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I. INTRODUCTION
Power system faults (e.g., short circuits, ground faults)
cannot be eliminated in a practical transmission or
distribution network. Instead, the protection engineer must
design his protection systems to 1) quickly detect the
presence of the fault, 2) interrupt the flow of current to the
fault in a manner that minimizes loss of load, and 3) restore
service to as much of the load lost as possible once the fault is
cleared.
Short circuit analysis using a network model is an
important first step in meeting these criteria. Computerized
short circuit analysis tools facilitate the simulation of a large
variety of fault types and locations on very complex
networks. The results of these simulations allow the engineer
to quantify the magnitudes of fault currents through
interrupting devices such as circuit breakers, reclosers and
fuses to ensure that the interrupting capacities of these
devices are adequate for fault clearance. In addition, the short
circuit analysis results serve as a basis for coordination of
protective relays. Protection coordination ensures that the
devices that interrupt the flow of fault current are the subset
of devices that minimizes loss of load after fault clearance, or,
stated differently, maximizes selectivity of the protection
system.
Solar photovoltaic (PV) generation is becoming an
increasing portion of the electric supply resource in many
parts of the world. Environmental and energy security
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Generator
Currents
for
Three-Phase
Fig. 2.
In this circuit, the PV array is represented with the singlediode simplified model. The grid is modeled with a threephase Thvenin source. The PV array is coupled to the grid
via a PV inverter, shown as the voltage source converter
(VSC) in the center of the diagram. The two-level VSC
consists of a three-phase, six-switch bridge of power
transistors (e.g., IGBTs), an input capacitor bank and an
output filter inductor. Gate drive circuitry controls the on
or off states of each of the power transistors according to
desired switching states delivered to it from the inverter
controller.
The inverter controller determines these switching states
through a process which is schematically illustrated in the
block diagram of Fig. 3.
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Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Frame
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V. CONCLUSIONS
PV and other inverter-based generation technologies are a
rapidly growing component of the electric supply mix. The
ability to model these resources in an accurate manner for
short circuit and protection coordination analyses is a key to
their ready integration into the transmission and distribution
network. At present, there are no generally-accepted industry
practices on how these resources should be modeled, and
most commercial power system analysis tools rely on
Thvenin-equivalent linear circuit analysis techniques that are
not applicable to the popular voltage-source converter grid
interface.
Industry consensus methodologies are badly needed so that
electric utility engineers, distributed generation equipment
manufacturers and power system software vendors can
coalesce around generally accepted modeling practice, similar
to what has been achieved with rotating machine-based
generation. In the absence of these consensus methods,
barriers to the implementation of renewable and distribution
generation are likely to arise as electric utility engineers feel
increasingly exposed to potential operational risks associated
with these systems.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was funded by the Department of Energy
through Sandia National Laboratories. Sandia is a
multiprogram laboratory operated by Sandia Corporation, a
Lockheed Martin Company, for the United States Department
of Energys National Nuclear Security Administration under
contract DE-AC04-94AL85000.
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BIOGRAPHIES
Michael Behnke received his BS and MS in Electrical
Engineering from Purdue University and Santa Clara
University in 1986 and 1993, respectively. He has held
numerous engineering, management, sales and customer
service positions in North America and Europe with Pacific
Gas and Electric, Kenetech Windpower, Trace International
and Xantrex Technology. In 2003, he co-founded BEW
Engineering, which was acquired by DNV (Det Norske
Veritas) in 2010. He is currently a Principal Engineer at DNV
KEMA Energy & Sustainability, providing electrical
engineering consulting services to utilities, project developers
and equipment manufacturers for wind and solar power
generation applications. Mr. Behnke is a registered
professional engineer in California, and currently chairs the
Electrical Exam Committee at the National Council of
Examiners for Engineering and Surveying.
Abraham Ellis received his M.S. and Ph.D. in EE from
New Mexico State University in 1995 and 2000, respectively.
Until 2008, he worked at Public Service Company of New
Mexico in the transmission planning and operations area.
Since 2008, he has been with Sandia National Laboratories,
where works as technical lead for renewable integration. His
area of responsibility includes wind and solar system model
development, analysis of power system operations, and
technology development. Dr. Ellis currently serves as
Chairman of the WECC Renewable Energy Modeling Task
Force, working on generic wind and solar models. Dr. Ellis is
a Senior Member of the IEEE Power and Energy Society, and
a Professional Engineer in New Mexico.
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