Mershon diagram
192.
The Determination
Alternating-current Circuits
four-wire, two-phase circuit
of the
may
Wire Size
be
for
made on
Two-phase,
this basis
loss
and
voltage
ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS
SEC. 9]
161
and
current
compute
circuit,
no inductive interaction
between circuits.
The Determination
of the
Alternating-current Circuit
Wire Size
Where
for
a Two-phase,
Negligible may be based on the truth outlined in the precedThis method may, ordinarily, be used for
ing Art. 192.
interior wiring circuits and under the same conditions as
If the
specified in preceding articles for single-phase circuits.
power-factor of the load is 100 per cent., the load balanced,
little
will,
In calculating a two-phase circuit by the method to be described, the first step (unless the current per phase is known) is to find
one-half of the total power load fed by the circuit. Then find the current in amperes corresponding to this one-half total power load with a
balanced two-phase four-wire circuit. The current corresponding to
one-half the total load will be the current in the outside wires, hence,
may be computed with the following formula:
NOTE.
(61)
Wherein.
watts.
E =
0.50
(amperes)
of the load.
When
the current value, 7, has been obtained with the above formula
the current per phase, which is the same thing, is known it is substituted in formula (54) which is:
or
if
ctr.
mils
--
22X1 XL
^
CENTRAL STATIONS
162
[ART. 193
Wherein.
of Fig. 120?
power factor
The load
is
.-Practically
FIG. 120.
no Reactance
55 X 1,000
110 X 1.0
Therefore, 250
mula
(54)
cir.
will flow in
amp.
each wire.
0.50
55,000
110
250 amp.
,
mils
22
Switches
FIG. 121.
X L = 22X250X300 =
v
..-
fuses
Arrangement
of conductors for
110
_ c nAn
875,000
example of
amp.
cir. mils.
Fig.
120.
But a
would be excessively
large.
Hence, the circuit should be split up and
arranged into, possibly, one sub-circuit of four 400,000-cir. mil conductors
and one sub-circuit of four 500,000-cir. mil conductors as suggested in
effects
would be
current.
See the author's PRACTICAL ELECTRICITY and
ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS
SEC. 9]
What
EXAMPLE.
size wire
163
The motor
is
rated on
its
nameplate as taking 44 amp. per phase (if the ampere per phase is not
given it can be computed from the formula given in the preceding example). The circuit is 110 ft. long. The allowable drop is 3 per cent.
SOLUTION
The allowable volts drop is: 0.03 X 220 = 6.6 or say 7
Now substitute in formula (54) :
volts.
Cir. mils
= 22
X / X L = 22
- X 44 X
y
110
106,480
~
<
110 Ft.
7 Volts
FIG. 122.
Find
size wire.
190 A the next larger standard wire size is No. 8 which has
an area of 16,510 cir. mils and which will, with rubber insulation, safely
carry 35 amp. This being a branch circuit to a motor, it must be capable
From Table
the circuit.
Size for a
2 -Phase
C-entrator.
WCycles
FIG. 123.
Find
two-phase
circuit.
gram
circuit
The
is
under consideration.
of Fig. 115.
on the
graphical or the
first
step
Mershon diagram
solution just as if the circuit were a single-phase circuit carrying this one-half load.
What size wire should be used for the feeder of Fig. 123?
a two-phase load comprising twenty-four hundred 50-watt in-
EXAMPLE.
It serves
CENTRAL STATIONS
164
[ART. 195
candescent lamps.
ft.
long.
The
The
allowable energy loss is 10 per cent, of the energy transmitted. The true
voltage drop in the line must not exceed 10 or 12 per cent. SOLUTION.
+2
is
(120,000
60,000 watts.
For
this
two-phase
circuit
with a 120,000-watt
total load four 600,000-cir. mil conductors might be used and with them
the true volts line drop would be 21 volts (Fig. 113) or the same as if
600,000-cir. mil conductors were used with a 60,000-watt load on
a single-phase circuit.
Since, however, a 12 per cent, drop should not exist in the circuit of
this problem, each 600,000-cir. mil conductor can be split into two
With
300,000-cir. mil conductors in order to reduce the line reactance.
the conductors thus split up, as in the example of Fig. 121, the true volts
line loss would be (Fig. 114) 14.5 volts or 12 per cent., which meets the
conditions of this example. Eight 300,000-cir. mil conductors would
then be required for this two-phase transmission and they should be
arranged in a manner similar to that suggested in the example of Fig. 121.
two
FIG. 124.
195.
Find
size wire
the
Mershon Diagram, of
Where the Line Has
Reactance
phase
if it
single-
circuit.
EXAMPLE.
What
size wire
The load
consists of 48
ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS
SEC. 9]
165
The energy loss should not exceed 2 per cent. The volts line drop should
not exceed 2 per cent, of the receiver voltage. SOLUTION. First find
one-half the total load, thus: (48,000) 4- 2 = 24,000 watts. From this
point on the example is solved in precisely the same manner as that of
(The load in the present example was taken purposely
Figs. 116 and 117.
just twice that in the single-phase example of Fig. 116 in order to illusThe other conditions of the present two-phase extrate the principle.)
ample are the same as those of the single-phase example of Fig. 116.
For this two-phase circuit with a 48,000-watt total load four No. 1
wires should be used and with them the true-volt line loss will be about
1 per cent, or 2.4 volts
the same as in the two conductors of the singlephase circuit serving the 24,000-watt load in Fig. 116.
<-~2-Pha$e. 60 Cycle Supply
'250 V.
2 -Phase Motor I00h.p.\
Find
FIG. 125.
size wire
OS%
Power
EXAMPLE. The result for the example of Fig. 125, which shows a
100-h.p. motor fed by a two-phase circuit, is the same as that for the example of Fig. 116 which shows a 50-h.p. motor fed by a single-phase circuit.
of the
out for Fig. 118 for the single-phase 50-h.p. load. The solution for the
two-phase circuit with a 100-h.p. load (twice the single-phase load) is
two-phase
h.p.
circuit.
is
Q v
= 1
(62)
(63)
dr. mils
V =
19
cir.
/QJ|N
(64)
(circular mils)
^jr--
XL
mils
= V X1ft dr.
^
(volts)
mils
_
(amperes)
CENTRAL STATIONS
166
V X
L =
(65)
19
Wherein:
Cir. mils
[ABT. 197
dr. mils
(feet)
XI
length one
way
Which
the
Formulas
V =
the allowable
Above Three-phase
May be Used can
are
fied in Art.
given
circuit.
ulas will be theoretically corassuming the resistance of a circular mil-foot of copper is 11 ohms. If the power factor of the load is less
than 100 per cent, and the line has no or very little reactance
the true volts drop in the line will be something less than the
rect,
phase
circuit.
NOTE.
The Derivation of
the
a three-phase
May Be Disregarded.
The voltage
circuit
may
ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS
SEC. 9]
167
age between wires at the load would actually be, as shown in the picture,
108 volts.
for this is that the e.m.fs. in AB, A l B and A"B
are not
phase with one another. Hence, the voltage drops in these three
conductors are not in phase with one another. Since the e.m.fs. in the
three wires of the three-phase circuit differ in phase by 120 deg. if there
is a drop of 1.16 volts in each of the conductors the total drop across any
two of the conductors will be (as shown in Fig. 126) 1.16 X 1.73 = 2
The reason
in
volts.
(for
FIQ. 127.
in
V =
11
X/XL
ctr.
mils
circuit
Fig. 127)
Now
it is
is
of the conductors of
A B
l
(Fig.
Thus the
127)
total
v =
11
X7 XL X
1.73
dr. mils
it
19
XL
dr. mils
follows that for a three-phase circuit:
EXAMPLE. What size wire should be used for the circuit to the threephase 220-volt motor of Fig. 128? The circuit is 400 ft. long. It is
carried in conduit so that the line reactance is negligible.
The allowable
drop is 6 volts. The motor takes 40 kw. It is assumed that its power
factor is but 70 per cent.
First, find the current thus (for the derivation
of the following formula, see the author's AMERICAN ELECTRICIANS'
HANDBOOK
CENTRAL STATIONS
168
Now
40 X580
220 X 0.7
X580 ~
kw.
"
E X
p./.
cir.
f-
mils
19
XL =
^
/
FIG. 128.
19
151
amp
'
400
Main
Find wire
[ART. 197
Referring to Table 190A; the next larger wire size is No. 000 which has
an area of 211,600 cir. mils. Since this is a motor circuit, it must be
capable of carrying a current overload of at least 25 per cent., hence this
circuit must be capable of safely handling: 151 X 1.25 = 188.8 amp.
Now No. 0000 will safely carry 225 amp. with rubber insulation or 325
with other insulations, which is satisfactory as a conductor for this
example.
FIG. 129.
EXAMPLE.
What
Find wire
Now
cir.
X 580 _
~
E X p.f.
kw.
110
580
X0.98
16.2 amp.
ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS
SEC. 9]
The next
169
an area of 41,740
198.
is
safe
Replaced by
making three-phase
circuit wiring
circuit has
a three-wire three-phase transmission
having conductors symmetrically located may, so far as energy
loss and voltage requirements are concerned, be replaced by
two single-phase circuits having no inductive interaction and
identical with a three-phase line as to size of wire and distance
between wires. Therefore, to calculate a three-phase transmission calculate a single-phase circuit to carry one-half the
calculations, particularly
reactance.
That
is,
The method
if it
of solving three-phase
circuits.
EXAMPLE.
What
size
The
volts.
selected.
CENTRAL STATIONS
170
Actual current
Now
0.58
xx
Xp
_ ,
X 50,000
x 8
0.58
transmission
single-phase
transmission.
M
The current
1004
25,000
220 X 0.80
~
p./.
which
165 amp.
25,000 watts.
in the
E X
total
29,000
-^-
220
[Axr. 199
=
"
25,000
176
142 amp. in the imaginary transmission.
FIG. 130.
Example
To approximate the
Cir.mils
The next
22
wire
size
for
XL =
22
142
200
is
8.8
No.
formula (54)
624,800
8.8
three-phase feeder.
The
=71,000 ar
mils.
which
is
will
165 amp.
Hence,
will
determining
safely carry,
No.
in
it will
3 in.
+ 3 in.
-f-
6 in.
12 in.
4 in.
Refer to Table 190.B under 25 cycles and opposite No. wire and find:
Resistance volts per 1,000 ft. = 0.196 and (under 4-in. separation) reactance volts per 1,000 ft. = 0.066. Then;
ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS
SEC. 9]
current
resist, volts
Resistance drop
Per
React, drop
171
dist.
oOO
cent, resistance
current
drop
react, volts
-^~
5.57
dist.
142
0.066
200
-JSooPer
cenf. reactance
drop
0657
w
FIG. 131.
o.a
<xa
o.
Laying out the per cent, resistance drop and the per cent, reactance
drop on the Mershon diagram (Fig. 131): At the upper end of the 80
per cent, power-factor line as described previously, the last point of the
CENTRAL STATIONS
172
[ART. 200
layout comes just under the 3 per cent, volts loss circle. Therefore, the
true volts drop in the line will be somewhat less than 3 per cent, with
wires for the transmission as
No.
wire.
Therefore, use three No.
shown
in Fig. 130.
10 Amp."
FIG. 132.
is
treated as
NOTE. Fig. 132 shows the relation of the total current in a threephase main to the total currents taken by the several single-phase branch
circuits feeding from it.
The three-phase circuit current is equal to the
total of the single-phase circuit currents multiplied by 0.58.
the problem of Fig. 132: 30 amp.
0.58 = 17.4 amp.
Thus
for
SECTION
10
ENERGY
The Reason
Why
Why
articles
which immedi-
ately follow.
203. The Power Lost in
shown.
It
is
of
173
CENTRAL STATIONS
174
[ART. 203
In system
7,
current taken
amp.) will
drop in the line for system A
volts.
And the power loss in the
will be:
E = I X R = 25 X 10 = 250
P = 7 X R = 25 X 25 X
= 6,250 watts.
This means that the generator voltage would have to be equal to:
= 200 250 = 450
(volts loss in line)
(volts impressed on receiver)
volts.
