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Brian Bouma
PID
I. NOMENCLATURE
Proportional Integral Derivative
II. INTRODUCTION
This work was done for Engineering 315 at Calvin College in Grand Rapids,
Michigan, in the fall of 2004. All software used in this paper was supplied by
Calvin College. This project was supported financially by Calvin College and
Smiths Aerospace LLC.
Brian Bouma works for Smiths Aerospace LLC and attends Calvin College
in Grand Rapids, MI 49546 USA (e-mail: bbouma83@calvin.edu).
d
( t) B ( t)
dt
dt
,
(3)
where I is the motors moment of inertia, B is the motors
viscous damping, and (t) is the motors angular position [2].
By assuming zero initial conditions and then Laplace
transforming each of these equations, s-domain equations are
reached. The developed torque is now
T( s ) K2 If( s )
,
(4)
the field voltage is now
Vf( s )
Lf s Rf If( s )
,
(5)
and the mechanical torque is now
T( t )
Is 2 Bs (s ),
T( s )
(6)
where all of the constants have the same meaning as in the
time-domain differential equations, I f is used in place of i f and
is used in place of [2]. By substituting and solving, the
transfer function of the motor is found to be
Km
( s )
Vf( s )
s m s 1 e s 1
(7)
where
m
B
is the mechanical time constant of the motor,
(8)
Lf
Rf
(9)
is the electrical time constant of the motor, and
K2
Km
B Rf
(10)
is another constant [2]. This is the transfer function that will
be used for the control analysis of the DC motor in the next
section.
The differential equations and transfer functions for AC
motors are considerably less complicated than those for DC
motors, owing to the fact that AC motors only have a single
time constant while DC motors have two. AC motors are
described by two differential equations: The torque (T(t)) is
described by
d
T( t) K v ( t) m ( t)
dt
,
(11)
where K is a constant, v(t) is the voltage provided to the
motor, (t) is the angular position of the motor, and m is
described by
"stall torque (at rated voltage)"
m
"no-load speed (at rated voltage)" ,
(12)
where stall torque (at rated voltage) and no-load speed (at
rated voltage) are characteristics of any specific AC motor
[2]. The torque is also described by
d
d
( t) B ( t)
dt
dt
,
(13)
which is identical to the third differential equation that
describes DC motors, and has the same meaning [2]. By
equating the two AC motor equations, assuming zero initial
conditions, and then taking the Laplace transform of the
resultant equation, the transfer function of an AC motor is
found to be
Km
( s )
T( t )
V( s )
s s 1 ,
(14)
where
Km
K
m B
(15)
is a constant, and
I
m B
(16)
is the time constant of the motor [2]. This is the transfer
function that will be used for the control analysis of the AC
motor in the next section.
V. CONTROL
Precise control of motors is vital to the use of motors in
any application. Without a system in place to prevent the
motor from operating unchecked, a step increase to the inputs
of a motor would result in the motor accelerating until it
literally broke apart, costing untold amounts of money to
repair and replace damaged equipment, and undoubtedly
ruining someones day.
KD s KP s KI
KP
KD s
s
s
,(17)
where KP is the proportional gain coefficient, K I is the
integrator coefficient, and KD is the differentiator coefficient.
The proportional gain is used to amplify the input signal.
The integrator is used to improve the accuracy of the control
system, that is, to minimize the steady-state error (the
difference between the input value and the final output value)
as much as possible. The differentiator is used to increase the
damping in the system, which will decrease both the peak
time and the settling time of the system.
As can be recalled from above, the transfer function of the
DC motor is third order in the denominator, so it has three
poles (roots of the polynomial in the denominator). Likewise,
the transfer function of the PID controller is second order in
the numerator, so it has two zeros (roots of the polynomial in
the numerator). Thus, the PID values may be set so that the
zeros of the PID controller eliminate the poles of the DC
motor. However, since the DC motor has three poles and the
PID controller only has two zeros, only two of the poles may
be eliminated. This raises the obvious question: Which poles
should be eliminated and which one should be left alone?
That depends on which pole, as the only pole in the system,
results in a system with the shortest rise time, the shortest
settling time, and the least overshoot. This system was
modeled and simulated in MATLAB/Simulink (see Fig. 5),
using a unit step input as a standard input.
PID
1 ,
(18)
where PO is the percent overshoot of the response and is the
damping ratio of the system,
Tp
2
n 1
,
(19)
where Tp is the peak time of the response and n is the natural
frequency of system,
4
Ts
n
,
(20)
where Ts is the settling time of the response, and
1
2 n
,
(21)
where is the time constant of the motor. Using the percent
overshoot (in this case, 49%) in conjunction with (18), solve
for the damping ratio, which in this case turns out to be
approximately 0.22. Next, use the value of the damping ratio
and the peak time (in this case, 0.14 seconds) in conjunction
with (19), and solve for the natural frequency, which in this
case turns out to be approximately 23.0 radians/second. If,
for some reason, the value of the peak time is not available or
cannot be gleaned from the time response graph, the damping
ratio and the settling time may be used in conjunction with
(20) to find the value of the natural frequency, but since the
peak time may generally be observed with greater accuracy
than the settling time, (20) should only be used as a last
resort. Similarly, if there is some problem with the value of
the peak time or percent overshoot, any two of (18), (19), and
(20) may be used to solve for the values of the damping ratio
and natural frequency, but since the percent overshoot and
peak time are the two that may be measured the most easily
and with the most accuracy, (18) and (19) should be used
whenever possible. Finally, using the values of the damping
ratio and natural frequency in conjunction with (21), the time
constant may be solved for, in this case turning out to be
approximately 0.10 seconds. Considering that the value used
for the time constant in the simulation was 0.1 seconds, it
appears as though this method works with some degree of
accuracy.
When attempting to determine the time constants of a DC
motor, the best method available is adjust the values of the
coefficients of a PID controller until the result of a run bears
resemblance to that of Fig. 7, and then to use those coefficient
settings from then on. When attempting to determine the
time constant of an AC motor, the system should be run, and
the peak time, settling time, and overshoot observed and used
to calculate the value of the time constant.
2
VII. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author gratefully acknowledges the contribution of
Paulo Ribeiro, for his help in writing this paper. Without his
support, this process would have been much more difficult.
The author also acknowledges the contributions of John
Washburn, Frank Saggio, Paul Bakker, Matt Husson, and
Nate Studer for their help in the research process.
VIII. REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
IX. BIOGRAPHY
2001.