Note also that a certain amount of power 6,250 watts is lost,
This necessitates that the generator A
dissipated as heat, in the line.
develop 11,250 watts, 6,250 watts more than is delivered to the motor.
Obviously, the transmission system of Fig. 7 is not an economical one
because more power is lost in the line than is delivered to the motor.
10
Law
Volts
,--/V-
10
Voltage Generator
-~-^4W
Wire
-ZSAmp.
-5000 Ft,
"^
R= 10 Ohms
FIG. 133.
Advantage
Now
consider the system of 77 (Fig. 133). The line and the motor
as in 7.
However, a transformer, T, is inserted at the end
of the line.
This transformer is so designed that it will "step down"
are the
same
from a pressure
10 to
1.
amp.
From
will be:
will
now
the Ohm's law formula, the voltage drop hi the line for system B
E = I X R = 2.5 X 10 = 25 volts. The power loss in the line
be:
P =
72
XR =
2.5
2.5
10
62.5 watts.
+ 50
Now
2,050 volts.
note that by
increasing the voltage 10 times, from 200 to 2,000 volts, the line loss was
decreased 100 times.
This example shows why the power loss hi a line
varies inversely as the square of the impressed voltage.
It was decreased
from 6,250 watts to 62.5 watts. The use of alternating current in
SEC. 10]
175
would make the actual results slightly different from those obtained in
the solutions above, but the difference would not be of any practical consequence insofar as the general principle described
author's American Electricians'
Handbook
for
is
concerned.
See the
an example tabulated
in
showing the effect of different transmission voltages in transmitting 30 kw. over a line of 3 ohms resistance.
detail
206.
cuit
is
The Efficiency of Transmission of an Electrical Cirsimilar to any other kind of efficiency in that it is the
the
The
line.
purposes
power
may
by an amount equal
to the losses in
loss.
NOTE.
may
CENTRAL STATIONS
176
less
of
how
of
large
how
little
resistance
[ART. 207
conductors are.
its
its
In
merits.
To Compute
circuit,
Now,
FIG. 134.
Graph showing increase of transmission efficiency with the
transmission voltage. (The values plotted above relate to the specific
Note that in this particular example the efficiency of
transmission increases very rapidly with increase of impressed voltage until
the pressure is (at B) above 1200 or 1500 volts. Above this pressure efficiency
increases much more slowly. Even at C, for a pressure of 10,000 volts, the
efficiency is only 99.9 per cent.)
problem designated.
power delivered by
,
,
power received by
or modified
line
T
line
(per cent.)
power
(power
EXAMPLE.
What
del.
by
line)
del.
by line
(power losses in
line)'
is
800 amp.
The
is
0.006 ohm.
"
The Question
AMERICAN ELECTBICIANS' HANDBOOK.
of
Energy Loss
in a Circuit
"
SOLU-
in the author's
SEC. 10]
TJON.
Power
Power
lost
X E = 800 X 112 =
X 800 X 0.012 =
= 89,600 - 7,680 = 81,920
in line
72
X R =
177
89,600 watts.
800
7,680 watts.
watts.
Now
W' *
trans -
power
del.
power
rec.
by line
by linee
81,920
00
89,600
'
913
L3
Center of Distribution.,
Generating Station
HZ
Volts
<
,
"-Resistance
I =800 Amp.
of each
0.006 Ohms
Conductor is
FIG. 135.
Example
in
computing
efficiency of transmission.
economical in
pressure
12
CENTRAL STATIONS
178
is
[ART. 210
volts
NOTE. Voltages lower than 550 may be fatal. Where the contact
with the body is good or where the person has a weak heart, a voltage as
low as 110 may kill
-X
-Generating Station
Switch
'''
E- Receive
</oits--.,~_
Sub Statia
Distribution Panel-
Load
E = I10 Volts
Property
1= Current
in
he
>
50 Kw.
E= 220
Volts
Li
V- Voltage Drop in Li
R = Resistance
of Line
of Wire
Fio. 136.
Comparison of 110- and 220-volt transmission, adapted from
Gray. (This table shows the solution of a problem where 50 kw. must be
transmitted 300 feet with a 2.5 per cent, drop and where it is required that the
conductor size be known for a receiver pressure of 110 volts and also 220 volts.
The resistivity of copper is taken as 11 ohms per circular mil foot. Note
that since, with the same per cent, line loss and the same load, the conductor
area varies inversely as the square of the transmission voltage, the area with
E = 110-volts is four times that with E = 220 volts. In other words, by
doubling the pressure the conductor area has been quartered.)
210.
is
now used
in practically all
SEC. 10]
179
tions.
Electric
ratings.
NOTE.
systems in
and expense.
J.
of Electrical Engineers.
CENTRAL STATIONS
180
[ART. 212
the 488 systems operate show even a greater diversity, 2 per cent, being
25-cycle, 0.6 per cent. 40-cycle, 90 per cent. 60-cycle, 0.2 per cent. 116The 116-, 125cycle, 1 per cent. 125-cycle, and 6.2 per cent. 133-cycle.
Systems
Transmission
and Distribution
(Figs. 1
distance conditions.
It is
direct-current
long
transmission
distance
EXAMPLE.
Figs.
volts.
*
The voltage
Economics
is
In
is
for table
showing Copper
SEC. 101
181
CENTRAL STATIONS
182
[ART. 214
ts to
Power House
Sub-Station
>
Terminal Station
FIG. 138.
to
The elements
Used hi Preference
more economical
it is
of copper.*
If a single-phase, two-wire transmission operating at a certain voltage requires a certain amount (or 100 per
cent.) of copper, an equivalent two-phase, four-wire transmission will also require 100 per cent. An equivalent threewire, three-phase transmission will require only 75 per cent,
of the copper.
four-wire, three-phase transmission with
the neutral the same size as the outers will require only 33.3
per cent.
*
Economics
IAXDBOOK
for table
showing Copper
SEC. 10]
215.
183
A. Generators are sometimes built for 4,000, 6,600 and 11,000 volts.
*
Electric Power Club standard voltage ratings.
t These voltages standardized by the National Electric Light Association and the Electric Power Club.
CENTRAL STATIONS
184
[ART. 216
mission*
much
necessitates
may
the
installation
is
218. Sub-stations
General Classes:
*
H. B. Gear.
and
May,
(1)
his
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY
his
PRACTICAL ELECTRICITY
on this subject.
SEC. 10]
185
frequency-changer sub-stations.
218A. The Function of a Sub-station Equipment is to so
modify the characteristics of the energy received by it that
the energy will then be suitable for utilization by that load
which the sub-station serves. That is, the voltage may be
(4)
it
made from
alter-
if
district served.
FIG. 139.
CENTRAL STATIONS
186
this
develops
voltage.
potential
or
[ART. 220
feeder
regulator,*
(Figs. 140
FIG. 140.
is effected.
Usually the voltage must be decreased with
a transformer on the alternating-current side of the synchronous converter because there is a certain fixed ratio between the
rent
SEC. 10]
cordingly.
By changing the field excitation, a converter
made to correct or compensate for low power factor.
be
187
may
The
may
I- Plan
View
FIG. 141.
machine, or by
varying the alternating impressed voltage with a potential
regulator or a transformer having taps.
NOTE.
motor-generators.
They
efficient
than
221.
and
//.
plants,
CENTRAL STATIONS
188
[ART. 221
The high-voltage alternating three-phase line enters the station over three wires, X, Y and Z, and passes through the choke
coil,
1,
2 and
,-D.C.
The
3.
line vol-
Switchboard
^Synchronous
UotorPanels
Choke
.-Coils
'
FIG. 142.
D.C.
'Self-Starting
Generator
Synchronous
Motor
motor,
which
is
shaft with
and drives
SEC. 10]
189
direct-current generator G.
The synchronous motor
usually has a squirrel-cage winding on its rotor and is thereby
started as an induction motor.* The direct e.m.f. impressed
the
alternating-current power at one frequency is changed to alpower at different frequency. The fre-
ternating-current
somewhat
and
two general
of
Fig.
143);
circuits
(6)
is
sub-station
(2)
may
and
<
6.6
Amp.
Total Length
FIG. 143.
of Circuit* 5 Miles
Arc-lighting circuit.
MACHINERY
PRACTICAL ELECTRICITY.
for details.
CENTRAL STATIONS
190
[ART. 225
EXAMPLE* (see Fig. 143). The circuit operates at 6.6 amp., is 5 miles
long and serves 80 lamps, each of which requires 50 volts at its terminals.
The line is of No. 6 wire which has a resistance of 2.1 ohms per mile or
10.5 ohms for the whole line.
This involves a drop of (V = IX R)
ohms X 6.6 amp. = 69.3 volts. The loss of energy in the line wire
2
(P = 7 X R) = 6.6 X 6.6 X 10.5 = 468 watts. The power taken
by one lamp (7 = E X /) is: 50 X 6.6 = 330 watts and for the 80 lamps
it would be 80 X 330 = 26,400 watts.
The loss in the line, 468 watts, is:
(468 -s- 26,400) but 1.8 per cent, of the power taken by the arc lamps.
If No. 3 wire were substituted for No. 6, one-half the energy loss in the
line wire would be saved, the cross-section and weight being twice as
great, and the cost of the insulated conductor would be nearly doubled.
With No. 6 wire the total weight of copper would be 2,098 Ib. and the
cost of the wire (insulated) would be about $600.
It is doubtful if it
would be wise to invest an additional $500 in order to use No. 3 wire and
save one-half the energy or 238 watts, unless the cost of energy is quite
10.5
is:
high.
.-.Loop-Circuit
Conductors
Incandescent Lamps'
FIG. 144.
circuit.
226. Parallel Distributing Circuits (Figs. 144 to 148), sometimes called multiple circuits, are widely used for the distribution of electrical energy for lighting,
*
Com-
Sic. 10]
191
:,v^;.^;:>
Ashley
FIQ. 145.
Showing a tree circuit as applied to out-of-door distribution.
(This type of a circuit is called a "tree circuit" because of its resemblance
trunk and branches of a tree.)
to the
Switch
,-anctCutOut
Incandescent
Lamps*
-Wallof
Building
Sub-Main^
FIG. 146.
FIQ. 147.
An
interior distribution
Example
of a feeder
"tree"
and main
circuit.
distribution.
CENTRAL STATIONS
192
[ART. 227
mercial parallel circuits are so designed that the voltage besides will be approximately constant under all
conditions of load.
That is, sufficient copper is used to prevent the voltage drop in them from exceeding a certain small
percentage of the receiver voltage which should in each case
be determined by the character of the connected apparatus.
FIG. 148.
Or a voltage regulator
of
some
sort
is
circuit.
source of energy,
is
constant.
FIG. 149.
227.
tem
Feeders, mains
An Important Advantage
of the
opportunity
and
it
services.
Receiving apparatus
is
not con-
SEC. 10]
important.
193
is
is
unim-
portant but they are made of wire sufficiently large that there
not be much voltage drop, even at full-load, between the
will
and independent
set of feeders.
it
But most
of the vol-
connected to them
13
CENTRAL STATIONS
194
231.
A Ring Circuit,
Fig. 148,
is
[ART. 231
around a certain
by the ring main.
district
One
and
feeder
may
different
point.
of
new motors
and economically.
SECTION
11
to
and
effects of lightning
claim
that
they are
infallible.
We
will,
The
ning protection equipment" applies not only to lightning protectors, but also to other allied devices which serve to minimize
lightning damage to electrical apparatus.
233. The Term Lightning Has a Specific Significance when
used in connection with electrical apparatus protection.
When thus used "lightning" implies to any sort of excessivelyhigh -voltage disturbance in an electrical generation, transmission or distribution system.
NOTE. Commercial lightning protectors are designed to protect only
against the effects of transient abnormal voltages. They are not, as a
rule, designed to protect against the effects of continued abnormally high
voltages, regardless of
234.
may
high voltages
Into
Two
General Classes,
originate.
Each
of these
CENTRAL STATIONS
196
is
[ART. 235
Lightning
May
Direct Stroke
is
by a
Effect
is
an
familiar
Electrical
system.
said to be "struck
stroke."
Lightning protectors
capable of
protection
against direct strokes. If the
current of a direct stroke passes
stroyed.
deor-
An
overhead
ground
frequent
most
intervals
affords
the
direct strokes.
Observation has
current
that
the
indicated,
of a direct lightning stroke will not flow along a transmission
line for a very great distance.
It will usually find, through
some
feet
238.
An Induced
Stroke
is
SEC. 11]
is
197
usually satis-
rise
The duty
Internal
the system of abnormally high voltages, in a manner somewhat analagous to that in which a safety valve relieves a
boiler of an excessively high pressure.
safety valve should stop the
steam
Just as the
escape
Fio.
The principle of
lightning protector.
151.
CENTRAL STATIONS
198
[ART. 241
select the
down the
insulation of
some
of the windings of
M and force
much
less opposition, to
LCMA
ground
Ground Connection
Pole Line-'
-Generating or Sub-Station
^Apparatus to be Protected
FIG. 152.
Diagram indicating
equipment.
gap, G,
The
resistances, R\
SEC. 11]
199
voltage condition had been relieved. The reason is that after an electric
arc has been established across a gap, a relatively small voltage is sufficient to maintain
it.
number
of different devices
in
practice as an equivalent for the spark gaps illustrated in Figs. 151 and
152 and some schemes utilized for preventing the flow of current after
the high voltage has been relieved are described in succeeding articles.
NOTE. Instead of there being a difference of potential between the
line, LjL 2 (Fig. 152) and the earth there might be an abnormal difference
of potential or voltage (internal lightning) between LiL t
If the gaps
.
Gi and
were not provided this excessive pressure might break down the
insulation in
and damage it. But with the gaps, G\ and G 2 in place,
the equalization current would flow via GiR\RGz so that then the machine
would not be damaged.
(? 2 ,
242.
The Function
of
a Choke
Coil,
CiC 2
is
Curthat
consequence
is
by a
direct-current gen-
CENTRAL STATIONS
200
[ART. 224
erator through a spark gap after the lightning discharge current has passed is more difficult to extinguish than the arc
similarly sustained by an alternating-current generator.
FIG. 153.
Illustrating the prinof
the magnetic blow-out
lightning protector.
FIG.
ciple
154.
Protector on car
desirable arrangement.
to flow across G.
shown.
field.
An
The
coil,
down by an abnormal
However,
develops a magnetic
field as
SEC. 11]
fore,
field.
The
201
current.
FIG. 155.
Fia. 156.
in
to
use the connection of B the arrester may be placed on the roof of the car, in the vestibule
or under the car, without affecting the inductance of the circuit of the arrester.
When
such a connection is used, however, a larger choke coil than in A is necessary to offset
the greater inductance of the arrester circuit).
246.
A Carborundum
may
be used
on either
has been designated by its manufacturer J as a multipath protector, because of the fact that there are many paths provided
to ground for the lightning discharge current.
It consists of a
disc or block, B, of
CENTRAL STATIONS
202
[ART. 247
cir-
diagrammed in Fig.
These are designed par-
cuits is
157.
It consists merely
with a
resistor,
the resistor
FIG. 157.
The condenser-type
pro-
tector.
is
R.
However,
shunted by a
R is to maintain the permittor in a discharged conProtectors of this general type but without the spark
gap are also manufactured and are recommended for the pro-
function of
dition.
shown diagrammatically
is
SEC. 11]
The two
gaps,
limiting resistor,
208
G 3(?4,
S Insulating Base
From\Lw
Q:
>.
Resistance--*
Fiber Tube
FIG. 158.
The diagram
of "circuit-
Fio. 159.
The Carton-Daniels
lightning protector.
ground.
CENTRAL STATIONS
204
[ART. 249
preference,
I- Protector Element
160.
FIG.
ciple
of
Illustrating
the prin-
FIG. 161.
Double-pole, non-arcing
metal cylinder protector.
protector.
composed
circuit, an
of a copper-zinc alloy.
In an alternating-current
by a
The reason
phenomena
arc.
There
is
also
a rectifying
The
metallic
SEC. 11]
205
a Resistance in Series
resistor
to
limit
FIG. 162.
Multigap alternatingcurrent arrester with series resistance
mounted on a pole
FIG. 163.
former protection.
Multigap protectors
for
trans-
CENTRAL STATIONS
206
[ART. 251
resistance
Diagram of a so-called
"multipath" lightning arrester.
FIG. 164.
FIG. 165.
Multipath
protector in
Why
When
SEC. 11]
207
rods.
However, such a discharge will follow with relative ease across all
of the gaps because of the permittive (electrostatic capacity) effect of
The series of gaps is, in effect, a number of permittors (conthe gaps.
frequency
effect.
Which path
is
selected in
quency
any
by the
fre-
By
'-Ground Wire
FIQ. 167.
line.
CENTRAL STATIONS
208
252.
and
[ART. 252
167.
may
in Figs. 166
be designed for
alter-
resistance, R, in series.
L,
from the
line wire
Pi,
P2
and
FIG. 168.
Horn-gap protector
An
electric arc
SEC. Ill
209
Porcelain
Insulator-"
Iron Pipe Full
FIG. 169.
Horn-gap, choke-coil protector for alternating-current lines.
FIG. 170.
The
Length of
Insulator
Pierce
line-wire,
Compound
Line-
Porcelain
Separators
Current-LimitingResistor
>
FIG. 171.
The Burke suspension
lightning protector for pressures up
to 6600 volts.
Section A-k
FIG. 172.
The General Electric
Company compression-type lightning
protector.
CENTRAL STATIONS
210
wires and
[ART. 254
Such surges
nection;
In both of these illustrations: LI is the line- wire conL 2 leads to the apparatus (or choke coil if there is
is
256.
The
mercial
voltage.
Their
relatively expensive
disadvantages
are
that
they are
SBC. 11]
211
of attention.
Only
alternating-current
be described
will
protectors
here.
The
257.
Principle
the
of
be
understood from a consideration
of Figs. 173 and 174.
The
protector consists of a stack
Electrolytic
(Fig.
Protector
of
173)
may
cone-shaped,
aluminum
of electrolyte
is
with
vents
The
oil.
the
is
then
filled
the
is
discharging.
plate of the stack
connected to a horn gap (Fig.
protector
The upper
is
175).
The lower
plate
is
FIG.
of
173.
Sectional
a General Electric
elevation
Company
electrolytic protector.
also
is
also (on a
grounded
Ampere*
Flo. 174.
CENTRAL STATIONS
212
258.
of the
[ART. 258
Electrolyte usually
is
such that
it
Fia. 175.
The number
of
it
three-
aluminum
plates which
is
neces-
NOTE.
together
is
Fig. 177
shows a complete
installation.
For charging an
by moving
this.
SEC. 11]
213
grounded, a voltage greater than the normal voltage between phase wires (Li, L 2 and L 3 ) can never be impressed across
any one of the three cells (1, 2, and 3) if they are arranged as
is
Electrolyte
FIG. 176.
normal
CENTRAL STATIONS
214
FIG. 177.
[ART. 259
three-phs
^/^r^^yy^^i^^ff^w^
Pmim^^M&mmm
FIQ. 178.
Schematic
diagram
for
an
electrolytic protector.
SBC. 11]
215
if
260. In Selecting
Choke
judgment.
coil
With choke
coils of
mean diameter*
Terminal
#'
100-amp. choke coil designed for pressures of 6600 volts and lower.
(General Electric Company.)
FIQ. 179.
choke
coil is desirable.
However, the larger the coil the
If a coil is too large
greater its impedance and resistance.
the voltage drop and energy loss in it will be excessive, hence
in selecting the coil it is desirable to consider these features
A Choke
179.
of a size
sufficient protection
It comprises
216
CENTRAL STATIONS
[ART. 262
Insulated-
Strap-Copper
Winding
FIG. ISO. Westinghouse "pancake type " Choke coil for pressures
of from 2200 to 25,000 volts.
pany
more frequently, particularly on very highvoltage lines for which the construction of Fig. 180 would
not be suitable.
263. Oil-insulated
Choke
Coils
are
sometimes used on
SEC. 11]
steel
tank which
is filled
with
The
oil.
oil
217
FIQ.
182.
pressures
for
FIG. 183.
Westinghouse oilinsulated, self-cooling choke coil
for pressures of from 25,000 to
70,000 volts.
264. Application of Alternating-current Lightning ProtecThe following table indicates in a general way the
services for which certain of the Westinghouse protectors of
tors.
The
CENTRAL STATIONS
218
[ART. 264
<
If
STJ
il
f
58
-~
111
sll
HI
K*ta
H?"Ei
II
i
in
S
for
III!
and
""
protecti
fl
II
extra
equivale
Greater
or
ii si
SECTION
12
in
candle-power
in-
consumer.
EXAMPLE.
Referring
to
the
higher-efficiency
be used.
lamps
86
9fc"K""l04'l08"y ll2
92
Fio.
184.
Graph showing
pressed voltage.
may
When
266.
219
CENTRAL STATIONS
220
[ART. 267
Condenser to
Minimize
Arcing at A
.Differentially-
Wound Magnet
Spring
FIG. 185.
Arrangement
of
for
a small
direct-current generator.
268.
The
is
The voltage impressed by any generator on its bus-bars can be maintained almost constant by a
man operating the field rheostat. However, such a method
illustrated in Fig. 185.
the
field
This permits a
SEC. 12]
221
EXPLANATION. The arrangement of Fig. 185, showing a voltage regulator for a small direct-current generator, is designed to maintain a
The closing of the contact A
constant voltage, EL, across bus-bars -LiL 2
.
WL
is
closed,
is
closed
by
is
When contact
is then opened by the pull of Wi.
Then
also excited, which neutralizes the effect of W\.
the action of the spring Si. Now, if the voltage, EL, rises
excited.
2
is
Genera-
contact,
(Figs. 185
and
can
CENTRAL STATIONS
222
[ART. 270
be arranged in multiple. A multiple-contact regulator, operating on the principle shown in Fig. 185, can control directcurrent generators of capacities up to 125 kw.
FIG. 186.
FIG. 187.
270.
shown
The
in Fig. 187.
SBC. 12]
223
field.
Fig. 187 shows only the principle, because, as
be described, the actual construction of the regulator for
an alternating-current circuit is more complicated than that
erator
will
If
EL
(Fig.
is
and
is
GD
is
increased.
,-__-
'
FIG. 188.
271.
again raised.
'^-Alternating -Current
Generator
Alternators
is
187.
Solenoid A is energized by a current proportional to the
voltage on the bus-bars. It is usually fed through a potential
transformer, B. The core of A is attached to a lever C. On
C is
a contact
224
CENTRAL STATIONS
[ART. 271
and
The windings
constitute
Insulating Panel-'
189.
Automatic
voltage
regulator for small capacity exciters
mounted on a 31-in. panel for insertion in a switchboard.
FIG.
FIG. 190.
lator having
Contacts
spring
SEC. 12]
225
FIG. 191.
Feetfers*
'
.Pivot
Where
'
Compensating'
.
..-Winding
Schematic diagram
the exciter capacity is small or where there is only a single exciter one
contact suffices (Fig. 189) at /. In stations where there are a number of
exciters the relay
operates a number of contacts, /. There may be
one or more than one relay contact for each exciter as shown in Figs.
190 and 191. In important installations a separate regulator may be
272.
Direct-current Genera-
tacts
must
there
is
One
15
CENTRAL STATIONS
226
which
is
[ART. 274
current-generator output.
FIG
192.
of
,'A.C.Control
two
exciters in parallel.
Magnet
Compensating Winding
.-Not
Used
Otenria!
.-Winding
X/
3-ffiase tine-'---
Fia. 193.
is
Arrangement
in excess of
ranged in
of a line-drop
Current Transformers'-''
about 50 kw., additional contacts must be areach shunting a portion of the exciter-field
series,
rheostat.
274.
The Operation
of
SEC. 12]
227
Parallel
FIG. 194.
Arrangement of an automatic regulator for exciters of small
capacities controlling several alternating-current generators in parallel with
their exciters in parallel.
is
effected
by means
of a
The
K
K being proportional to the line
current
is,
in general,
will
CENTRAL STATIONS
228
[ART. 276
to provide
dial switch is provided in combination with
the proper value of compensation for the feeder circuit in
which current transformer J is inserted. A special compensator (Fig. 193) is provided where it is necessary to compensate
for
both
resistive
276. Connections
FIG. 195.
at the
shown
if
mounted on a standard-
panel section (Fig. 189), be incorporated directly in a switchboard. It is also feasible to mount a unit like that of Fig. 190
SECTION
13
The
Distinction
By
-.Ground Detector
Lamps
..-Generator Panels-.
196.
Small "standard-unit" switchboard for two compounddirect-current generators and seven feeders. (General Electric
Fia.
wound
Company.)
trical
electrical device."
279.
CENTRAL STATIONS
230
[ART. 279
amounts
of
to be self-contained.
r
Circuit
Breakers
is
large or at
Panels are Natural Black Slate, t\ In. Thick with j In. Bevel Except
Those above 3, 000 Amp. Panel Rating, Which are 2 In, Thick
Hand
(6g\Wheel
&Pot. Rec
Main
Switch
!r
I.
c
Feeder Pane!
Note:-
Fia. 197.
railway
That
is
is
SBC. 131
231
(Fig. 201).
Imrrumenr--'
!*
FIG. 198.
trol
2ff.
Sin
End
desk and
Fio.
199.
Westinghouse
equalizer pedestal with switch
for compound-wound directcurrent generator.
281. A Panel Switchboard (Figs. 196 and 197) is one composed of panels of insulating material supported on a suitable
iron framework.
The various switches, instruments, rheostat
handles and other control appliances are mounted on these
Each panel is, for the larger switchboards,
vertical panels.
way
by
is
side
indi-
and 205.
CENTRAL STATIONS
232
[ART. 282
'Lamp Indicators
FIG. 200.
Westinghouse control
pedestal used in combination with
an instrument post.
FIG. 201.
Instrument post
used instead
switchboard.
of
panel
'-D.C.denerator
FIQ. 202
Single-line
SEC. 13]
233
what
it is
desired to ac-
FIG. 203.
Working from
compound-
Then
front of an insulating panel of suitable size (Fig. 204).
the arrangement of the apparatus and wiring on the back of the
board can be worked out as suggested in Fig. 205. After the
layout of the back of the board has been examined it may be
necessary to alter the locations of certain equipment on the
front.
The front and rear layouts must be developed in
conjunction. It is not practicable to develop one independently of the other. The lettering on Fig. 203 corresponds
with that on Fig. 205.
283. In Arranging the Switchboard Panels it is usually
desirable to locate the generator panels (Fig. 206) at the left
CENTRAL STATIONS
234
[ART. 284
may
shown
at T, Fig. 206.
FIG. 204.
Front view of switchboard panel for a single compound-
wound
direct-current generator.
FIG. 205.
Phantom view of the
switchboard panel for the compoundwound generator as it would appear
if the panel were removed exposing
the connections behind.
Ty
-Generator Panels
**i*
Feeder Panels
Right
FIG. 206.
of
switchboard panels
SBC. 13]
self-contained
switchboards.
Panels
for
235
switchboards
of
medium
board
are, in
NOTE. It has been explained that the reason why these particular
dimensions were adopted is that a 20-in.-high section at the top is of
ample proportions to support the standard brush-type carbon circuitbreaker, which is often located at the top on the switchboard so that the
arc which rises from it, when it operates under load, cannot do damage.
The heights of small single-section panel switchboards like that of Fig.
196 have not been thoroughly standardized. One company uses a
height overall of 5 ft. 4 in., where feasible, for boards of this general design.
i'.
I- Rear View
FIG. 207.
FIG. 208.
I- Side
View
The Frames
Westinghouse Elec.
&
for
Mfg. Co.
CENTRAL STATIONS
236
[ART. 286
ponents of the pipe frames are shown in Figs. 207 and 208 for
and 64-in.-high boards respectively. The pipe frames
appear to be becoming more popular. The general construction is apparent from the illustration.
Standard angle-iron
frames are constructed as illustrated in Fig. 209. The angle90-in.
/If
6 *-<9ife -per-Foo-t-Channel
FIG. 209.
Base -
rest.
SEC. 13]
237
for attaching
\$
1
FIG. 210.
Fittings
an insulator.
but
*
is
for
is
now
ordinarily used
and
is
stronger
Electric Journal,
May,
1913, p. 82.
CENTRAL STATIONS
238
for
is
[ART. 288
volts
or less than 1,100 volts the use of marble is imperative. However, modern switchboards (even those for the control of apparatus operating at the highest commercial voltages) do not
have extending through them, conducting members the difference of potential between which exceeds 110 volts. Even
for 2,400 and 6,600-volt switchboards the oil switches, the
instrument transformers and the other members upon which
line voltage is impressed are thoroughly insulated from the
switchboard sections.
Threaetnt-Type-Brace-,:
Pipe Clamp
FIG. 211.
Wall or
floor brace.
in display installations.
the control of practically any direct or alternating-current inHowever, as will be explained, switchboards of the
stallation.
may be
SEC. 13]
239
The
pedestal
connections then existing between the generating and convertand the lines or feeders radiating
from
it.
CENTRAL STATIONS
240
FART. 293
With these relatively high voltages remote-conswitchboards of either the mechanical or electrical types
may, under certain conditions, be desirable.
293. Direct-current Switchboards for Small-capacity Inrailways.
trol
Oenei
I Wire
2Wire---x
J Wire---
-3Wi're~*.2
frntnoW
Neyativf
FIG. 212.
The
feeders
F F z and F s
it
circuit-breakers.
The
lighting feeders,
F F5
t)
for
,F 6
by
and F^ are
Installations
of
SEC. 13]
241
This indicates how twowire and three-wire generators are connected and how onewire, two-wire and three-wire feeders may be arranged.
296.
Switchboard
illustrations*
.-Circuit
These
section,
Breakers
FIG. 213.
Direct - current
Nl
''Panel for
General or N? 2
by a double-pole knife switch protected with enEach motor feeder is controlled and protected
by a double-pole automatic circuit-breaker. Each of the two
controlled
closed fuses.
MEN,
p. 100.
CENTRAL STATIONS
242
[ART. 297
generators has
blade,
EI and
main switch.
Main Fuses,
Enclosed
FIG. 214.
The feeder
Fig. 218.
constructed about as shown in Fig. 219.
illustrated
in
panels
are
itself is
usually
SEC. 13]
243
.....
FIG. 215.
...
/>
for
600-volt
Direct-current
Railway
struction
CENTRAL STATIONS
244
Fig. 221.
if
such
is
[ART. 300
used,
The negative
Fig. 199 for detail) located near the machine.
side of the line is carried to a ground connection near the
pedestal.
Hence, in
negative bus.
FIG. 216.
By
effect,
the earth
itself
constitutes the
first
two general
cost
are
(Fig.
197)
realized.
and
(2)
remote-control.
SEC. 13]
245
Where the capacity or the voltage exceeds the value just noted,
Omit
Connect Lower
Studs of Ammeter
Together
'
Equalizer Bus-*
FIG. 217.
feature which
POWEB
STATIONS."
CENTRAL STATIONS
246
[ART. 300
Circuit
Breaker
Hanoi
Wheel
Watthour
Meter
k
I- Front
24 In.
View
FIG. 218.
.-Circuit
Breakers
i
Feeder
Switches
TerminalLugs
I-Front-Elevcrtion
FIQ. 219.
E-Rear Elevation
~m-Side Elevation
SEC. 13]
3 Wire
Feeder
with C.B
FIG. 220.
FIG. 221.
247
3 Wire
Fused
Feeder
direct^current railway
Typical connection diagram for a 600-volt,
switchboard.
CENTRAL STATIONS
248
now
[ART. 301
phase service.
301. Alternating-current Switchboards for Three-phase
240- and 480-volt Service are (except those of great capacity)
nearly
always self-contained.
board shown
in Fig. 223.
'
It should
be noted
FIG. 222.
that
oil
'
installation.
of
of that
Westinghouse Electric
&
Manufacturing Co.
POWER
STATIONS."
SEC. 13]
four feeders,
to
F4
Panels
249
generator-and-exciter panels. An automatic voltage regulator is mounted at the end of the board on panel No. 1.
Panel 3 serves two three-phase power feeders. Panel 4 con-
Fio. 223.
trols
lighting.
the alternating-current motor end of a synchronous motorgenerator set which supplies the town with direct current.
CENTRAL STATIONS
250
FART. 301
bobotolo'
Lamp*
Oil
AutoStarter
ftft
.
Sw.-
Fio. 224.
,-Bus
Fio. 225.
Bars
'Volt
Transformers
SEC. 13]
251
CENTRAL STATIONS
252
[ART. 301
cated in Fig. 196 may be purchased for simple alternatingcurrent installations but inasmuch as plenty of room is desirable on an alternating-current switchboard the 90-in.-high
is
usually preferable.
ical-control switchboards as
are required.
Panels are not
(2)
subject to the mechanical strains
due to automatic operation or to the
be obtained.
may be had
(9)
Where a
to either
Moreover,
may
easily
SEC. 131
302.
An
Switchboard
diagram
is
253
is
shown
InettYm.-,
Voltmeters.
mmefers
A.C.Am-*.-lnd.Wm.i ,A.C.Am..-'
.-Ammeters,
D
Oil
Circuit
Breaker
K--
Ft.
k~ .....
FIQ. 228.
<<
-ingin. t/Ft
8 In.* I Ft 8 In.
..........................
J0ft4ln-
all
flail-'
FIG. 229.
CENTRAL STATIONS
254
[ART. 302
fxc/ter
'Bus Bars
It
Remote Mechanical-'
Control Operating Rod
Am.
Shunts.
Instrument
Busses.
-Rear Elevation
I-Sectional Elevation
Fia. 230.
of remote-control switchboard
mechanically operated.
_jj
FIG. 231.
SEC. 13
255
Pipe-'
ftcite
Brace
Bus
Bars
^-Enclosed
-? Cell if
:'.'
:'.',
Desired
Asbestos
Lumber
Wire
Rope toRheostat
Oil Circuit
Breaker
FIG.
control
232.
Mechanical remotecircuit-breaker mounted on
wall.
FIG. 233.
Arrangement of mechanical remote-control
switchgear
utilizing wall and a pipe frame for a
supporting structure.*
BeJICrank-
FIG. 234.
Remote mechanical
C. H, Sanderson in
oil circuit-breaker
*
structure.
arranged
masonry
CENTRAL STATIONS
256
[ART 302
;5ectiona!izina Section
Generator
Sections
'
'
Line
Uxneratvr
*''-<
'
",Sectio
'^Section
Generator
Sections
Line
^ Section
- Plan of
Slopiog Top of Control Desk
Generator
Vnltmeter
.Voltmeter
Ammeter
Indicating
',
'\
field Ammeter
!'.
;5ynchronoscope\ \
y
LT
\
\
Field Rheostat
Controller
N23
o op
o
cjob
o oo
o
o oo
H- Front
Fia. 235.
'Voltmeters
,'
N24
N25
N?6
go p
Oob
o oo:
o
o oo!
SBC. 13]
257
FIG. 236.
Remote-control
oil
The instruments
are
CENTRAL STATIONS
258
[ART. 303
arranged a miniature bus strucon the switchboard permits current to flow through the magnet M, Fig.
236, of the electrically operated remote-control oil switches,
whereby they may be opened or closed at the will of the
In general, no two electrically operated remoteoperator.
control boards are alike because each is usually designed to
the face of the control desk
ture.
The operation
is
The possible
satisfy certain specified conditions of operation.
variations in design are almost endless, hence cannot be
considered here.
SECTION
14
Electrical
Will
Be Followed
in Describing
general considerations relating to all generating stations, regardless of the types of their prime movers, will be treated.
Second, the adaptability of each of the different classes of
prime movers:
(a)
steam,
(6)
some
having internal-combustion engine prime movers will be conFifth, hydro-electric stations will be examined.
305. In Determining the Cost per Unit of Electrical Energy
Generated by a Station a number of factors must be included.
sidered.
these may be: (1) cost of fuel, if any; (2) labor cost of
attendance and operation; (3) cost of supplies, such as oil and
waste; (4) interest on the investment; (5) depreciation; (6)
Among
is
its
The maximum demand (maximum load) is 230 kw. The annual energy
consumption is 62,700 kw.-hr. There are two generators in the plant, each
No. 1 it a 200-fcu>. unit, NO, 2 is a 75driven by its oum steam engine.
269
CENTRAL STATIONS
260
[A*T. 305
The charge which the central station would make would be based
a "demand" or "readiness-to-serve" charge of $2 per month per kw.
of connected load and (2) an additional "energy" charge o/0.9 cts. ($0.009)
All of the connected apparatus is direct current,
per kw.-hr. consumed.
hence, if central-station energy is purchased, it must be direct current or be
kw, unit.
on
(1)
The first step will be to find the boiler capacity required to meet the
peak load conditions, in order that fixed charges on these units may be
properly accounted for. With a maximum demand of 230 kw., the probable "water rate" of the large engine will be 40 Ib. of steam per kw.-hr.,
consequently the hourly steam consumption under these load conditions
is: 230 X 40 = 9,200 Ib. plus 10 per cent, for auxiliaries, pipe line losses,
etc.,
or a total of 10,120
maximum-demand
Ib.
periods.
Assuming that the steam pressure is 130 Ib. gage and that the temperature of the feed water entering boilers is 200 deg., each pound of feed
water must receive in the boilers 1024.8 heat units to convert into steam
must be capable of
10,371,000 heat units per hr. Since a
is equivalent to 33,500 heat units, the boiler capacity
Three 150 h.p. waterrequired will be: 10,371,000 -^ 33,500 = 310 h.p.
tube boilers will therefore be considered in estimating the installation
at the
assumed pressure.
furnishing: 10,120
boiler horse-power
1,024.8
costs.
Tne second step in the calculation will be to determine the yearly coal
requirements. With a monthly consumption of 62,700 kw.-hr., the average hourly load of 24-hr, service will be: 62,700 -4- 24 X 30 =86 kw.
will
January, 1916,
p. 41.
SEC. 14]
261
On a basis of 8,760 hr. per year, the total yearly steam requirements,
including 10 per cent, for auxiliaries, pipe-line losses, etc., will therefore
be: 86 X 45 X 8,760 X 1.1 = 37,291,000 Ib., and since each pound of
coal evaporates 6 Ib. of steam, the coal necessary to evaporate this quan-
INSTALLATION COST
GENERATING COST
CENTRAL STATIONS
262
[ART. 305
The connected load is 275 kw. The primary charge will be $2 per
month. The average monthly energy consumption of 62,700 kw.-hr.
If a rotary (synchronous)
will be at the rate of 0.9 cts. per kw.-hr.
converter is installed, the customer will probably, be required to pay the
conversion losses. With a converter efficiency of 90 per cent., the
monthly bill charged against the consumer will therefore be 62,700 * 0.9
= 69,500 kw.-hr. The annual cost of purchased power will therefore
be about as follows:
:
INSTALLATION COSTS
OPERATING COSTS
SEC. 14]
263
number
of the
magazine cited
in the footnote.
Generated)
Total
3,551
NOTE.
Electrical World.
CENTRAL STATIONS
264
[ART. 306
ing the net depreciation 4.15 per cent, per year. Poles and pole-line
equipment are assigned values of 12 per cent, at the end of 20 years'
Wire, after 16
service, resulting in a depreciation rate of 4.4 per cent.
years' estimated usefulness, has the high scrap value of 40 per cent.,
making the depreciation rate 3.75 per cent. Line transformers and
customers' meters
electrical
have a salvage value of 10 per cent., making the net depreciation rate in
the case of these instruments 4.5 per cent.
306. The Location of a Generating Station is a thing which
should be considered most carefully, because if the station is
not located intelligently the cost of the energy generated and
delivered
by
it
may
In this connection
be excessively high.
NOTE. The station should, all things being equal, be easily accessible
so as to facilitate the delivery of fuel, stores and machinery, while it
should be so located that the ashes may be easily removed. If possible,
the station should be so located that it may be reached by both rail
and water.
307. The Advantages of Centralization, that is, the advantages which accrue through the concentration of generating
equipment into one large plant rather than having it scattered
among a number of small plants may be recited thus:* (1)
It is possible to distribute the power economically, (2) because
of the diversified nature of the load it is possible to operate the
(6)
of the
SEC. 14]
265
nomic reasons, the most desirable pressure for operating incandescent lamps in multiple. Occasionally, in a direct-current
installation, where the power must be transmitted for a distance of possibly something under a mile for direct-current
motors, a 220-volt direct-current system may be installed.
It is
If this is done, 220-volt incandescent lamps are used.
seldom that a two-wire direct-current system is now installed
stations which
many
nating voltages.
309. Practically All Alternating-current Stations Generate
This refers to stations which have been in-
Three-phase.
CENTRAL STATIONS
266
[ART. 310
stalled recently.
stations in operation.)
The
is
with any of the others which are utilized directly. The threephase can be readily transformed or converted into power of
some one of the other systems if desirable.
NOTE. Even if a large proportion of the output of a station must
be transformed or converted to render it available for utilization, it is
usually most economical to generate only one kind of energy. That is,
for most cases in a station of any size, only three-phase alternating power
should be generated. The reason why this plan is ordinarily followed is
that with it the generating units can all be operated at greater loads.
That is, the individual load factors of the generating units can be maintained at a maximum, due to the advantage that may thereby be taken
of the diversity element.
Furthermore, where only one kind of power
is generated,
the investment which
must be tied up in reserve apparatus
may be a minimum.
310. Three-phase Generators
EL
the voltage
--Connection
of
FIG. 237.
Diagrammatic representation of a star- or Y-connected.
three-phase generator.
line voltage.
the
number
of
turns
a given
the
in
star-connected
generator
is,
Much
for
of the material
line
voltage,
which folllows
is
smaller.
SEC. 14]
structure results.
267
difficulties, due to
machine windings, which may
Furthermore, certain
occur with the delta are eliminated with the star connection.
used.
.-Neutral Point
\\
~*
'i/ne
.L
Wfres^
r
r
:
J -Phase Generator
rrifr-*f*rw.
;,
If^dlHTr;.
Insulator-
"?V Permanent
'Ground
Insulator-
V;
?. ':=-
Accidental
Orpund
Accidental ground on a
grounded-neutral system.
Fio. 238.
^ff,.
v"
*=
"
.'
Accidental-ground on an
ungrounded-neutral system.
FIG. 239.
voltage to neutral.
oil
for
shown by EC
if
is
in Fig. 237.)
to insure that
by the action
of the
promptly disconnect
a ground occurs on that feeder.
circuit-breaker inserted in
EXPLANATION.
is
grounding a neutral
an accidental ground,
it,
G2
on a
by a generator having a grounded neutral, a currentthrough the accidental ground as shown by the dotted arrows.
This ground will be of sufficiently low resistance so that the current which
enough intensity (amperage) to immediately operate
the automatic oil switch or oil circuit-breaker, Si. This will isolate F\
from the system. If the neutral were not grounded the attendants in
the station where the generator G was located might not be informed
flows will be of great
promptly
G>
CENTRAL STATIONS
268
[ABT. 312
may
As a
be desirable.
rule
it is
Automatic
'Circuit
Oil'
Breakers
AccfrenW
Generator Neutral
Permanently Grounded
FIG. 240.
-Path of Short-
Ground.
Circuit Current
itself
line.
Such a resistance should be so proportioned that it
would permit enough current to flow to operate the automatic
oil switches but would at the same time prevent the flow of a
the
More frequently
lighting load, the generator voltage is 110.
a pressure of 220 is adopted for small plants which serve a
three- wire
system,
the
three-wire,
110-220- volt
with balance
pressures
coils located at
points
Sometimes, in industrial plants where a considerable number of alternating-current motors are used, 480near the load.
SEC. 14]
269
'
Alternating-Current
Incandescent Lamps
FIG. 241.
Fia. 242.
--.'.'_.
E. A. Lof, in
COAL AGE,
Feb.
6,
1915.
of
in a
CENTRAL STATIONS
270
[ART. 313
In large industrial plants three-phase 6,600-volt genA pressure of 13,200 volts is the
erators are ordinarily used.
highest for which it is deemed desirable in the United States
load
to
<.-6rounti
Connection
FIG. 243.
The
The
between
four-wire,
three-phase
should be selected
313.
The
consideration.
As a
rule in
modern
and
ratings,
its
it is
SEC. 14]
271
is,
314.
The Rating
of the
breakdown
should be
gine and waterwheel prime movers operate at maximum efficiency at certain definite loads. At loads greater or smaller
will
be a material
decrease in efficiency.
movers of
this
of greatest efficiency
mover
will pull.
deration.
315. In Providing Reserve Capacity in generating equipment, that is, capacity which may be utilized in case of a break-
down
of
some
of the generating apparatus, there are two exmay be adopted. That is, reserve capacity
pedients which
may
be provided by:
units which
inoperative,
(1)
installing
an
may
and
NOTE.* With the method of rating engine-driven units which is generally used which provides a liberal overload capacity for a few hours,
the second expedient works out satisfactorily. For example, a plant
of five units, each of which has an overload capacity of 25 per cent.,
can have one unit taken out of service when all of the units are operating
at full-load without placing an excessive load on the remaining units.
It is now the almost-standard practice of practically all steam-turbine
manufacturers to rate their units on a maximum basis, that is, without
any overload capacity. Under this method of rating it is necessary to
utilize the first expedient noted above to provide reserve for emergencies.
To maintain the reserve capacity at a minimum it may be desirable to
have at least five or six units in the plant. With five units to carry the
load and one reserve unit there is then only 17 per cent, of the installation held in reserve.
If one reserve unit is considered inadequate the
addition of another increases the reserve capacity to about 29 per cent,
of the total.
J.
Mar.
W.
Shuster,
3,. 1917.
Electrical Review,
CENTRAL STATIONS
272
[ART. 316
must be provided
That
is,
additional units
for reserve.
of
EXAMPLE. If the power factor of a plant is 100 per cent, then for a 100kva. generator, in such a plant, a prime mover capable of developing
approximately 100 kw. output should be provided for the generator.
However, if the power factor of the load which the plant serves is only
75 per cent., then to drive a 100-kva. generator a prime mover of only
approximately 75 kw. output is necessary. If a 100-kw. prime mover
were used approximately 25 per cent, or one-fourth of its capacity would
be unavailable. Furthermore, the prime mover, instead of being fully
loaded, that is, operating at high efficiency when the generator was
fully loaded, would be operating at only three-fourths load with correspondingly low efficiency. (In the preceding example a generator
efficiency of 100 per cent, has been assumed.)
Actually the efficiency
of a generator is always less than 100 per cent., but the principle involved
is evident from the above even if the generator efficiency is not
considered.
The Unit Principle Should be Utilized wherever posThat is, all of the units in the plant should, insofar as
The different essential elements of
feasible, be duplicates.
317.
sible.
operation.
318. The Factors
of uninterrupted
ment described
SEC. 14]
273
steam plants the condensers are usually located in the basement and the principal piping (Fig. 242) carried below the
main floor.
320. The Exciters* should have a capacity sufficient for
of the synchronous apparatus in the station when all of the
synchronous machines are operating at their maximum loads
and at the operating power factor. It is not sufficient to
all
is
motor-driven.
Another system
quently is to
each of which
install
of excitation
which
is
etc.,
are motor-driven.
18
CENTRAL STATIONS
274
322.
The
Exciter Voltage
For large
is,
for small
[ART. 322
and medium-sized
more economical.
Where one
NOTE.
minimum
cost.
exciter
is
be located as close as is
nected to their generators are often used.
modern stations.
maintain the alternating-current voltage constant at the busbars regardless of changes (within reasonable limits) of load
on station or of changes in prime-mover speed. Voltage regulators are usually located on or near the switchboard.
325. The Number and the Capacities of the Transformers
should be determined by the characteristics of the station and
the load which it serves. In stations transmitting at medium
or low voltage it is usually considered best practice to install
one bank of transformers for each generating unit following
out the unit principle recommended above. However, where
the transmission voltage is high, the transformer bank should
form a unit with the transmission line, each of the transmission
lines terminating in the station in one of these units.
Where
this arrangement is followed switching on the high-tension
side of the transformers is unnecessary as all of the switching
can then be effected on the low-tension side of the transformers.
In locating the transformers in the station, they are usually
placed (Figs. 242 and 244) on the main floor back of the gener-
They
ators.
track
is
moved
when
for repairs.
SEC. 14]
NOTE.
preferable
275
The
is
FIG. 244.
Sectional
Elevation of a typical
generating station
110,000-volt
*
Hydro-electric
NOTE. With the three-phase, shell-type transformers both the primary and secondary windings are delta-connected. Trouble in one
phase will not prevent the use of the other two in open delta. By shortcircuiting both the primary and secondary of the damaged phase and
cutting it out of the circuit, the magnetic flux in that section is entirely
neutralized. Three-phase transformers may be used in moderate-
it
serves
it is
CENTRAL STATIONS
276
327. Transformers
[ART. 327
rises to
Cooling Water
Coils
'
Oil
Valve
Oil-Draining Valve
FIG. 245.
Oil-cooled or self-cooling transformer. (This shows the
FIG. 246.
The water-cooled
trans-
former.
tubular type.)
case,
is
air.
The tanks
made
of
SEC. 14]
277
Motor-Driven Blower-.
FIG. 247.
An
air-blast-transformer installation.
through ducts or spaces provided in the transformer strucTransformers of this type are applicable for voltages
up to about 33,000 but they are being rapidly superseded by
air
ture.
CENTRAL STATIONS
278
[ART. 328
used in
if
Clamping
Conductors^
Oil
Reserwir-
The
FIG. 248.
circulating-oil-type
FIG.
249.
transformer,
Feeders.
re-
current-limiting
actor.
....
.62
Ft|F2|F3>jF4|Fs|F
R4^
Generators-'
''Double
Reactors
Single-line diagram of
generator, bus and feeder-
FIG. 250.
combined
group reactance
coil.
TTyTfinr-Hi
Ft
F?
FsV
Feeders'
F* Fs Fb \ FT Fa Fa
Fio
FH Fu
'-Reactors
FIG.
251.
diagram
Single-line
showing reactors installed on feeder
groups.
I.
E. E. STANDARDIZATION RULES.
Practical
SEC. 14]
279
329.
of a Reactor*
the ratio
is
it,
when
EXAMPLE. If the full-load current is 100 amp. (on a 10,000-volt, singlephase system or on a three-phase system with 10,000 volts to neutral)
the drop across a coil having a reactance of 5 ohms will be: 100 X 5 =500 volts. The percentage reactance of the coil will be: 100 X 500 -J-
10,000
5 per
Or
cent.
if
Fi
FIG. 252.
F? Fa
F4
Fs
F&
is
Fi
phase system, with 10,000 volts between phases, then the percentage
reactance of the coil having a reactance of 5 ohms will be: 100 X 500 *
(10,000
The
0.577)
short-circuit current
+ the
it.
board.
The switchboard
is
CENTRAL STATIONS
280
many
on the main
[ART. 330
floor of
the station.
in a
room
The
entirely separate from the generating room.
oil switches are located on the various floors of
bus-bars and
SECTION
15
331.
for
economics.
I9M
of
Installation
that
Usually
1906
1908
1910
is,
in
general,
prime mover
191?
is
a question of
the best one
1903
Year
1905
1901
1909
Year
Prime movers used in
FIG. 254.
the manufacturing industries.*
FIG. 253.
Prime movers used in
central stations.*
Some
of these will
which follow.
be described
Figs. 253
6,
1915.
281
CENTRAL STATIONS
282
[ART. 332
which require considerable capital expenditure for development. In large plants, where units of capacities of 5,000 kw.
and upward may be utilized effectively, modern steam turbo-
Load
FIG. 255.
Graphs
in
Kilowatts
economy
prove more economical than hydro-electric generaand transmission unless the investment required to
It will also
tion
is
unusually small.
NoTE.f "The progress of the steam turbine (Fig. 255) has been so
As the cost of
great that it has practically displaced the gas engine.
the gas-engine unit is probably seven or eight times as great as that of the
turbine, the gas engine has been practically put out of the running insofar
Copyright by Samuel Inaull.
t H. G. Stott. REPORT or EFFICIENCY TEST ON 30,000 KW. CROSS-COMPOUND STEAM
TURBINE, read before the 1916 annual meeting of the A. S. M. E.
ADAPTABILITY OF STEAM
SEC. 15]
work
283
is
ago hydro-electric power developments were looked on as a choice investment worth lots of money with almost any cost of development.
Water powers were developed that cost $200, $250 and $300 per kw.
FIG. 256.
Four types
the
much
many of
NorthWesT Station
get
money
for
1915
35.000 Kw.
of generating apparatus
of Chicago.*
it
all possibility of
developing
these water powers. When you allow for the fixed charges, the
steam turbine can make power more cheaply than the high-priced hydro"
electric development."
Consider the case of Niagara Falls where there
Copyright by Samuel
Inaull.
CENTRAL STATIONS
284
The only chance
for
[ART. 333
is
The Advantages
It is possible to obtain as
in the
same
is
The
something
first
Furthermore, the
the steam consumptions of the large
turbines, are in the neighborhood of one-half of the equivalent
water
that
rates,
is,
small and
f&mtionml
''-last in Ash
plants of
or of an
2%
XJ%
Losses in a non-condensing steam plant.*
Friction
FIG. 257.
"
*
R. H. Fernald,
PRODUCES
Dec. 15, 1914, p. 1200.
Practical Engineer,
ADAPTABILITY OF STEAM
SEC. 15]
285
ordinary non-condensing
medium-capacity steam-engine plant (Figs. 257 and 258),
cannot usually compete with the condensing turbo-generator
outfit unless the cost of fuel which may be used in the producer
is
very low.
Lost m->
Exhaust
23.17.
FIG. 258.
335. Hydraulic
the water, which drives the turbines or waterwheel in a hydroelectric plant, costs nothing that the cost of the power developed should be correspondingly low. This is far from the
truth,
developed
long,
"
*
R.
FERNALD,
Dec. 15, 1914. p. 1200.
PBODCCBB GAS
mo*
LOW-OBADB FCELA."
Practical Engineer,
CENTRAL STATIONS
286
[ART. 336
useless.
336.
The Development
of
is
SECTION
16
Steam Plants
Classes.*
...
Fio. 259.
1000
1700
800
Rating in Kilowatts
Mar.
W.
3,
Shuster,
1917.
287
Electrical
Review,
CENTRAL STATIONS
288
[ART. 339
creases.
It should also be
FIG. 260.
Lay-out for a small belted plant driven by a Corliss and a highspeed engine.
quently
desirable, in these small plants, to operate noncondensing because the fixed and operating charges on the
condensing equipment may be such that its first cost is not
it is
justified.
GENERATING STATIONS
SEC. 16]
289
connected, because where the generator is belted it may operwhich involves low generator cost. If the
v #>
FIG. 261.
*
A high-speed engine,
260 shows a typical belted installation.
shaft from which the genEi, is direct-connected to the jack
A Corliss engine is also belted to the jack
erators are belted.
Both of the engines are used to pull the station at
shaft.
F.
W. Salmon,
19
Practical Enginttr,
Jun
18, 1915.
CENTRAL STATIONS
290
[Am. 340
economy.
p. 676.
GENERATING STATIONS
SBC. 16]
291
first
cost
is
imperative.
y?^w\\\w^\\w\\\^^
FIG. 262.
STeam
At/mission
Valves.
Fia. 263.
pet-valve
ports.)
CENTRAL STATIONS
292
[ART. 343
Flywheel
Exhaust
FIG. 265
Pipe''
Ames-Stumph
GENERATING STATIONS
SEC. 16]
293
!-
tl
i
g2S
/>
8"
- Steam Turbine, 300 KH. 3600R.PM,Conaensingfrt 28- Vacuum ISO Lb. per Sq. In (Saturated) Steam.
- Generator. 315 Kva. at 80% Power Factor. 2300 Volts.
_ 3Pnast. 60 Cycles, with Direct Connected 5 Kw. Exciter.
-.
10
UniflowEngtne.
21 \22*,200RRU,12SLb.per
50
WO
150
TOO
Kilowatts Load nt 60 1.
Fio. 266.
Sq.ln
250
Powr
TOO
Factor
economies.
ties
up
It
flow engine direct-connected to an alternating-current generator which is served by a belted exciter. Fig. 265 shows
E Hagenlocher, "CHARACTERISTICS or
World, Feb. 10, 1917, p. 260.
EUctrical
CENTRAL STATIONS
294
[ART. 343
140
Ib. boiler
pressure have
shown an economy
of 30 Ib. of
load
FIG. 266A.
Graphs showing water rates 01 a Skinner 21 in. X 22 in.
uniflow engine running non-condensing and condensing, saturated steam at
140 Ib. (This and the next illustration are from data on engines which were
direct-connected to generators of 200 true kw. capacity and would be considered 320 h.p. engines at normal full load.
However, the engines are good
for 400 indicated h.p. for maximum continuous operation.)
Indicated Horsepower
FIG. 266B.
Graph showing water rate of a 21 in. X 22 in. Skinner uniflow
engine operating at a pressure of 149.1 Ib. With a superheat of 102.5
deg. F.
economy graphs
a turbo-generator.
full-load.
compared with
It will
GENERATING STATIONS
SEC. 16]
295
shown
room
and 266 B
FIG. 267.
FIG. 2G8.
Plan of the uniflow engine plant and the boiler plant in the Spring-
at the Springfield
344.
and 268.
electrical
Each unit comprises a Chuse-Poppet valve engine direct-connected to a Westinghouse direct-current generator. One 18
CENTRAL STATIONS
296
by
[ART. 345
21-in. engine drives a 200-r.p.m. 150-kw. 125-volt generEach of the other units is driven by a 22 by 28-in. en-
ator.
The 150-kw.
r.p.m.
unit
is
operated
is
light
ployed.
of 150 Ib.
sumption of approximately 17% Ib. per kw.-hr. A 15,000-kw. unit operating at a steam pressure of 250 Ib. with 125 deg. of superheat and a
29-in. vacuum has a steam consumption of only 11% lb- per kw.-hr.
346.
be for
maximum economy,
power
of the
be developed.
The
sive
E. A. Lof.
GENERATING STATIONS
SEC. 16]
297
90
100
Load
FIG. 269.
110
7.
Rowing
turbines.*
much
total
greater
low
its
first
power output.
the
cause
is
This
turbine
is
be-
is
in-
mover.
The
347.
Efficiency
Turbine
Graph
almost flat
It follows that a
Fig. 269.
turbine operates at good econ-
of the
omy
over
is
wide range of
loads.
348.
phenomenal.
*
98
190?
1900
1906
1904
units
Reginald
of
in
J. S. Pigott,
art.
the
suggested
have been
1912
FIG. 270
Graphs showing how
the capacities of steam-turbo-generator units have increased with the
Turbo-generator Units
As
1910
1908
Years
development of the
The Growth
Capacities
single
in
manufactured
STANDARD HANDBOOK,
has
the graph
July, 1915
been
of
almost
Fig.
270,
having outputs of
CENTRAL STATIONS
298
60,000
reason
kw.
The manufacturers
assert
[ART. 349
that
there
is
no
why
units
of
pumping machinery operating under substantially constant-head-andquantity conditions and moderately high head, say from 100 ft. up, depending upon the size of the unit.
Fans and blowers for delivering air at pressures from 1^ in. water
column to 30 Ib. per sq. in.
2. Direct-connected units, operating non-condensing for all the above
purposes, in those cases wherein steam economy is not the prime factor
or where the exhaust steam can be completely utilized, and, in the latter
(a)
main engine.
at pressures above 100 Ib. per sq. in. and in the case of compressors at
pressures from 1 Ib. per sq. in. and above.
(d) Fans and blowers (including induced draft fans) for handling air
in variable quantities
and at
relatively
5-in.
water column.
*
J. S.
before the A. S.
GENERATING STATIONS
SEC. 16]
(e)
Line shafts of
mills,
is
299
is
closely
grouped
good.
i-~F
sfew
Fio. 271.
6
Rating
12
in 100
16
734S61&9IO
70
Kw.
Steam consumptions
of
tions
small turbines.
272.
Fio.
Maximum
Steam
steam
of
moderate
consump-
turbines
of
capacities.
460
Fio. 273.
Approximate relative costs of turbo-generator units. (Cost
of labor and materials are now fluctuating so widely that it is not feasible to
give actual costs.)
Condensing units direct-connected or belted, for all the above purwhere the condensing water supply is limited, and
where the water must be recooled and recirculated.
2.
poses, particularly
CENTRAL STATIONS
300
350.
of
[ART. 350
which
may
FIQ. 274.
Capacity
is
New England
GENERATING STATIONS
SEC. 16]
An Example
301
a Medium-capacity Turbo-generator
and 276, which illustrate a
plant operated by the Arkansas Light and Power Company.*
352.
Station
is
FIG. 275.
shown
The
is
used for
room
in
FIG. 276.
Figs. 275
boiler
In this installation
mill
of
in
B\ to
8-
mill
is
burned.
and a planing
The
boiler
house
Turbo generator
saw and
by a company which owns the saw and planing mills. This company
sells steam to the Light and Power Company for the operation
of the turbines G\ and Gi.
J.
CENTRAL STATIONS
302
353.
[ART. 353
ing Unit
is
shown
of a flour mill.
This plant
in Fig. 277.
small 9
is
by 12 gas
engine, E, installed in
the engine room, is used for pulling the load at nights and at
other times when it would be uneconomical to operate the
shown in Figs. 278 and 279 which shows the Essex Station
of the Public Service Corporation of
This is
Jersey.
said to be one of the most efficient steam stations ever con-
is
New
Ft.
Dia.
JoColeAut.
;'antl
Troy Engine
Km, 480 K, J
Phase Generator
'-60
9"xl2"-'
Gas Engine
FIG. 277.
Plan view
Company
turbo-generator units, T, in
Fig. 278.
355.
in Fig. 280,
GENERATING STATIONS
SEC. 16]
Circulating.-'
Pump
FIG. 278.
Circulating
Suction
Pump
is
about 500 h.p. Fire-tube, that is returnnow used only in the small non-condensing
304
CENTRAL STATIONS
[ART. 356
Turbine
Room
Future
r
'
"
'Switch \
House
FIG. 279.
''Future
C n
-
/f
.e'H!ghPressure Line
Property Line--'
\oadw0y
Genera] lay-out of the Essex Station of the Public Service Corporation of New Jersey.
Coal Bunker
ity^ Tons
per Lineal Foot
Air Chamber-''/
''
Ash Pit
36
FIG. 280.
Boiler house
In.
Intake-'
SEC. 16]
GENERATING STATIONS
305
may
an
boiler
SECTION
17
INTERNAL-COMBUSTION-ENGINE STATIONS
358. In Internal-combustion Engine Stations a prime
may be either
or an
oil
mover
engine.
more economical in
engines have been
oil
oil
economical
movers
Brake Horsepower
FIG.
281.
6
"hoVsT.
Typical
internal-combus9
rrrc
-rt-JSJ:
than
prime
Large
been used with great success in steel plants where
by-product gas for every
operation is obtained from
the blast fumaCCS. Such
installations are, however,
of a specific character and can hardly be classed as centralGas engines have been built for use in these
station plants.
creases With the Load (Fig. 281), so that the most efficient
load for any internal-combustion engine is the greatest load
which that engine will carry. It follows that internal-com-
INTERNAL-COMBUSTION-ENGINE STATIONS
EC. 17]
307
Vaporizer
r ia.
282.
oil
26 Ft.Cooling-Water Tank-''
5/7.,
9 Ft. High
Scale in Feet
FIG. 283.
CENTRAL STATIONS
308
[ART. 360
FIG. 284.
crude
oil
crude
oil
must be purchased
tank of
oil
.Composition Roofing
Timber Forms
FIG. 285.
in practically
any
locality in rela-
INTERNAL-COMBUSTION-ENGINE STATIONS
SEC. 17]
309
361.
The Lay-out
Fig. 283.
Remington
oil
SECTION
18
:
The char(a) Gravity, (&) reaction, and (c) impulse.
acteristics of wheels of each type and illustrations thereof will
Classes
be given below.
Headiest
[InHfadRace
Heart Effective
FIG. 286.
364.
develops
Gravity
its
Wheel
(Figs.
is
one which
power by virtue
through a distance
carries with it as it goes down the buckets which catch it and
thus develops power.
365. A Reaction Wheel (Figs. 288 and 289) is one which
HYDRO-ELECTRIC STATIONS
SEC. 18]
311
'
Surface of Standing
FIG. 287.
Tall
Water
Gravity Water
.Wheel
'/<;-\
FIG. 287 A.
,
fc.;-
CENTRAL STATIONS
312
The
[ART. 367
NOTE that the gravity wheel develops its power solely by virtue of
the weight of the falling water and that the reaction and impulse wheels
develop their power by virtue of the potential energy due to the weight
of the water
which
is first
-GaTe-Regulating
Hand Wheel
FIQ. 288.
FIQ. 289.
Runner
of a
mixed-
FIQ.
290.
flow turbine.
Impulse
wheel
and
nozzle.
which
is
to be driven
by a waterwheel
unit.
HYDRO-ELECTRIC STATIONS
SEC. 18]
313
power outputs.
is
0.7
O-fe
09
08
Speed Factor
FIG. 291.
Efficiency graphs of a 48-in. turbine.
(The wheel is designed
to operate at a speed such that its peripheral velocity is 75.8 per cent, of the
speed or velocity of the spouting water. The governor associated with it
holds it constant at this speed. But it is obvious from the above that when
operating at partial loads, at less than 0.78 gate, the efficiency decreases
rapidly.)
head from 600 to 700 ft. for large units. The impulse wheel
best adapted to high heads and small quantities of water.
Thus, for heads greater than 200 ft. and of small flow of water,
of
is
The
is the most effective prime mover.
waterwheels may, for large units, be as great as
80 to 90 per cent.
369.
The Names
of
the
Elements
of
a Hydro-electric
followed in
there given
many
is
instances.
of general application.
CENTRAL STATIONS
314
FIG. 292.
Illustrating
[ART. 369
FIG. 293.
(Electrical
HYDRO-ELECTRIC STATIONS
SEC. 18]
315
maximum
large
371.
vertical type and are direct-connected so that there is no unnecessary friction lost in gearing or belting. The weight of
the waterwheel, the pressure of the downward water thrust
and the weight of the revolving part of the alternator are
No
occur.
step bearing
is
wheel.
W.
Mar.
3.
R.
1917.
Electrical
Review.
CENTRAL STATIONS
316
372.
[ART. 372
A Low-head
Turbine
is
shown
in Fig. 294.
generator is
water is impounded against one of the station walls.
modern
low-head
relatively
large-capacity
hydro-electric
..-Heart 6at<
FIG. 294.
(James
station
373.
in Fig. 296.
HYDRO-ELECTRIC STATIONS
SEC. 18]
317
it
Blower for
Generator
Ventilation
6-3* C.
<-!v
to C. Rails
j<
mrt.
26 rt.-,->
32 Ft. t}ln.-
Fio. 295.
374.
Manu-
The head
ft. is
is
188
150 r.p.m.
ft.
An
effective
head
of 188
load
CENTRAL STATIONS
318
[ART. 375
No transformers are
tains three of these 31,000 h.p. units.
required in the station, inasmuch as the energy is generated
at 13,200 volts which is also the transmission voltage.
299 gives an idea of the complete development.
Fig.
iSFtSln.
JS.OOQVolts...
46Ft.3ln.-'-
Impulse Wheel-,
benerattr
"~T.V."
Transformer-'*
'Concrete
FIG. 296.
Sectional elevation of the Edison Electric Company's hydroKern River, California, containing four 10,750 h.p. Allis-
electric station at
375.
Station
is
shown
HYDRO-ELECTRIC STATIONS
SEC. 18]
55.7 r.p.m.
This
is
cent,
power
factor.
a 25-cycle plant.
319
36 Cycle.
>.3?OVo/r, 3 Phase.
Generator-^
\
I
FIG. 297.
Sectional elevation of the 31,000 h.p. turbo generator units
used in the Yadkin River development (in North Carolina) of the Tallassee
Power Company. (The illustration shows the method used in dismantling
the runner.)
CENTRAL STATIONS
320
[ART. 376
It
arrangement.
FIG. 298.
is
Plan view
FIG. 299.
anticipated
of the
that
material
economies
The Yadkin-River
hydro-electric development.
SEC. 18]
HYDRO-ELECTRIC STATIONS
321
Conductor Cable--.
FIG. 300.
Keokuk
hydro-electric station.
The plant
J.
illustrated
McClellan, Chief
CENTRAL STATIONS
322
[ART. 376
Engineer of the Electric Bond and Share Company. Climatic conditions and violent winds were the determining
causes for eliminating the power-house superstructure.
Transformer;
-Gate
Room
*^m
fvr'i+nf
/
Q^^O
All
'-bBrt
^ B
"^
^B^B
''Auxiliary
Generator
'-Main
Generator
''generator
Pedestal
Plan view of half of the Keokuk hydro-electric station. (Compare this with the sectional elevation shown in another picture.)
FIG. 301.
FIG. 302.
of the Mississippi
River Power
The
SEC. 18]
FIG. 303.
HYDRO-ELECTRIC STATIONS
of the
electric station.
Concrete
323
(xtrrtiy
Crane
FIG. 304.
CENTRAL STATIONS
324
.Entrance and
Trans. Pit
[ART. 376
,Ren'froaef Tracks
Transformer Yard
umwww
72Ft.->\
Sts
FIG. 305.
Concrete-'
Rock
Section
Fio. 306.
Section C-C.
C-C
INDEX
Choke
218
measuring demand, 27
mechanical remote control switchboards, 254
tion, 217,
line,
motor
installations,
for,
demand
factors
50
regulator, 222
switchboards, 244
for three-phase service, 248
transmission systems, 180
voltages and applications, 183
Alternating voltages, generation of, 265
Ammeter, graphic, 28
indicating, 26
Amsler-type planimeter, 83
Annual load factor, 90
plant factor, 93
Apparatus for lightning protection, 195218
Arkansas Light and Power Co., 301
Atmospheric lightning, 196
Automatic voltage regulators, 219-228
202
apportionment
298
Boilers for steam ger
305
Barstow,
Branch
J. S.,
circuit, 3
140-172
of direct-current circuits, 132-139
Capacities of generators, 270-272
Capacity factor, 95
distiinguished fro
factor, 96
reserve, 271
Carborundum block
Central
station,
demand
protector, 201
determining
maximum
on, 64
325
of
drop
122
National Electric Code rules for
wire size, 130
noting ampere loads on wiring plan,
130
power loss in a direct-current twowire circuit, 129
in conductor, 120
principle of voltage drop, 119
resistance of copper wire, 124
safe-current-carrying capacity of
wires, table, 122, 123
scale for measuring plans, 131
voltage drop and size of wire, 118
wire size for known circuit, etc., 127
sizes, 118
Circuit reactance, 141
Circuits, alternating-current, design, 140172
factors affecting computation,
140
inductive
interaction,
preventing, 142
line reactance, 140
of apparatus,
140
INDEX
326
design re-
Circuits, alternating-current,
symmetrical
of
arrangement
wires, 145
146,
149
for three-phase circuit, 165, 169
for two-phase circuits, graphic
method, 163
with
for two-phase circuits,
resistance, 164
reactance lacking, 147
with reactance, 149
wires,
three-phase,
transposing,
144
Circuits, branch, 3
Circuits, direct-current, design, 132, 139
three-wire
circuits,
balancing
138, 139
calculating two- wire circuits, 132
conductor sizes for three-wire
circuits, 135
conductors, 132
three-wire circuits, 135
in
three-wire
voltage
drop
circuit, 137
Circuits, distribution, 189
feeder, 3
multiple, 190
polyphase, 142
ring, 194
single-phase, see Single-phase circuits,
tap, 6
circuits.
110
228
Comnression-type protector, 210
Condenser-type lightning protector, 202
Conductors, arrangement in polyphase
Compensator
circuits, 142
spacing of National Electrical Code,
141
See also Wire.
Connected load defined, 99
use in computing load factors, 85
Conversion
from alternating to
direct
current, 186
Copper losses, 9
Core losses, 9
Corliss engines, 288, 290
Cost of generating
Cravath, J. R., 90
electrical energy,
259
D
Dann, W. H., 278
Definitions of terms, 1-6
Demand factors, application, 44
definition,
42
determination, 43
for lighting installations, 47-49
for motor installations, 49, 50
importance
of,
in
determining
transformer capacities, 51
of alternating-current and directcurrent circuits, 43
report of tests in Chicago, 86, 88
tables, 46
used in computing load factor, 85
line,
measuring
demand, 27
ammeter for measuring demand, 20
application of
demand factors, 44
47^9
for
lighting
installations,
determining
importance of, in
transformer capacities, 51
integrating graphic meter, 38
indicating meters, 33
maximum demand,
definition, 16
measuring instruments, 24
meters, 17, 21
variation of, 24
32
time interval, 20
for meters, 21
unit, 17
wattmeter, 28-31
Westinghouse R. O.
demand meter,
recording-demand
Westinghouse
watt-hour meter, 41
Wright meters, 31, 48
Demand-measuring instruments, 24
rnpters, see Meters, demand.
Demands, diversity among, 60, 61, 62, 63
INDEX
store plant, load graph, 111
Depreciation of equipment of an electric
plant, 263
of
alternating-current circuits,
Design
Department
140-172
llustration of diversity of
of circuits, 118-131
of direct-current circuits, 132-139
of hydro-electric stations, 315
Designing plants, importance of diversity.
see Mershon diagram.
circuits, determining defactors, 43
Diagram, Mershon,
Direct-current
mand
line,
for, 50
switchboards, 239-243
systems, in generating stations, 265
voltages, in generating stations, 265
Distributing center, 6
system, definition, 2
diversity factors for, 62
Distribution circuits, 189
parallel, 190
series, 189
Distribution loss factors, 7-14
approximate, 14
factors, 12
leakage
loss,
line loss, 8
factor, 13
meter losses, 9
numerical illustration, 11
probable factors, 13
stolen-ene gy loss, 10
transformer loss, 9
types, 8
Distribution of electrical energy, 173-194
Distribution-system terms, 1-6
branch circuit, 3
distributing center, 6
system, 2
feeder circuit, 3
main, 3
service, 3
sub-feeder, 3
sub-main, 3
tap circuit, 6
tie line, 1
transmission line, 1
system, 2
Diversity and diversity factors, 53-72
central-station distributing system,
62
commercial
lighting consumers,
demands, 62
definition, 53
determining, 59
kilowatt station capacity, 71
different factors among components
of a system, 60
diversity factor defined, 56
effect of increasing, on load factor,
75
eliminating apparatus by grouping
consumers, 71
factor used in computing load factor,
327
demand,
55
importance in plant design, 72
mands, 61
sub-stations, diversity of demands,
70
total diversity factor for a system,
70
values determined by local conditions, 61
E
Efficiency of transmission, 175
formula, 176
Electric Bond and Share Co., 322
Electric generating stations, 259-280
advantages of centralization of
plant, 264
capacities and ratings of generators, 270-272
cost per unit of energy, 259
depreciation of equipment, 263
direct-current voltages and systems,
265
exciters,
273
265
85
uting system, 62
328
Energy,
tion,
INDEX
electrical, wire sizes for distribu-
118
nomenclature, 313
outdoor plants, 320
locating, 274
voltage, 274
Factor, capacity, 95
connected-load, 96
distinction between plant, load,
capacity, 96
and
distribution-loss, 12
diversity, 53-72
plant, 92
Feeder-and-main
circuit,
192-194
circuit, definition, 3
regulator, 186
Feeders, determining maximum demand
on, 66
Fernald, R. H., 284
Frequencies, data for U. S., 179
Frequency-changer sub-station, 189
standard, 184
ndicating ammeter, 26
nductance, electromagnetic, 140
nductiye interaction, preventing, 142
ndustnal plant, load graph, 106
nstruments for measuring demand 24
nsull. Samuel, 282, 283
ntegrating graphic demand meter, 38
nteraction, inductive, 142
nterborough Rapid Transit Co. of N. Y.,
300
nterior-wiring system, terms, 6
nternal-combustion-engine prime movers,
stations, 306-309
efficiency of engines, 306
lay-out of small oil-engine
plant, 309
oil engines for small plants, 308
Internal lightning, 197
Interurban street railways, load graph, 107
K
Keokuk, Iowa, hydroelectric
station, 318
Kilowatt station capacity, determining, 71
268
Leakage
loss,
Lighting
circuits,
direct-current
installations,
demand
Hall, C. I., 24
Horn-gap protectors, 208
Hyde, T.
49
plants, load graph, 105
308
engines for,
transformers, diversity among demands on mains, 63
Lightning, atmospheric, 196
definition, 195
explanation of paths, 205
internal, 197
Lightning protection apparatus, 195-218
alternating- and direct-current protectors, 199
oil
trans-
alternating-current, application
of,
carborundum block
protector, 201
choke coils, air-insulated, 216
for low-voltage circuits,
215
function, 199
oil-insulated, 216
selecting, 215
INDEX
Lightning protection apparatus, condenser
type, 202
195
electrolytic,
210-214
commercial
190
factor,
73-100
73
determining
value, 83
definition,
m a x m u m-demand
i
272
Lof, E. A., 266, 269, 273, 275, 281, 296
Loss, distribution, 7-14
M
Main, definition, 3
Maximum demand,
15-52
rating, 94
McClellan, R. J., 321
Mershon diagram, determining wire size
with, 156
for three-phase-circuit wire, 169
for two-phase circuit wire, 164
for voltage drop, 154
Mershon, Ralph, 142
Metal cylinder lightning protectors, 204
losses,
111
of increased diversity of
demand,
75
on central-station rates, 76
equations for computing, 85, 90
formulas, 73
formulas for average power consumption, 78-83
operating, equation, 90
period for reckoning, 78
polar planimeter, use of, 81-83
report of tests in Chicago, 86, 88
significance, 74
Load graphs, 101-117
adding to obtain resultant, 116
addition of off-peak loads, effect
on load factor, 111
annual, 114
characteristic for small towns, 112
city street railway, 106
combined
significance, 103
Meter
series circuits,
reactance, 140
Lloyd, E. W., 86
Load curve, 80
Load
329
Load graphs,
lighting, industrial,
and
comparison
demand
50
Multiple circuits, 190
N
National Electric Code rules, for motor
branch circuit, 122, 130, 148
spacing of conductors, 141
wire size, 133, 134
National Electric Light Association, 86
standard voltages, 183
New England National Electric Light
Association, 300
New York Edison Company, 110
Interborough R. T. Co., 300
load graphs for, 109
Nilsen, P. J., 64
Panel box, 6
switchboard, 231
INDEX
330
Parallel distributing circuits, 190
129
in transmission of energy, 173
Prime movers, 281-286
advantages of turbo-generators,
284
hydraulic, 285
internal-combustion engine, 284
low-head hydro-electric plants, 286
steam, 281
uniflow engines, 291-295
Printometer indicators, 21
-type demand meters, 36
Protector apparatus, lightning, 195-218
choke coil and horn-gap, 210
compression-type, 210
cupped-disc gap, 208
electrolytic, 210-214
graded-shunt resistance, 205
Protectors, horn-gap, 208
Public Service Corporation of X. J., 302
Railways,
cars, 201
load graph
gram, 156
two can replace a three- wire
three-phase transmission, 169
transformers, 274, 275
Star: connected generators, 266
Station capacity, kilowatt, 71
Stations,
iions, electric generating, 259280
circuits,
hydro-electric, 310-324
internal combustion-engine, 306-309
Steam
288
boilers, 302, 305
capacities of turbo-generator units,
classes,
302
Remote-control switchboards, electrical,
257
mechanical, 253
Reserve capacity of generators, 271
Resistance drop, formula for finding, 149
of copper wire, 124
protector, graded-shunt, 205
generating
unit.
290
installation of uniflow engine, 295
large turbo-generator plant, 302
medium-sized turbo plant, 301, 302
small plants, 287
steam consumptions of reciprocating engines, table, 290
of turbines, 300
steam turbines, 296
uniflow engines, 291-295
on
one
.unit, 302
direct-connected
109
287
of turbo-gen-
296
load
Stott,
protector for
cars, 201
load graph for, 106, 107, 109
switchboard for direct-current service, 243
voltages f9r, 179
Sub-feeder, definition, 3
Sub-main, definition, 3
INDEX
Sub -stations, 184
frequency changer, 189
function of equipment, 185
motor-generator, 187
synchronous or rotary converter, 186
transformer, 185
Switchboards and switch-gear, 229-258
advantages of remote-control over
self-contained boards, 252
alternating-current, 244
alternating-c u r r e n t mechanical
remote-control board, 253
switchboards
alternating-current
for three-phase service, 248
arranging the panels, 233
circuit diagrams for direct-current
switchboards, 240
classes, 231
control-desk switchboards, 239
diagram, 233
direct-current, 239-243
direct-current railway service, 243
distinction between, 229
electrical remote-control, 257
fittings for supporting switchgear,
236
frames for panel switchboards, 235
function, 229
laying out, 231
location in station, 279
material for panel sections, 237
panel switchboards, 231, 238
pedestal switchboards, 239
post switchboards, 239
proportions of panels and sections,
remote-control, 230
alternating-current boards, 245
self-contained, 230
three-wire direct-current switch-
boards, 243
direct-current
boards, 241, 242
Synchronous sub-station, 186
Systems, data for U. S., 179
two-wire
switch-
direct-current, 265
grounded
267
and
ungrounded-neutral,
three-phase, 212
three-wire. 265
transmission, 2
Tsp
circuit.
Thermal meters, 32
Thermostatic indicator, 21
meters, 32
Thompson, W. R., 315
Three-phase alternating-current systems,
wire size, with and without
reactance, 165, 169
generators, star-connected, 266
service
alternating-current switchboards. 248
circuit,
331
Time
maximum
demand, 20
losses, 9
sub-station, 185
Transformers, determining maximum demand on, 64
for measuring demand in alternatingcurrent lines. 27
in generating stations, 274-277
lighting, diversity among demands on
mains, 63
oil-cooled,
water-cooled,
and
air-
blast. 276
Transmission line, definition, 1
Transmission of electrical energy, 173-194
alternating-current systems, 180
direct-current, with multiple circuits, 177
a circuit, 175
feeder-and-main system, 192-194
Two-phase
alternating-current
circuit*,
U
Unbalancing of a system, 145
Ungrounded-neutral systems in generating stations, 267
Uniflow engines, 291-295
Unit, for values of a load graph, 104
of connected load and power input, 96
of continuous rating of apparatus, 94
of maximum demand, 17
INDEX
332
222
arrangement
ciple,
alternators, 223
capacity of relay contacts, 225
compensation for line drop, 227
connections for different services,
of, for
228
225
of
automatic regulator,
220
in generating stations, 274
installing,
41
Wire
determining
gram, 156
with
228
in parallel, 226
operation
of,
principle,
220
220
dia-
118
single-phase branches from
three-phase mains, 172
three-phase circuit with and
without reactance, 165, 169
for two-phase circuits, 160, 161
with resistance, 164
graphic method for two-phase circuits, 163
Wires,
safe-current-carrying
capacity,
table, 122, 123
Woods, 3. B., 301
Wright demand meter, 22, 31, 48
for
Tirrill tj
type,
149
Mershon
for
function
Yadkin River
plant, 317
Yearly load factor, 90
This book
is
Form L9-42wt-8,'49(B5573)444
TK
1191
COYC
001
244353
TK
1191
C87c
BRANCH,
CALIFORNIA,